Ancient History Compilation Notes - PDF Only
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Priyanshu ChaubeyAncient History Compilation Notes - PDF Only
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Priyanshu ChaubeyCompilation of
Daily Class Notes
Ancient History
List of Lectures
0. Orientation
1. Stone Age
2. Stone Age (Part 2)
3. Chalcolithic Age
4. Indus Valley Civilization
5. Indus Valley Civilization (Part 2)
6. Indus Valley Civilisation (Part 3)
7. Rig Vedic Period
8. Rig Vedic Period (Part 2)
9. Rig Vedic Period (Part 3)
10. Rig Vedic Period (Part 4)
11. Indian Philosophy
12. Buddhism
13. Buddhism (Part 2)
14. Jainism
15. Jainism (Part 2)
16. Mahajanapada Period
17. Rise of Magadha
18. Mauryan Empire
19. Mauryan Empire (Part 2)
20. Mauryan Empire (Part 3)
21. Merchantile Era/Post Mauryan Period
22. Mercantile Age/Post Mauryan Period (Part 2)
23. Mercantile Age / Post Mauryan Period (Part 3)
24. Mercantile Age / Post Mauryan Period (Part 4)
25. Gupta Empire
26. Gupta Empire (Part 2)
27. Vakataka Kingdom
28. Regional Configuartion
Ancient History
Orientation
Introduction
● What is History: History is derived from a Greek term, Historia which means, to inquiry, the act of
seeking knowledge, as well as the knowledge that results from inquiry.
● Why Study Ancient History:It is in the UPSC syllabus.
○ To understand the evolution of human society.
○ To understand the gradual change that created the present
○ To understand socio-cultural practices.
○ To identify India’s glorious cultural roots.
Syllabus: Prelims
● Current events of national and international importance.
● History of India (ancient, medieval, and culture) and Indian National Movement (modern history).
● Indian and World Geography-Physical, Social, Economic Geography of India and the World.
● IndianHistoryandGovernance-Constitution,PoliticalSystem,PanchayatiRaj,PublicPolicy,RightsIssues,
etc.
● EconomicandSocialDevelopment-SustainableDevelopment,Poverty,Inclusion,Demographics,SocialSector
Initiatives, etc.
● General issues on Environmental ecology, Biodiversity,andClimateChange–thatdonotrequiresubject
specialization.
● General Science.
Syllabus: Mains
Syllabus for General Studies Paper I
● Ancient, Medieval And Culture
○ Indian Heritage and Culture, History and Geography of the world, and society.
○ Indian Culture willcoversalientaspectsofartforms,literature,andarchitecturefromancientto
modern times.
■ Older Trend: Because the syllabus of ancient history was not specified hence it was
assumed that questions of ancient andmedievalhistorywillbeaskedinassociationwith
culture.
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■ New Trend: Independent questions from ancient history. This is because one cannot
understand culture without the history. At the same time, questions have beenaskedin
theconnectionbetweensubjects.Forexample,questionsofancienthistorycanbeaskedin
relation to geography or society. This is an interdisciplinary approach.
● Modern Indian History from about the middle of the eighteenth century until the present- significant
events, personalities, issues.
● The Freedom Struggle — its variousstagesandimportantcontributors/contributionsfromdifferentparts
of the country.
● Post-independence Consolidation and Reorganisation within the country.
● Weightage: 15-18 questions are asked from history. The weightage of Ancient history could be 6-9
questions.
Mains Question
● 2023
○ Explain the role of geographical factors in the development of Ancient India.
○ WhatarethemainfeaturesofVedicsocietyandreligion?Doyouthinksomeofthefeaturesare
still prevailing in Indian society?
○ WhatwerethemajortechnologicalchangesintroducedduringtheSultanateperiod?Howdidthose
technological changes influence Indian society?
Sources
● Foundation
○ NCERT books
○ Class notes
● References and some Additional Information
○ PW Booklet
○ Specific chapters on Pandyas, Cheras, Cholas, Pallavas, andChalukyafromtheTamilNaduState
Board history book.
Approach
● Graphicalpresentation→Diagrams,flowcharts,mindmaps,andtimeline.Thesewouldactasshortnotes
and are easy to revise.
● Notes in keywords forms.
● Storification (explaining things in a story format) → Best way to have afeelingofconcepts.Itwould
help in increasing analytical ability.
● Lecture slides will contain additional facts and information.
