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COMPUTATIONAL MODELLING OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

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“fm” — 2010/2/2 — 9:53 — page — #2
PROCEEDINGS OF EURO-C 2010, ROHRMOOS/SCHLADMING, AUSTRIA, 15–18 MARCH 2010

Computational Modelling
of Concrete Structures

Editors
Nenad Bićanić
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Glasgow, Scotland, UK

René de Borst
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology,
The Netherlands

Herbert Mang
Institute for Mechanics of Materials and Structures, Vienna University of Technology,
Vienna, Austria

Günther Meschke
Institute for Structural Mechanics, Department of Civil Engineering, Ruhr University,
Bochum, Germany

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CRC Press/Balkema is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK

Typeset by Vikatan Publishing Solutions (P) Ltd., Chennai, India

Printed and bound in Great Britain by Antony Rowe (a CPI Group Company), Chippenham, Wiltshire

All rights reserved. No part of this publication or the information contained herein may be reproduced, stored
in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, by photocopying,
recording or otherwise, without written prior permission from the publisher.

Although all care is taken to ensure integrity and the quality of this publication and the information herein, no
responsibility is assumed by the publishers nor the author for any damage to the property or persons as a result
of operation or use of this publication and/or the information contained herein.

Published by: CRC Press/Balkema

P.O. Box 447, 2300 AK Leiden, The Netherlands
e-mail: [email protected]
www.crcpress.com - www.taylorandfrancis.co.uk - www.balkema.nl

ISBN: 978-0-415-58479-1 (Hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-203-84833-3 (eBook)

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 Computational Modelling of Concrete Structures – Bićanić et al. (eds)
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-58479-1

Table of contents

Foreword XI

Keynote lectures
Modeling of concrete creep and hygrothermal deformations, and computation
of their structural effects 3
Z.P. Bažant & Q. Yu
Alternate approaches to simulating the performance of ductile fiber-reinforced
cement-based materials in structural applications 15
S.L. Billington
Recent developments on computational modeling of material failure
in plain and reinforced concrete structures 31
A.E. Huespe, J. Oliver, G. Díaz & P.J. Sánchez
Concrete under various loadings, way to model in a same framework: Damage,
fracture and compaction 45
J. Mazars, F. Dufour, C. Giry, A. Rouquand & C. Pontiroli
Upscaling quasi-brittle strength of cement-based materials: A continuum micromechanics approach 59
B. Pichler & C. Hellmich
C-Crete: From atoms to concrete structures 69
F.-J. Ulm, R.J.-M. Pellenq & M. Vandamme

Constitutive and multi-scale modelling

Pull-out behaviour of a glass multi-filaments yarn embedded in a cementitious matrix 77
H. Aljewifi, B. Fiorio & J.L. Gallias
How to enforce non-negative energy dissipation in microplane and other constitutive models
for softening damage, plasticity and friction 87
Z.P. Bažant, J.-Y. Wu, F.C. Caner & G. Cusatis
A multiscale approach for nonlinear hysteretic damage behaviour of quasi-brittle
disordered materials 93
J. Carmeliet, S. Mertens & P. Moonen
Modeling of reinforced cementitious composites using the microplane damage model
in combination with the stochastic cracking theory 101
R. Chudoba, A. Scholzen, R. Rypl & J. Hegger
A statistical model for reinforced concrete bond prediction 111
Z. Dahou, Z.M. Sbartaï, A. Castel & F. Ghomari
Introduction of an internal time in nonlocal integral theories 121
R. Desmorat & F. Gatuingt
Elastoplastic constitutive model for concretes of arbitrary strength properties 129
G. Etse & P. Folino
Properties of concrete: A two step homogenization approach 137
E. Gal & R. Kryvoruk

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Stress state influence on nonlocal interactions in damage modelling 145
C. Giry, F. Dufour, J. Mazars & P. Kotronis
A model for the uniaxial tensile behaviour of Textile Reinforced Concrete with a stochastic
description of the concrete material properties 153
J. Hartig & U. Häußler-Combe
Multi-axial modeling of plain concrete structures based on an anisotropic damage formulation 163
M. Kitzig & U. Häußler-Combe
Determination of cement paste mechanical properties: Comparison between
micromechanical and ultrasound results 173
S. Maalej, Z. Lafhaj & M. Bouassida
The simulation of microcracking and micro-contact in a constitutive model for concrete 179
I.C. Mihai & A.D. Jefferson
Simulations of dynamic failure in plain and reinforced concrete with regularized
plasticity and damage models 187
J. Pamin, A. Winnicki & A. Wosatko
Micromechanical approach to viscoelastic properties of fiber reinforced concrete 197
V.F. Pasa Dutra, S. Maghous & A.C. Filho
Boundary and evolving boundary effects in non local damage models 207
G. Pijaudier-Cabot & F. Dufour
Homogenization-based model for reinforced concrete 217
E. Rumanus & G. Meschke
Development of constitutive model of shear stress transfer on concrete crack
surface considering shear stress softening 225
Y. Takase, T. Ikeda & T. Wada
Microplane approach for modeling of concrete under low confinement 233
N.V. Tue & J. Li
Meso- and macroscopic models for fiber-reinforced concrete 241
S.M. Vrech, G. Etse, G. Meschke, A. Caggiano & E. Martinelli
Gradient damage model with volumetric-deviatoric split 251
A. Wosatko & J. Pamin

Advances in numerical methods

Continuous and discontinuous modeling of cracks in concrete elements 263
J. Bobiński & J. Tejchman
Topological search of the crack path from a damage-type mechanical computation 271
M. Bottoni & F. Dufour
On the uniqueness of numerical solutions of shear failure of deep concrete beams: Comparison
of smeared and discrete crack approaches 281
J. Cervenka & V. Cervenka
Lattice Discrete Particle Model for Fiber reinforced concrete (LDPM-F) with
application to the numerical simulation of armoring systems 291
G. Cusatis, E.A. Schauffert, D. Pelessone, J.L. O’Daniel, P. Marangi, M. Stacchini & M. Savoia
Nonlocal damage based failure models, extraction of crack opening and transition to fracture 301
F. Dufour, G. Pijaudier-Cabot & G. Legrain
Convergence aspects of the eXtended Finite Element Method applied to linear
elastic fracture mechanics 309
W. Fleming & D. Kuhl