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Ancient History: Broad Overview
In Ancient history, the timeline varies from historian to historian. This is justabroadoverviewoftheancient
history timeline.
Stone Age
● Paleolithic Period → 2 million BCE to 10,000 BCE (Before Common Era)
● Mesolithic Period → 10,000 BCE to 8,000 BCE
● Neolithic Period → 8,000 BCE to 4,000 BCE
Chalcolithic Period
● Chalcolithic Period → 4,000 BCE to 1,500 BCE
○ Use of stone, copper, and tin. It can be considered part of the Bronze Age.
● Bronze Age:Indus Valley civilization → 2,700 to 1,900 BCE
Iron Age
Iron Age → 1,500 to 200 BCE. Certain parallel developments took place during this time period.
● Vedic period
● Development of Jainism and Buddhism
● Mahajanapada (Rise of Magadha)
Mauryan Period
● The Mauryan empire started in the iron age.
● Mauryan Empire → 321 to 185 BCE
Post Mauryan Period
● Post Mauryan Kingdoms → 200 BCE to 300 CE (Common Era)
Gupta Period
● Gupta Kingdom → 320 to 550 CE
Post Gupta Period
● Post Guptas or Contemporary Guptas → 600 to 750 CE
Early Medieval Period
● Early Medieval Period → 750 to 1191/1192 CE
○ It is a transitioning period where one can observe elements of ancient and Medieval history.
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Ancient History
Lecture 12: Buddhism
Life of Buddha (Siddhartha or Gautam Buddha):
● Sources that talk about the life of Buddha include the Sutta and Vinaya Pitakas, Buddhacarita, and
Mahavastu Nidanakatha.He was also known or referred to asSiddhartha, Sakyamuni, and Tathagata.
○ Itwasin563BCEonVaishakhaPurnimaday. Buddha’sbirthiscelebratedasBuddhaPurnima
inNepal, Bangladesh,andIndiaas he is believed to have been born on a fullmoon day.
○ BuddhawasborninLumbini(nearKapilavastu,Nepal),however,
the date is quite debatable.
● HewasborntoSuddhodana,anelectedchiefoftherepublicanShakya
clan with his capital Kapilavastu. Gautama was the family name.
Buddha’s mother was Mahamaya, the Koliyan (Kosala) princess.
● Legendhasitthat,onthenightSiddharthawasconceived(thiseventis
calledAvikranti,denotedasawhiteelephant),QueenMayadreamtthata
white elephant with six white tusks entered her right side (depicted in
Bharhut inscriptions).
● She gave birth and died seven days after his birth. After that, Buddha
was raised by his stepmotherGautami Prajapati. Hence, Buddha is also known asSiddhartha Gautama.
Buddha's Birth:
● Those countries that believe in Theravada Buddhism refer to the event of Buddha’s birth as Vesak.
Brahmanas saw 32 marks of a Mahapurusha on his body and predicted either aworldconquerorora
world renouncer.
○ The infant was named Siddhartha, meaning "h
e who achieves his aim". Hermit seer Asita
announcedthatthechildwouldeitherbecomeagreatking(c hakravartin)oragreatsadhu.This
occurred in a later stage.
○ Kondanna was reputed to be the only one who unequivocally predicted that Siddhartha w
ould
become a Buddha. Buddha’s birth is symbolized by thebullandthe Lotus.
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● SiddharthagrewupinKapilavastu.Thoughtheexactsiteisunknown,itmayhavebeeneitherPiprahwa,
UttarPradesh,orTilaurakot,inNepal.BothplacesbelongedtotheSakya(Kshatriya)territory,andare
located only15 miles apart.
Early Life and Marriage:
● Siddharthawasbroughtupbyhismother'syoungersister,Mahapajapati.Bytradition,heissaidtohave
been destined by birth to the life of a prince and had three palaces built for him.
○ His father, wishing for his son to be a great king, is said to have shielded him from religious
teachings and knowledge of human suffering.
○ At 16,hisfatherreputedlyarrangedhismarriagetoYasodhara,shegavebirthtoason,named
Rahula. Siddhartha is said to have spent 29 years as a prince.
○ Although hisfatherensuredthatSiddharthawasprovidedwitheverythinghecouldwantorneed
later Buddha renounced all and left home in quest for truth.
Renunciation and Ascetic Life: Mahabhinishkramana:
● At theageof29,Siddharthalefthispalacetomeethissubjects.Despitehisfather'seffortstohide
from him thesick, aged, and suffering, Siddhartha was said to have seen an old man.
● WhenhischarioteerChannaexplainedtohimthat
all people grew old, the prince went on further
trips beyond the palace.
○ On stepping out with Channa, he
encounteredanoldman,adiseasedman,
a dead man, and an ascetic.
○ These visuals depressed him, and he
initiallystrovetoovercomeageing,sickness,
and death by living the life of an ascetic.
○ Accompanied by Channa and riding his
horse Kanthaka, Gautama quit his palace
and wandered for six years.
● GautamainitiallywenttoRajagahaandbeganhisasceticlifebybeggingforalmsinthestreet.King
Bimbisara offered Siddhartha the throne after his troops recognized him and the king knew of his
mission.
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○ Siddhartha declined the offer but agreed to travel to Magadha first once he attained
enlightenment. He left Rajagaha and practiced under two hermit teachers of yogic meditation.
➢ AftermasteringtheteachingsofAlaraKalama(Samkhyaphilosopher),hewasaskedby
Kalamatosucceedhim.However,Gautamafeltunsatisfiedwiththepracticeandmovedon
to become astudent of yoga with Udaka Ramaputta.
➢ With him, he achieved high levels of meditative consciousness a nd was again asked to
succeed his teacher. But, once more, he was not satisfied, and again moved on.
● Later on, accompanied by fivewanderingascetics,Kondanna,Bhaddiya,Vappa,Mahanama,andAssaji.
Along with them, he practiced severe austerities until his body was almost emaciated. Realizing that
austerities could not lead to realization, he abandoned them.
○ His five ascetic companions, disgusted at his seeming failure,desertedhimandleftforSarnath.
He then moved towards the village of Senani, where he was offered a bowl of milk-rice by a
low-caste village girl, Sujata.
○ Acceptingfromagrass-cutteragiftofkusagrassforamat,hetookaseatunderaPeepaltree
facing east (Bodh Gaya or Uruvela across Niranjan orFalguriver). Hereheresolvednottorise
again until enlightenment was attained. Buddha then stated that:
➢ 'Here on this seat, my body may shrivel up,
➢ my skin, my bones, my flesh may dissolve,
➢ but my body will not move from this seat
➢ until I have attained Enlightenment,
➢ so difficult to obtain in the course of many kalpas'.
Mara Vijay: The God of Desire or Illusion
● AsGautamasatindeepmeditation,Mara,theLordofillusions,perceivingthathispowerwasaboutto
bebroken,rushedtodistracthimfromhispurpose.Gautamatouchedtheearth(BhumisparshaMudra),
calling it to bear witness to the countless lifetimes of virtue that had led him to this place of
enlightenment.
● Whentheearthshook,confirmingthetruthofGautama'swords,Maraunleashedhisarmyofdemons.In
the epic battle that ensued, Gautama's wisdom broke through the illusions and the power of his
compassion transformed the demons' weapons into flowers. Mara and all his forces fled in disarray.
Awakening:
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● GautamawasfamouslyseatedunderapipaltreenowknownastheBodhitree(peepal)inUruvela[Bodh
Gaya,India]onthebankofNiranjanRiver[nowFalgu]whenhevowednevertoariseuntilhehadfound
the truth. The Peepal tree was known as the famous Bodhi tree.
● Afterareputed49daysofmeditation,heissaidtohaveattainedEnlightenment,andbecameknownas
theBuddhaor"Awakened One". Thus,at 35, he ultimately attained Nirvana/Enlightenment.
● GautamadiscoveredwhatBuddhistsknowasbeing,theMiddleWay—apathofmoderationawayfromthe
extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification, or the Noble EightfoldPath,asdescribedinthe
Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, which is regarded as the first discourse of the Buddha.
What is Nirvana?
● Nirvana is extinguishing the "fires" of desire, hatred, and ignorancethatkeepthecycleofsuffering
andrebirthgoing.Nirvanaisalsoregardedasthe"endoftheworld",inthatnopersonalidentityor
boundaries of the mind remain.
Destruction of the Bodhi Tree:
● ItisbelievedthatAsoka'squeenTissarakkhawasjealousofthetree,andthreeyearsaftershe
became queen (i.e., in the nineteenth year of Ashoka's reign) she caused the tree to be killed
using mandu thorns. The tree, however, grew again.