VI

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Applicability of XFEM for the representation of crack bridge state in planar composite elements 319
J. Jeřábek, R. Chudoba & J. Hegger
Localization properties of damage models 327
M. Jirásek & M. Horák
Numerical multiscale solution strategy for fracturing of concrete 337
Ł. Kaczmarczyk, C.J. Pearce & N. Bićanić
A 3D lattice model to describe fracture process in fibrous concrete 347
J. Kozicki & J. Tejchman
Limit analysis of 3D reinforced concrete frames 355
K.P. Larsen, P.N. Poulsen & L.O. Nielsen
The role of domain decomposition techniques for the study of heterogeneous
quasi-brittle materials 363
O. Lloberas Valls, D.J. Rixen, A. Simone & L.J. Sluys
Modelling cohesive crack growth applying XFEM with crack geometry parameters 373
J.F. Mougaard, P.N. Poulsen & L.O. Nielsen
Strong discontinuities, mixed finite element formulations and localized strain injection,
in fracture modeling of quasi-brittle materials 381
J. Oliver, I.F. Dias & A.E. Huespe
Model for the analysis of structural concrete elements under plane stress conditions: Finite
element implementation 391
M. Pimentel & J. Figueiras
A partition of unity finite element method for fibre reinforced concrete 401
F.K.F. Radtke, A. Simone & L.J. Sluys
A discrete cracking model for sequentially linear analysis 409
A.V. van de Graaf, M.A.N. Hendriks & J.G. Rots
Relations between structure size, mesh density, and elemental strength of lattice models 419
M. Vořechovský & J. Eliáš

Time-dependent and multi physics phenomena

Prediction of the permeability of damaged concrete using a combined lattice beam-crack
network approach 431
M. Abreu, J. Carmeliet & J.V. Lemos
Modelling the CaO hydration in expansive concrete 441
B. Chiaia, A.P. Fantilli, G. Ferro & G. Ventura
A two-scale approach for fluid flow in fracturing porous media 451
R. de Borst, J. Réthoré & M.-A. Abellan
A probabilistic approach for modelling long-term behaviour and creep failure of a concrete
structure subjected to calcium leaching 461
T. de Larrard, F. Benboudjema, J.B. Colliat, J.M. Torrenti & F. Deleruyelle
A coupled transport-crystallization FE model for porous media 471
H. Derluyn, R.M. Espinosa-Marzal, P. Moonen & J. Carmeliet
A numerical model for early age concrete behavior 481
G. Di Luzio, L. Cedolin & G. Cusatis
Hygro-mechanical model for concrete specimens at the meso-level: Application
to drying shrinkage 487
A.E. Idiart, C.M. López & I. Carol

VII

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Comparison of approaches for simulating moisture content changes in concrete 497
A.D. Jefferson & P. Lyons
Modeling of Chloride and CO2 transport in intact and cracked concrete in the context
of corrosion predictions of RC structures 503
M. Kemper, J.J. Timothy, J. Kruschwitz & G. Meschke
Thermal activation of basic creep for HPC in the range 20°C–80°C 513
W. Ladaoui, T. Vidal, A. Sellier & X. Bourbon
Modelling of the THM behaviour of concrete at the macroscopic and mesoscopic scale 519
T.T.H. Le, H. Boussa & F. Meftah
Application of enhanced elasto-plastic damage models to concrete under
quasi-static and dynamic cyclic loading 529
I. Marzec & J. Tejchman
Propagation of cracks and damage in non ageing linear viscoelastic media 537
Nguyen Sy Tuan, L. Dormieux, Y. Le Pape & J. Sanahuja
Micromechanical modelling of concrete 547
V.P. Nguyen, M. Stroeven & L.J. Sluys
3D finite element analysis of concrete under impact load 553
J. Ožbolt, V. Travaš & I. Kožar
Investigation into the form of the load-induced thermal strain model 563
C.J. Robson, C.T. Davie & P.D. Gosling
Development of service life model CHLODIF++ 573
I. Stipanović Oslaković, D. Bjegović, D. Mikulić & V. Krstić

Modelling of concrete structures

Some remarks concerning the shear failure in prestressed RC beams 581
B. Belletti & C. Damoni
Verification of experimental tests on roller bearings by means of numerical simulations 591
S. Blail & J. Kollegger
Numerical crack modelling of tied concrete columns 595
C. Bosco, S. Invernizzi & G. Gagliardi
Numerical study of a massive reinforced concrete structure at early age: Prediction of the
cracking risk of a massive wall 603
L. Buffo-Lacarrière & A. Sellier
Numerical modelling of failure mechanisms and redistribution effects in steel
fibre reinforced concrete slabs 611
L. Gödde & P. Mark
Transverse rebar affecting crack behaviors of R.C. members subjected to bending 623
D. Han, M. Keuser & L. Ruediger
A numerical method for RC-boxgirders under combined shear bending and torsion 629
U. Häußler-Combe
Computation of optimal concrete reinforcement in three dimensions 639
P.C.J. Hoogenboom & A. de Boer
Sequentially linear modelling of local snap-back in extremely brittle structures 647
S. Invernizzi, D. Trovato, M.A.N. Hendriks & A.V. van de Graaf
Simulation of masonry beams retrofitted with engineered cementitious composites 655
M.A. Kyriakides, M.A.N. Hendriks & S.L. Billington