● The tree was againcutdownbyKingPushyamitraShungainthesecondcenturyBCE,andby
King Shashankain 600 AD.
Everytimethetreewasdestroyed,anewtreewasplantedinthesameplace,andthistreeat
●
Bodh Gaya is still revered by Buddhists.
Events after Awakening:
● First sermon or the Dharmachakra Pravartana: He then travelled to the Deer Park [Sarnath] near
Varanasi(Benares)innorthernIndia.HerehesetinmotionwhatBuddhistscalltheWheelofDharma/
Dhamma Chakka-Pavattana by delivering his first sermon to thefivecompanionswithwhomhehad
sought enlightenment.
○ All five disciples become arahants. Together with him, they formed the first sangha: the
company of Buddhist monks.
● Withinthefirsttwomonths,withtheconversionofYasaandfifty-fourofhisfriends,thenumberofsuch
arahants is said tohavegrownto60.TheconversionofthreebrothersnamedKassapafollowed,with
their reputed 200, 300, and 500 disciples, respectively. This swelled the sangha to more than 1,000
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● The Buddha intended to visitAsita,andhisformerteachers,AlaraKalamaandUddakaRamaputta,to
explainhisfindings,buttheyhadalreadydied.TheBuddhawanderedabout,teachinghisdoctrineforover
four decades, and established an order of monks and nuns known as theSangha.
Buddha's disciples:
● Of the Buddha's disciples, the five closest to him are:
○ Sariputta
○ Maudgalyayana
○ Mahakasyapa
○ Ananda
○ Anuruddha
● Next 5 disciples:
○ Upali
○ Subhuti
○ Rahula
○ Maha Kaccana
○ Punna.
Travels and teaching:
● The Buddha is claimed to have spent the remaining 45 years of his lifeteachingawidevarietyof
people in the Gangetic Plain, including nobles, servants, murderers like Angulimala, and cannibals like
Alavaka.
● AlthoughtheBuddha'slanguageremainsunknown,helikelytaughtinoneormoreofavarietyofclosely
related Middle Indo-Aryan dialects, of whichPalimay be a standardization.
● The sangha travelled the subcontinent while presenting the dharma. Exceptforthefourmonthsofthe
Vassa rainy season, when ascetics of all religions rarely travelled, this persisted throughout the year.
○ At this time of year, the sangha would retreat to monasteries, public parks, or forests, where
people would come to them. The first vassana was spent at Varanasi when the sangha was
formed.
Buddha & Amrapali
● In Buddhist records, Amrapali is noted as having had the opportunity to serve food totheBuddha
during his last visit to Vaishali,shortly before his death.
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● Amrapaliattendedhissermonatanearbygroveandwassodeeplymovedbyitthatsheinvitedhimfor
a meal at her quarters.
○ Afterthis,theBuddhakeptapromisetotraveltoRajagaha,thecapitalofMagadha,tovisitKing
Bimbisara.Duringthisvisit,SariputtaandMaudgalyayanawereconvertedbyAssaji,oneofthe
first five disciples, after which they were to become the Buddha's two foremost followers.
○ The BuddhaspentthenextthreeseasonsatVeluvanaBambooGrovemonasteryinRajagaha,the
capital of Magadha.
● Anathapindika of Shravasti donated Jetavana to Buddha.
● Buddha visited:Sarnath, Mathura, Banaras, Rajgir, Vaishali, Nalanda and Pataliputra.
○ Suddhodanasentoveraperiod,tendelegationstoaskhimtoreturntoKapilavastu.9delegations
joined the sangha to become arahants.
○ The tenth delegation, led by Kaludayi, a childhood friend of Gautama's (who also became an
arahant), however, delivered the message.
○ Nowtwoyearsafterhisawakening,theBuddhaagreedtoreturn,andmadeatwo-monthjourney
by foot to Kapilavastu, teaching the dharma as he went.
● At his return, the royal palace prepared a midday meal, but the sangha was making alms round in
Kapilavastu.
○ TheBuddha'scousinsAnandaandAnuruddhabecametwoofhisfivechiefdisciples.Attheageof
seven, his son Rahula also joined and became one of his ten chief disciples. His half-brother
Nanda also joined and became an arahant.
Do you know?
● In 2016, the Ministry of Tourism announced the Buddhist Circuit as the country’s first
transnational tourism circuit, covering sites in Nepal and Sri Lanka alongside those in India.