VIII

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Setting and loading process simulation of Push-in anchor for concrete 665
Y.-J. Li, N. Chilakunda & B. Winkler
Nonlinear FE modelling of shear behaviour in RC beam retrofitted with CFRP 671
Y.T. Obaidat, O. Dahlblom & S. Heyden
Material optimization for textile reinforced concrete applying a damage formulation 679
E. Ramm & J. Kato
A multifibre approach to describe the ultimate behaviour of corroded reinforced concrete structures 689
B. Richard, F. Ragueneau & Ch. Crémona
Simulation of shear load behavior of fifty year old post-tensioned concrete bridge girders 699
A. Schweighofer, M. Vill, H. Hengl & J. Kollegger
Multi-scale modelling of concrete beams subjected to three-point bending 703
Ł. Skarżyński & J. Tejchman
Experimental and numerical analysis of reinforced concrete corbels strengthened
with fiber reinforced polymers 711
R.A. Souza
Computational modeling of the behaviour up to failure of innovative prebended
steel-VHPC beams for railway bridges 719
S. Staquet & F. Toutlemonde
Numerical investigations of size effects in notched and un-notched concrete beams under bending 729
E. Syroka, J. Bobiński, J. Górski & J. Tejchman
FE modeling and fiber modeling for RC column failing in shear after flexural yielding 737
K. Tajima, N. Shirai, E. Ozaki & K. Imai
Numerical simulation and experimental testing of a new bridge strengthening method 749
W. Traeger, J. Berger & J. Kollegger
Failure studies on masonry infill walls: Experimental and computational observations 757
K. Willam, B. Blackard & C. Citto
Numerical study on mixed-mode fracture in LRC beams 767
R.C. Yu, L. Saucedo & G. Ruiz

Hazards, risk and safety (fire, blast, seismicity)

Numerical investigation of damage and spalling in concrete exposed to fire 775
C.T. Davie & H.L. Zhang
Numerical simulation of slender structures with integrated dampers 785
P. Egger & J. Kollegger
Textile reinforced concrete sandwich panels: Bending tests and numerical analyses 789
J. Finzel & U. Häußler-Combe
Structural behavior of tunnels under fire loading including spalling and load induced thermal strains 797
T. Ring, M. Zeiml & R. Lackner
Numerical assessment of the failure mode of RC columns subjected to fire 805
S. Sere˛ga
Ultimate load analysis of a reactor safety containment structure 815
B. Valentini, H. Lehar & G. Hofstetter

Author index 821

IX

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“fm” — 2010/2/2 — 9:53 — page X — #10
 Computational Modelling of Concrete Structures – Bićanić et al. (eds)
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-58479-1

Foreword

The long standing EURO-C conference series returned again this spring to the mountains of Austria, with the
conference held in Schladming, Salzburgerland from the 15th to 18th March 2010. These proceedings comprise
over 90 invited and contributed papers presented at the conference, which keeps its main focus and its traditional
format in line with earlier conferences in the series (Innsbruck 1994, Badgastein 1998, St Johann im Pongau
2003, Mayrhofen 2006). The EURO-C series has emerged as a joint undertaking following an increase of
research in computational mechanics of concrete generated by the ICC 1984 conference held in Split, Croatia,
the SCI-C 1990 conference in Zell am See, Austria and the two Concrete Mechanics Colloquia, held in Delft,
The Netherlands in 1981 and 1987.
Once again we express our sincere gratitude to the members of the International Advisory Panel (Zdenek
Bažant, Sarah Billington, Alberto Carpinteri, Tony Jefferson, Milan Jirásek, Karen Lundgren, Koichi Maekawa,
Jacky Mazars, Javier Oliver, Jerzy Pamin, Gilles Pijaudier-Cabot, Marco di Prisco, Ekkehard Ramm, Jan Rots,
Tadahiko Tanabe, Franz-Josef Ulm and Kaspar Willam) for their invaluable support and considerable effort in
reviewing around 130 abstracts. EURO-C conference series keeps its tradition of a very rigorous reviewing
process, thereby ensuring the high quality of presented papers.
In order to reflect the current advances in computational modelling of concrete and concrete structures,
conference papers are grouped into five distinct, yet strongly related, sections – (A) Constitutive and Multi-
scale Modelling of Concrete (B) Advances in Computational Modelling, (C) Time Dependent and Multiphysics
Problems (D) Modelling of Concrete Structures and (E) Hazard, Risk and Safety.
We hope that the EURO-C 2010 Conference proceedings will continue to provide a valuable referential
source for an up-to-date information and scientific debate on the research advances in computational modelling
of concrete and concrete structures, as well as on their application and relevance to the structural engineering
practice.

Nenad Bićanić
René de Borst
Herbert Mang
Günther Meschke
Glasgow, Eindhoven, Vienna, Bochum
January 2010

XI

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“fm” — 2010/2/2 — 9:53 — page XII — #12
 Keynote lectures