● The ministry’s map of the Buddhist Circuit includes Bodh Gaya, Vaishali, and Rajgir inBihar,
Kushinagar, Sarnath, Shravasti in UP, and Lumbini in Nepal.
Ordination of women as nuns:
● BuddhisttextsrecordthattheBuddhawasreluctanttoordainwomen.HisfostermotherMahaPajapati,
approached him, asking to join the sangha, but he refused.
○ Maha Pajapati, however, was so intent on the path of awakening that she led a groupofroyal
Sakyan and Koliyan ladies, which followed the sangha on a long journey to Rajagaha.
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● In time, after Ananda championed their cause, the Buddha issaidtohavereconsideredand,fiveyears
after the formation of the sangha agreed to the ordination of women as nuns.
● Hereasonedthosemalesandfemaleshadanequalcapacityforawakening.Buthegavewomenadditional
rules (Vinaya) to follow.
Kings who accepted his doctrine:
● Bimbisara & Ajatshatru (Magadha)
● Prasenjit of Koshala
● Udayana of Kaushambi
● Buddha’s father and foster mother Prajapati
Mahaparinirvana (483 BC):
● AccordingtotheMahaparinibbanaSuttaofthePalicanon,attheageof80,theBuddhaannouncedthat
he would soonreach Parinirvana, or the final deathless state, and abandon his earthly body.
● Afterthis,theBuddhaatehislastmeal,whichhehadreceivedasanofferingfromablacksmithnamed
Cunda.
○ When Buddha became seriously ill,hegavehisattendantAnandainstructionstopersuadeCunda
thathissupper,whichservedasthefinalmealforaBuddha,hadnothingtodowithhisdeparture
and would instead be a source of the greatest virtue.
● According to Buddhist tradition, the Buddha died at Kushinagar, India which became a pilgrimage
center.
○ Ananda protested the Buddha's decision to enter Parinirvana in the abandoned jungles of
KushinagaraoftheMallakingdom.Itisbelievedthathislastwordswere,'Allcompositethings
decay, strive diligently'.
Siege of Kushinagar:
● SiegeofKushinagarthecapitaloftheMalakasbysevenMahajanapadas’chiefsandtheirarmiesforthe
posthumouspossessionofrelicsofBuddhainthe4thcenturyBCE.DepictionofthebattleSanchistupa
railing, 1st century BCE.
Buddhist Stupa:
● AfterthedeathofBuddha,ninestupaswereerected.EightofthemhadtherelicsofBuddhaattheir
medhi while theninthhad thepot in which the relics were originally kept.
● Thelocationof the nine stupas built after the death of Buddha is
○ Rajagriha
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○ Vaishali
○ Kapilavastu
○ Allakappa
○ Ramagrama (Nepal) remains the only intact and original stupa containing relics of Buddha.
○ Vethapida,
○ Pava
○ Kushinagar
○ Pippalivana
● RamabharStupawasbuiltoveraportionoftheBuddha'sashesonthespotwherehewascrematedby
the ancient Malla people. It is believed that Buddha requested that he be buried under the earth
"h
eaped up as rice is heaped in an alms bowl”.
Buddhism After the Death of Buddha:
● Two hundred years after the death of the Buddha, Ashoka embraced Buddhism. This was an
epoch-making event. During the period of Ashoka, the art of stupas reached its climax.
● Almost84,000stupaswereerectedduringhisperiod.AlthoughaVedictradition,stupaswerepopularized
bytheBuddhists.Throughhismissionaries,AshokaspreadBuddhismintoCentralAsia,WestAsia,and
Sri Lanka,and thustransformed it into a world religion.
● Even today,Sri Lanka, Burma (Myanmar), Tibet, and parts of China and Japanprofess Buddhism.
Representation of Buddha:
● White Elephant: Conception/Descent (avakranti)
● Lotus and Bull: Birth (Jati) at Lumbini
● Horse: Renunciation (Mahabhinishkramana)
● Empty Seat: Meditation (dhyana)
● Peepal/Bodhi Tree:Enlightenment (Mahabodhi) at Bodhgaya
● Lion capital/Wheel:Dhamma Chakra Pravartana - First sermon at Sarnath
● Footprints: Nirvana
● Stupa: Death (Mahaparinirvana) at Kushinagar
Philosophy of Buddhism:
● BuddhistphilosophyistheelaborationandexplanationofthedeliveredteachingsoftheBuddhaasfound
in theTripitaka.