“ch-01” — 2010/2/1 — 20:08 — page 1 — #1

“ch-01” — 2010/2/1 — 20:08 — page 2 — #2
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Egypt next to the king himself; and this office he held into his old
age and as long as he lived.
Long after this and in another place, a somewhat similar
experience came to a famous king, who ruled over many realms. He
was called by three names, because the languages differed in the
lands that he ruled over: in one place he was called Artaxerxes; in
another place, Cyrus; and some tell us that to him God spoke these
kind words by the mouth of his prophet: “To mine anointed, to
Cyrus, whose right hand I have holden to subdue nations before
him; and I will loose the loins of kings,” etc.[288] Others, however,
maintain that it was another Cyrus who is referred to in this
scripture; but we shall not discuss this any longer, since we cannot
be sure whether it was written about this Cyrus or another. But in a
third place the king was called Ahasuerus. And whereas he himself
was mighty and excellent, he also had a wealthy wife named Vashti,
who was his queen. Once when the king was absent in distant
warfare to extend his dominion, he had appointed Queen Vashti to
govern that part of his kingdom where his court resided. On his
return home with a wealth of spoils, he made a great feast to
gladden all those among his lords who had accompanied him on the
campaign; and Queen Vashti made another feast for her own lords,
who had remained at home to assist her in the government. Then
the king commanded Vashti to appear before him in his hall in all her
regalia and arrayed in all the beauty of queenly raiment and thus to
show her joy in his home-coming and do honor to his feast. But
Queen Vashti refused to obey the king’s command, saying that she
could not leave her own feast, having invited many good chiefs.
When the king saw her arrogance and pride, he concluded that she
esteemed him no more highly for the perilous toil that he had
endured while extending his frontiers than she esteemed herself for
having remained quietly at home with the regency, which he had left
in her hands. Because of this presumption the king became so
wrathful, that he decreed that Vashti had forfeited the office of
queen and all the authority which she possessed. And he found a
captive maiden of the people of Israel, whose name was Esther, who
was then in bondage in his kingdom, though she had sprung from a
prominent family in her native land, and this maiden the king placed
in Vashti’s seat, endowing her with all the power that Vashti had
once possessed; and he made Esther queen of all his kingdom.
A few days later another event occurred at this same court. There
was a famous and powerful chief named Haman and he was with
King Ahasuerus. So highly did the king esteem Haman that all the
people were ordered to obey him and bow down before him as
before the king himself. Now there was also a man named Mordecai,
a captive of the people of Israel, who was Queen Esther’s uncle; but
inasmuch as he was both poor and in bondage, he dared not make
known his kinship to the queen; nor dared the queen show greater
deference to him than to any other in the royal service. Then it
happened one day, when Haman the prince came to see the king,
that on his return home his way passed near where Mordecai sat.
But Mordecai was brooding over the bondage in which he had been
placed along with the people who had been taken captive out of
Israel; and being in deep thought he failed to notice that Haman was
passing so near, and consequently did not rise to bow before him.
But when Haman saw that an alien thrall neglected to bow the knee
before him, he became so wrathful that as soon as he came home
he ordered a high gallows to be raised near his house, on which he
intended to hang Mordecai. He also caused letters to be sent
throughout the realm permitting every man to deal with the people
of Israel as he liked: whoever wished to do so might plunder them,
or force them into bondage and servitude, or even slay them.
When the news of this came to Mordecai, necessity compelled him
to deal more boldly with the queen than before: he came to wait
upon her, and, throwing himself at her feet, he told these tidings
with much sorrow. When the queen heard that the entire nation
from which she had sprung was condemned, she called upon God
with all her soul; next she sought the king’s presence, robed in the
stately apparel of a queen, and fell humbly at his feet. But when the
queen had entered and the king saw that she came in such deep
humility and with troubled countenance, he perceived that she had a
matter of such great importance to bring before him that she would
have to find the courage in his favor to state what concerned her.
Taking her hand he raised her up, spoke gently to her, seated her
beside him, and bade her state clearly all the details of her errand.
Queen Esther did as the king commanded and related the whole
event just as it had occurred; and then she begged him to take
action according to royal mercy rather than according to Haman’s
excessive anger. When the king saw Haman’s boundless ambition
and arrogant wrath, he caused Haman himself to be hanged upon
the gallows which he had intended for Mordecai, and sent orders
throughout the entire realm that the people of Israel be allowed to
live in complete freedom according to the ordinances of their sacred
laws; and he gave to Mordecai all the authority that Haman had
once possessed.[289]
From this you will observe that God demands moderation and
fairness, humility, justice, and fidelity as a duty from those whom he
raises to honor. For Joseph, as we said before, was rewarded with
splendid honors and great advancement because of his faithfulness
and humility, although he had been sold for money like a thrall into a
strange land; but God soon raised him by the king’s command to be
a lord and the highest judge in all Egypt next to the king himself.
One may also observe from this how much it is contrary to God’s will
to exalt oneself through vain conceit; for Queen Vashti lost her
queenship and all her power in a single day because of her pride,
while a captive maiden of a strange people was appointed in her
stead; and Haman lost all his authority in a single day because of his
excessive vanity, while his dignities were given to a stranger, a
captive thrall. Now if you should win honors from great lords,
beware of an outcome like those in the stories which you have just
heard, and there are many such; but make good use of the story
that I told you earlier about Joseph.
 There are still other examples which go far back into the days of
Emperor Constantine: for God had appointed him ruler of all the
world, and he turned to righteousness and Christianity as soon as he
came to understand the holy faith. He gave his mother, Queen
Helena, a kingdom east of the sea in the land of the Jews. But
because her realm and dominion were there, she came to be
persuaded that no faith concerning God could be correct but that
held by the Jews; and as letters passed between them, the queen
and her son the emperor, they began to realize that they differed
somewhat in the beliefs which each of them held concerning God.
Then the emperor commanded the queen to come over the sea from
the east with her wise and learned men and many other lords to a
meeting in Rome, where the verities of the holy faith should be
examined. But when the queen arrived with her company, the
emperor had called together many bishops including Pope Sylvester
and many wise men, both Christians and heathen. When the
conference had begun and a court had been appointed to decide
between the emperor and the queen, it became evident to both that
there was likely to be a violent dispute between the Christian
bishops and the learned Jews and other wise men who had come
with the queen from the east, in view of the fact that each side
would produce weighty arguments from its books against the other
to prove and confirm its own learning and holy faith. They saw
clearly, therefore, that it would be necessary for the assembly to
appoint upright judges, who could weigh in a tolerant and rational
spirit all the arguments that might be offered on either side.
But whereas the emperor with the pope and the Christian bishops
was the defender of holy Christianity and the queen the protecting
shield of the Jewish faith, it was clear to both that it would be
improper for them to subject themselves to temptation by acting as
judges in this dispute. So they ordered a careful search to be made
among the wise men to find whether there might be some in all their
number who were so reliable in wisdom, judgment, and
rightmindedness, that all those present could trust them to judge
rightly in their contest. But when the entire multitude had been
examined, only two men were found whom the people dared choose
to be judges in these important matters; and both of these men
were heathen and bound neither to the law of the Christians nor to
the Jewish faith. One of them was named Craton: he was a great
philosopher and thoroughly versed in all learning; he was a friend of
mighty men and enjoyed their favor; but never had he cared for
more of this world’s riches than what he needed for clothes and
food. And when great men sometimes gave him more than he
required, he would give away what he did not consume to such as
were needy. It was also in his nature to speak little but truthfully,
and no man knew that falsehood had ever been found on his lips;
wherefore all felt that the merits of wisdom and good character
which he possessed would surely make him worthy to judge in these
important matters. The other who was chosen judge was named
Zenophilus; he was a famous and powerful prince, and where he
directed the government it was not known that he had ever swerved
from justice. He was a great master of eloquence and learned in all
science, friendly in speech and affable, though a man of authority.
Nor could anyone recall that falsehood had ever been found on his
lips. These having been chosen to act as judges in behalf of all
present, the Christians and the Jews held a court; and these two
decided all the disputes, as they were chosen to do, and it was
found as before that in no wise did they deviate from justice.[290]
I have cited these instances that you might appreciate the humility
and rightmindedness of both the emperor and the queen; for though
they were lords of the entire world, they regarded it as proper to sit
in obedience to chosen judges who were much inferior to
themselves in both power and wealth and every other respect.
Likewise you are to appreciate what great honor these men gained
through their wisdom and uprightness; for though they were both
heathen, they were superior to all others as to insight into the holy
faith and the world’s welfare. And now you will appreciate what I
told you earlier in our conversation, namely, that much depends on
the example that a man leaves after him. Joseph lived before the
birth of our Lord Jesus Christ; he was sold for money into Egypt as
an alien thrall; but his faithfulness and humility pleased God so
highly that he was made ruler next to the king of all those who were
native to the land and had wealth and kinsmen there, whether they
were rich or poor. It is many hundred winters since Joseph died, but
his glory still lives and is daily recalled among all thoughtful people
throughout the world. Queen Vashti died long before the birth of
Christ, as did Haman the prince; but the disgrace that came upon
them because of their pride and folly still lives. Queen Esther bears
even to this day the living honor which she gained through her
humility; though she was brought to India[291] as a captive
bondmaiden, she was later made queen over many large kingdoms
and seated upon the throne from which Queen Vashti was banished.
Although the events that we last related in speaking of Emperor
Constantine and his mother Queen Helena happened after the birth
of Christ, it was still so long ago that no man can recall them
because of their antiquity; yet they are bright with honor even to
this day. Craton and Zenophilus, though they are dead, are
celebrated for their wisdom and righteousness. Though both were
heathen men, they were chosen to be judges over nearly all the
people who were in the world, and were even trusted in behalf of all
men, both Christians and Jews, to pass judgment on those laws
which neither of them kept, but upon which the welfare of the world
nevertheless depended. From such occurrences you will realize that
God holds in His hand the tiller with which He turns and moves the
hearts of great lords whenever He wishes, and controls all their
thoughts according to His will. For King Pharaoh raised up Joseph to
a dominion above that of all the other princes who were in the
kingdom before him. Ahasuerus deprived Vashti of her queenship,
though she was both wealthy and high-born, and appointed Esther
queen in her stead. He also hanged Haman, the renowned prince,
and gave all his power to Mordecai, who was once a bondman
brought captive from a strange land. Emperor Constantine placed
Craton and Zenophilus, two heathen men, in the judgment seat and
trusted them to pass judgment on the verities and the interpretation
of the holy faith. Now you shall know of a truth that all these events
have come to pass through God’s providence and secret commands;
and all these things are noted down for the memory of men in the
future, so that all may learn and derive profit from the good
examples, but shun the evil ones. And if it should be your fortune to
become a kingsman, remember these examples that I have now
shown you (and there are a great many others like them which we
have not mentioned in this speech); and be sure to follow all those
which you see are likely to profit you.
 XLIII

THE DUTIES AND THE EXALTED POSITION OF THE KING

Son. God reward you, sire, for taking so much time to hear all my
questions and for giving such very patient and useful answers: for
these talks will surely lead me to think and observe more accurately
than I did before. It may also be that others will study these learned
discourses in the future and derive knowledge, good insight, and
profitable manners from them. There are, however, several other
things which I have in mind to investigate and wish very much to
ask about. And therefore I beg you not yet to grow weary of
teaching me; for your permission gives me courage to confide so
fully in you that I am not likely to overlook anything that my mind is
eager to know. Indeed, it seems to me that this subject opens up
such a wide field, that there must be many things left which one
needs to know and discern fully, if one wishes to be rated a worthy
man by kings or other great lords; and I am eager to hear you talk
further about these matters.
But for this once I wish to inquire about men of greater
importance than those who have to serve the mighty. I see clearly
that those who serve are in duty bound to strive after the best
manners, knowledge, wisdom, and righteousness; but it would seem
that those, who are chiefs and rulers and whom all others must
serve, owe an even greater duty to seek both knowledge and
insight; above all it must be their duty to love every form of
righteousness, since they have authority to punish all others who are
not righteous. Therefore I wish to ask with your permission what
customs the king himself should observe which would accord with
his regal dignity. Tell me clearly so that I can understand what
business or conduct is demanded of him early in the morning and
what affairs he is later occupied with throughout the day; for he is
so highly honored and exalted upon earth that all must bend and
bow before him as before God. So great is his power that he may
dispose as he likes of the lives of all who live in his kingdom: he lets
him live whom he wills and causes him to be slain whom he wills.
But I have observed this, that if a man becomes another’s
banesman, all upright men from that time on have an aversion for
him as for a heathen; since to slay a man is counted a great sin for
which the one who commits it must suffer great penance and much
trouble before Christian people will again admit him to fellowship.
And again, you told me in an earlier speech to shun manslaughter;
but you added that all manslaughter committed by royal command
or in battle I need shun no more than any other deed which is
counted good. Now if the king has received such great authority
from God that all slaughter done by his command is without guilt, I
should imagine that he must need to be very wise, cautious, and
upright in all his doings; and therefore I wish to have you explain
fully the things that I have now asked about, unless you feel that my
questions are stupid, or that I am presuming too much in showing
curiosity about the doings of such great men.
Father. Your questions are not stupid, for we may just as well talk
about how the king has to order his government or his conduct as
about other men. It surely is his bounden duty to seek knowledge
and understanding, and he ought indeed to be well informed as to
what has occurred in the past, for in that way he will gain insight for
all the business that pertains to his kingship. You have stated that he
is highly honored and exalted on earth and that all bow before him
as before God; and the reason for this is that the king represents
divine lordship: for he bears God’s own name and sits upon the
highest judgment seat upon earth, wherefore it should be regarded
as giving honor to God Himself, when one honors the king, because
of the name which he has from God. The son of God himself, when
he was on earth, taught by his own example that all should honor
the king and show him due obedience; for he commanded his
apostle Peter to draw fishes up from the depth of the sea and to
open the mouth of the fish that he caught first, and said that he
would find a penny there, which he ordered him to pay to Caesar as
tribute money for them both. From this you are to conclude that it is
the duty of every one upon earth to respect and honor the royal title
which an earthly man holds from God; for the very son of God
thought it proper to honor the royal dignity so highly that he, to the
glory of kingship, made himself subject to tribute along with that
one of his disciples whom he made chief of all his apostles and gave
all priestly honors.
 XLIV