○ Upali -Vinaya Pitaka - Monastic code
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○ Anand -Sutta Pitaka - Buddha’s teaching
○ Abhidhamma Piṭaka is a detailed scholastic analysisandsummaryoftheBuddha'steachingsin
the Suttas.
● Philosophical outline: Its main concern is with explicating the dharmasconstitutingreality.Arecurrent
theme is the reification of concepts and the subsequent return to the Buddhist middle way.
Various Underlying Meanings of Buddhist Philosophy:
● The Buddha: He cultivated various yogic techniques and ascetic practices and taught throughout north
India, where his teachings took hold. These teachings are preserved in the Pali Nikayas and in the
Agamas
○ Datingthesetextsisdifficult,andthereisdisagreementonhowmuchofthismaterialgoesback
to a single religious founder.
○ The focus of the Buddha's teachings is about
➢ Attaining thehighest good of nirvana,
➢ The nature of personalidentity,
➢ The process ofacquiring knowledgeabout theworld.
● KarmaandKarmaphala:ThesearefundamentalconceptsinBuddhismthatexplainhowourintentional
actions keep us tied to rebirth in samsara, whereas the Buddhist path, as exemplified in the Noble
Eightfold Path, shows us the way out of samsara.
● Rebirth: ItisacommonbeliefinallBuddhisttraditions.Itsaysthatbirthanddeathinthesixrealms
occurinsuccessivecyclesdrivenbyignorance(avidya),desire(trisna),andhatred(dvesa).Thecycleof
rebirth is called samsara. It is abeginningless and ever-ongoing process.
Three Jewels of Buddhism (Triratna):
○ Buddha (the enlightened)
○ Dharma (doctrine)
○ Sangha (commune)
Note:
● ThecompoundBuddhistsymbolsareShrivatsawithinatriratna,overaDharmachakrawheel,onthe
Torana gate at Sanchi. 1st century BCE.
Four Noble Truths (Chatwari Arya Satyani):
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● Truth of Suffering (Dukkha):Buddhataughtthateverythingissuffering(SabbamDukkham).Itrefers
notonlytotheactualpainandsorrowexperiencedbyanindividualbutalsotothepotentialtoexperience
these things.
● TruthoftheCauseofSuffering(Samudaya):Sufferingispartoflivingandthereisareasonbehindit.
Desire (Trishna) is the main cause of suffering.
ruth of the End of Suffering (Nirodha):This suffering can be ended by attaining Nirvana/Nibbana.
● T
● TruthofthePathLeadingtotheEndofSuffering(Astangika-Marga):Thereisapaththatleadsto
the end of suffering.
Dukkha:
● Dukkha, often translated as suffering, is the inherent unsatisfactoriness of life. This
unsatisfactoriness drives our yearning for a better way of life, yet keeps usimprisonedinworldly
existence and rebirth.
Eightfold Path (Ashtangika Marg):
● AlthoughmanyethicaltenetsinBuddhismdifferdependingonwhetheroneisamonkoralayman,and
dependingonindividualschools,theBuddhistsystemofethicscanbesummedupintheeightfoldpath:
Andthis,monks,isthenobletruthofthewayofpracticeleadingtothecessationofsuffering–precisely
this Noble Eightfold Path:
○ Right view (Samyak Drishti): One can attain the rightvisionbyremovingignorance.Ignorance
creates a wrong idea of the relationship between the world and the self.
➢ It is on account of the wrong understanding of man that he takes the non-permanent
world as permanent. Thus, the right view of the world and its objects is the right vision.
○ Rightintention(Samyaksankalpa):Itisthestrongwillpowertodestroythoughtsanddesires
that harm others.It includessacrifice, sympathy, and kindnesstowards others.
○ Rightspeech(samyakvak):Manshouldcontrolhisspeechbyrightresolve.Itmeanstoavoid
falseor unpleasant words by criticizing others.
○ Right action/conduct (samyak karma): It is to avoid activities that harm life. Itmeanstobe
away from theft, excessive eating, the use of artificial means of beauty, jewelry, comfortable
beds, gold, etc.
○ Right livelihood (samyak ajiva): Right livelihood meansearningone’sbreadandbutterbythe
right means.It is never right to earn money by unfair means likefraud, bribery, theft, etc.