THE SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED

Son. There remains one thing, which, as usual, I shall need to

have explained further, as it is not very clear to me. You stated, and
it seems reasonable, that the king holds a title of high honor and
dignity from God Himself; but I do not see clearly why God made
Himself subject to the tribute of an earthly king; since He must, it
seems to me, be above all kings, seeing that He rules the earthly as
well as the heavenly kingdom.
Father. That God Himself has honored earthly kings you will
observe from the fact that, when He came down to earth from the
loftiest pinnacles of heaven, He regarded Himself as having come
among men as a guest and did not wish to claim a share in the
earthly kingship, though he might have done so. But He fulfilled the
words that David had spoken: “The Lord ruleth in the heavens, but
verily he hath given an earthly kingdom to the sons of men.”[292] Now
God, while He was on earth, wished to honor earthly kings and
kingdoms rather than disparage them in any way; for He would not
deprive the earthly kingship of what He had formerly given into the
control of earthly lords; but God showed a perfect obedience to
Caesar. You should also observe that, just as God commanded His
apostle Peter to examine the first fish that he drew and take a penny
from its mouth (and God did not want him to examine the second
fish or the third, but the first only), similarly every man should in all
things first honor the king and the royal dignity. For God Himself
calls the king His anointed, and every king who possesses the full
honors of royalty is rightly called the Lord’s anointed. In like manner
one of God’s apostles said in a sermon while instructing the people
in the true faith: “Fear God and honor your king,”[293]—which is
almost as if he had literally said that he who does not show perfect
honor to the king does not fear God.
Every king, as you have said, ought, indeed, to be wise, well-
informed, and above everything upright, that he may be able to
realize fully that he is after all merely a servant of God, though he is
honored and exalted so highly in the supreme service of God, that
all bow down before him as before God; for in so doing they worship
God and the holy name which the king bears but not the king
himself. It is, therefore, in the very nature of kingship to inspire all
with a great awe and fear of the king, wherefore every one trembles
who hears him named. But he ought also to appear gracious and
friendly toward all good men, lest any one should fear him so much
as to be deterred from presenting any important request to him
because of his severity.
In the night, as soon as the king is sated with sleep, it should be
his duty and business to center his thoughts upon the kingdom as a
whole and to consider how his plans may be formed and carried out
in such a way that God will be well pleased with the care that he
gives to the realm; also how it may be made most profitable and
obedient to himself; further what measure of firmness he must use
in restraining the rich lest they become too arrogant toward the
poor, and what caution in uplifting the poor, lest they grow too
defiant toward the wealthy; wherefore he needs to ponder and plan
judiciously how to hold everyone to moderation in the estate in
which he is placed. This, too, the king must be sure to keep in his
thoughts, that when it becomes necessary to chastise those who are
not satisfied with what God has planned for them, he must not be so
lenient in his punishment, that this excessive indulgence should lead
anyone to consider it safe to transgress what ought to stand as
rightfully ordained. Nor must he be so severe in his penalties that
God and rightminded men will regard him as punishing more from a
cruel disposition than from a sense of justice. These things and
many more a king ought to reflect upon at night when he is done
with sleep, for then fewer matters will come upon him unawares
during the day, when the needs of the land are presented to him.
 XLV

CONCERNING THE MODERATION WHICH A KING MUST OBSERVE

IN HIS JUDICIAL SENTENCES AND PENALTIES,
WITH ILLUSTRATIONS DRAWN FROM THE STORY OF
GOD’S JUDGMENT IN THE CASE OF ADAM AND
EVE, IN WHICH CASE TRUTH AND JUSTICE
WERE ASSOCIATED WITH PEACE AND MERCY

Son. It is evident that a king must possess great constraint and an

even greater sense of justice, as you remarked earlier, if he is to find
the true mean in meting out punishment so as to be neither too
lenient nor too severe. And now I wish to ask whether there are any
examples which may guide him toward this moderation, inasmuch as
you have stated that every king should have knowledge of all the
examples that are to be found.
Father. I repeat what I said then that no man needs to be more
learned or better informed in all subjects than a king, for both he
and his subjects have great need of this. But one who has a
thorough knowledge of past events will meet but few contingencies
that are really unexampled. Now the following examples are very
ancient, and every king should keep them frequently before his eyes
and seek guidance from them for the government of his kingdom.
When God had created the entire world and had beautified it with
grass and other herbage, as well as with birds and beasts, He
appointed two human beings, a man and a woman, to have
dominion over everything. He led the two, Adam and Eve, to the
highest point of Paradise and showed them all the birds and beasts
and all the flowers and glories of Paradise. Then God said to Adam
and Eve: “All these things that you now see I give to you for your
maintenance and dominion, if you will keep the covenant which I
now establish between ourselves. But these are the laws which you
must carefully observe, if you wish to keep the gifts which I have
now given you: that beautiful tree which you see standing with
lovely apples in the midst of Paradise is called the tree of knowledge,
and the fruit which the tree bears is called the apples of knowledge.
This tree you must not touch nor may you eat of the apples which it
bears, for as soon as you eat of them you shall die; but of
everything else that you now see you may freely eat according to
desire.” Four sisters were called to witness this covenant, divine
virgins, who should hear the laws decreed and learn all the terms of
the agreement: the first was named Truth, the second, Peace, the
third, Justice, and the fourth, Mercy. And God spoke thus to these
virgins: “I command you to see to it that Adam does not break this
covenant which has been made between Me and him: follow him
carefully and protect him as long as he observes these things that
are now decreed; but if he transgresses, you shall sit in judgment
with your Father, for you are the daughters of the very Judge.”
When the speech was ended, God vanished from Adam’s sight;
and Adam went forth to view the glories of Paradise. But at that time
the serpent, which was more subtle and crafty than any other beast,
came in the guise of a maiden[294] to Eve, Adam’s wife, and
addressed her in great friendliness: “Blessed is your husband and
you with him, since God has given all things into your power; for it is
now the duty of every beast to obey your commands, seeing that
Adam is our lord and you are our lady. But now I want to ask you
whether God has withheld anything upon earth from your dominion,
or whether you may enjoy all things as you wish without hesitation.”
Eve replied: “God has given us dominion over all things that he has
created upon earth except the tree that stands in the midst of
Paradise; of this He has forbidden us to eat, having said that we
shall die, if we eat thereof.” The serpent said to Eve: “Oho, my lady!
He does not wish you to become so wise that you know both good
and evil; for He knows the difference between good and evil things,
while you know good things only. But when you have eaten of the
apples of knowledge, you will become like God and will have
knowledge of evil things as well as of good.” As soon as the serpent
had disappeared from Eve’s sight, she called Adam her husband and
told him all this speech. Then she took two of the apples of
knowledge, ate one herself, and gave the other to Adam. But when
they had eaten these apples, their knowledge was extended to evil
things, as the serpent had said; and they began to observe the
shapes of beasts and birds and trees, and finally how they
themselves were formed. Then said Adam: “We are shamefully
naked, we two, for there is nothing to hide our limbs; beasts are
covered with hair and tail, birds with feathers, and trees with
branches and leaves; we two alone have shamefully naked limbs.”
Thereupon they took broad leaves from the trees and covered those
of their members which they were most ashamed to have naked.
Then Peace came forth and spoke to Adam and Eve: “Now you have
broken the law and your covenant with God, and I will no longer
give you the security in the open fields that you have thus far
enjoyed; but I will keep you safe in a secret hiding place until
judgment is pronounced in your case; and I give you this safety that
you may have opportunity to present your defense. But you must
take good care to make a plea which may profit you, and prove a
defense rather than a detriment.” Truth came forth and spoke to
Adam: “Take heed, when you come to plead your case, that you do
not lie, for then I shall testify with you; tell everything just as it
happened, for if you lie about anything, I shall testify against you at
once.” Justice came forth and said: “It is my duty and office to make
sure that you are not unjustly condemned; but the more you are
found guilty of lies and wrongdoing, the more shall I oppose you.”
Mercy came forth and said to Adam: “I shall add assistance and
mercy to your plea, if you heed carefully all that my sisters have
taught.” But fear had come upon Adam and he went away to hide
among the trees, lest he should be seen naked.
At midday God went forth to view the beauties of Paradise and
Adam’s stewardship; but as He did not see Adam in the wide fields,
He called him, asking where he was. Adam replied: “I hid myself,
Lord, because I was ashamed to show myself naked before Thy
face.” God answered, saying: “Why shouldst thou be more ashamed
of thy nakedness now than at our former meeting, unless it be that
thou hast broken the law and hast eaten of the apples of knowledge,
which I forbade thee to eat.” Adam replied as if defending himself:
“The woman that Thou gavest me led me into this fault; if I had
been alone about my affairs and if Thou hadst not given me this wife
to advise with me, I should have kept the appointed law and should
not have transgressed Thy command.” Then God said to Eve: “Why
didst thou give thy husband this evil counsel to break the law?” Eve
replied as if defending her case: “The crafty serpent gave me that
evil advice; had he not been created or appeared before me, I
should not have come upon this evil design.” Then God said: “Since
the law has now been broken, I want those virgins whom I
appointed keepers of our covenant to sit in judgment with us.” Then
Truth spoke: “It is my duty and business to show Adam’s guilt,
inasmuch as he has concealed with a lie what most of all led him to
transgress. For this was the chief motive in your case, that the
apples were fair and pleasant and sweet to taste, and that you
desired greatly to be wiser than was promised you. You committed a
theft in planning to take them secretly, covetous robbery in taking
them without permission, and an act of insolent pride in wishing to
become like unto God in wisdom beyond what was promised you.”
Then God said to Peace that she should give a brief opinion in the
case. Peace answered in this wise: “Whereas Thou didst appoint me
to watch over Adam’s safety as long as there was no transgression, I
now offer to bring him an even greater insecurity, because he did
not know how to keep the great freedom which he enjoyed before.”
Then God said to Justice that she should give judgment; and she
answered in this wise: “Since Adam was unable to keep the freedom
that Peace had secured for him, let him now suffer misery and
distress instead; and because he coveted knowledge of evil things,
let him experience evil in place of good; and because he wished to
make himself like God in knowledge beyond what was permitted,
and blamed God for his transgression with lying excuses, let him
suffer the death of which he was warned before he transgressed.”
Then God said to Mercy that she should pass judgment on this
transgression. Mercy replied in these words: “As it is my nature to
urge forbearance and clemency to some degree in every case, I
request that Adam be not destroyed through a merciless death; but
since he now must repent of his error as long as he lives, let him
have hope of mercy and help in his death, as long as he does not
despair.”
Then it was discussed whether, in case he had sons, they should
suffer for his sin, or be allowed to enjoy the gifts and the riches that
God had given him at the beginning, but from which he had been
ousted like an outlaw. Justice said: “How can his sons, who will be
begotten in exile, enjoy those gifts that he forfeited as an outlaw
because of transgression? Let his sons follow him to the death. But
whereas he shall have hope of mercy and leniency and of a return to
the possessions which he has now forfeited, let his sons be recalled
with him through a new covenant.” And when sentence had been
passed in Adam’s case, the sisters all came to a friendly agreement;
Mercy and Truth embraced while Justice and Peace kissed each
other with loving gestures.[295]
Now every king ought to have these two things frequently in
mind: how God appeased His anger toward the man and the woman
for breaking the law, and what judges He called in, lest His
punishment should be too severe and merciless. Moreover, a king
does justice to all men when he does justice to any man or woman;
but all decisions which imply punishment he must always consider in
the presence of these four sisters; and it must be such as will bring
them into agreement, so that they can kiss and embrace each other,
in which case the judgment will be neither too lenient nor too
severe. A king ought to consider very carefully how to bring the
minds of the sisters into agreement; for in all trials they are
arranged and seated apart in groups; Truth and Justice on one side
of the court and Mercy and Peace on the other. They should be
agreed and unanimous in every case; but it frequently occurs that
Peace and Mercy give the whole suit over to Truth and Justice,
though all unite in the verdict none the less. Sometimes it happens
that each of the sisters has a full voice in the decision according to
right reckoning; but at other times it may be that the larger share
falls to Peace and Mercy; but the sisters are unanimous in the
verdict none the less. It has also happened at times that, after a
verdict has been reached and confirmed, Mercy and Peace have
exercised leniency because of the prayers and repentance of him
who was in need of it.
 XLVI

AN EXAMPLE OF RIGHTEOUS SEVERITY IN JUDGMENT

DRAWN FROM THE STORY OF GOD’S
CONDEMNATION OF LUCIFER

Son. It looks to me now as if this is a more intricate matter than I

thought earlier; for it must require great understanding and insight
to harmonize the opinions of these sisters so that they will always be
unanimous, seeing that the verdict sometimes leans more to one
side than to the other. For you remarked that at times the whole
verdict falls to Truth and Justice and no leniency is shown, while at
other times the larger share may fall to Peace and Mercy; and you
also stated that sometimes a sentence has been modified after it
was agreed to and confirmed. Now you have stated that one can
find examples of most things, if one looks for them; and if there are
any instances of such proceedings, I should like to hear about them,
so that the subject may look clearer to me and also to others who
may hear about it. And it must surely be the highest duty of kings to
be well informed on such things, as on all other subjects, since they
will need them very frequently.
Father. The world is now so ancient that, no matter what comes to
pass, one is likely to find that similar events have occurred before;
and nothing is likely to happen of which a learned man can find no
examples. But of the fact that the entire judgment may fall to Truth
and Justice, no mercy being shown, there are cases which occurred
so early that I know of none before them. When Lucifer, an angel in
heaven, turned traitor and committed a base crime against his Lord,
Truth and Justice condemned him to swift downfall without hope of
pardon. Into this condemnation all his comrades and counsellors fell
with him. And these were the crimes which God punished with a
merciless doom.
 XLVII

A FURTHER DISCUSSION OF VERDICTS AND PENALTIES

WITH ILLUSTRATIONS FROM THE STORY OF
LUCIFER’S REBELLION AND DOWNFALL
AND OF THE SIN AND PUNISHMENT
OF THE FIRST MAN AND WOMAN

Son. I must ask you not to take offence if the questions which I
wish to bring up should seem childish and ill advised; but since I do
not fully understand the subject that I intend to ask about next, it
may also be that there are others who do not understand it any
better than I. And it is that matter about the serpent, which, you
said, came to Eve, and speaking to her like a man egged her on to
transgress the law. Now I wish to ask whether the serpent, unlike
other beasts, was created with power of speech; or whether other
animals could speak in those days, though now they are all dumb;
and for what reason the serpent wished to lead the woman into
transgression.
Father. We have had a very lengthy speech before us, and if we
were to comment on the whole, it would lengthen very much a
discussion that is already long; but certain it is, we have spoken very
few words which would not be in need of comment, if a well
informed man, who thoroughly understands all these speeches,
should come to the task. But I believe it is more advisable for us to
continue as we have been doing since we began our conversation,
and leave the task of glossing our remarks to others who may hear
them later and are willing to do the work with faithful care. Still,
inasmuch as every question looks toward some reply or solution, it is
proper that I should enlarge somewhat on this speech, so as to
make the subject a little clearer to you and to others who do not
understand it better than you do. I shall, however, run over it in a
few words only, for I do not care much to comment on my own
remarks.
You have asked whether serpents and other beasts were created
with the power of speech in the days when Adam was appointed
keeper of Paradise, and you shall know of a truth that the gift of
speech was not given to any bodily creature but man. And since you
wish to know why speech was given to the serpent and why it
wished to lead the woman into transgression, I shall now proceed to
explain. The explanation begins with the fact that God created
angels before men. The angels were immortal spirits, free from all
corporal weakness, and endowed with great beauty. But though
created with perfect beauty, they were held subject to this law, that
they must show love and obedience toward their Creator in humility
and without deceit. It was promised them that they should keep
their beauty and all the other honors that God had given them, as
long as they kept this law; at the same time God gave them full
freedom to violate the law, if they wished; for He spoke to them in
this wise: “Since you were all created at the same moment and none
was begotten by another, each one of you shall decide for himself
and none for another whether these laws that I have now ordained
shall be kept or broken. And if there are those who transgress them,
they shall be driven out of this life of bliss; while those who observe
the laws shall continue to enjoy unceasing happiness and unending
life in my noble service. And I give you all a free choice to keep
these laws or to break them as you may prefer, in order that those
who observe them may be set apart as my chosen jewels, while
those who violate them shall suffer hatred and be driven into cruel
thralldom and wretched service.”
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