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○ Righteffort(samyakvyayama):Itisalsonecessarytoavoidbadfeelingsandbadimpressions.
It includes self-control, stopping or negation of sensuality and bad thoughts, and awakening of
good thoughts.
○ Right mindfulness(samyaksmriti):Itmeanstokeepone’sbody,heart,andmindintheirreal
form. Bad thoughts occupy the mind when their form is forgotten. When actions take place
according to the bad thoughts, one has to experience pain
○ Right concentration (samyak samadhi):IfapersonpursuestheabovesevenRights,hewillbe
able to concentrate properly and rightly. One can attain nirvana by the right concentration
(meditation).
Precepts Right Action (Samyak Karma):
● While the precepts for monks and nuns differ somewhat depending on which tradition one has been
ordained in (T
ibetan, Thai Theravada, etc.), the precepts for laymen and laywomen followers of the
Buddha are the same.
● There are five precepts that all followers of the Buddha must observe if they hope to be reborn as
human beings.Eight precepts are practiced by anagarikasandlay-followers staying in temples.
● 5MoralVows(PanchaSila):Buddhaalsoestablishedacodeofconductbothforthemonasticorderand
the laymen to follow which are also known as theFive Precepts or Panchshila:
○ No killing and respect for life.
○ Abstention from theft.
○ Abstention from sexual misconduct.
○ Abstention from falsehood.
○ Abstention from intoxication.
● Ten precepts are followed by bhikkhusor other serious practitioners.
○ Refrain from killing living things.
○ Refrain from stealing.
○ Refrain from unchastity (sensuality, sexuality, lust).
○ Refrain from lying.
○ Refrain from taking intoxicants.
○ Refrain from taking food at inappropriate times (afternoon).
○ Refrain from singing, dancing, playing music, or attending entertainment programs (performances).
○ Refrain from wearing perfume, cosmetics, and garland (decorative accessories).
○ Refrain from sitting on high chairs and sleeping on luxurious, soft beds.
○ Refrain from accepting money.
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Removal of Sufferings:
● The removal of suffering then, requires a deep understanding of the nature of reality (prajna). While
philosophical analysis of arguments and concepts is necessary to develop this understanding, it is not
enough to remove our unskillful mental habits and deeplyingrainedprejudices,whichrequiremeditation,
paired with understanding.
● AccordingtotheBuddha,weneedtotrainthemindinmeditationtobeabletotrulyseethenatureof
reality, which is said to have the marks of suffering, impermanence, and not-self.
● Understandingandmeditationaresaidtoworktogetherto'clearlysee'(vipassana)thenatureofhuman
experience and this is said to lead to liberation.
Core Teaching:
● Certainbasicteachingsappearinmanyplacesthroughouttheseearlytexts,soolderstudiesbyvarious
scholars conclude that the Buddha must at least have taught some of these key teachings:
○ The four noble truths
○ The Noble Eightfold Path
○ Dependent arising
○ The Middle Way
○ Three marks of existence (impermanence, suffering, not-self)
○ Five aggregates
○ Karma and rebirth
○ Nirvana
Buddhist Literature:
● Tripitakas:
○ Sutta Pitaka: It contains over 10 thousand suttas or sutras related to Buddha and his close
companions.ThisalsodealswiththefirstBuddhistcouncilwhichwasheldshortlyafterBuddha's
death, dated by the majority of recent scholars around 400 BC, under the patronage of king
Ajatasatru with the monk Mahakasyapa presiding, at Rajgir.
○ Vinaya Pitaka: The subjectmatterofVinayPitakaisthemonasticrulesformonksandnuns.It
can also be called as Book of Discipline.
○ Abhidhammapitaka:ItdealswiththephilosophyanddoctrineofBuddhismthatappearedinthe
suttas. However, it does not contain the systematicphilosophicaltreatises.Thereare7worksof
Abhidhamma Pitaka which most scholars agree don't represent the words of Buddha himself.
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● Dhammapada:ApartoftheKhuddakaNikayaoftheSuttaPitaka.Itcontainsacollectionofthesayings
of the Buddha in verse form.
● MilindaPanha:LiteralmeaninginPali-QuestionsofMilinda.Itwaswrittenaround100BC.Itcontainsa
dialoguebetweentheIndo-GreekKingMenanderIorMilindaofBactriaandsageNagasenawhereMilinda
asks questions on Buddhism to the sage.
● Buddhacharita:itisanepicpoemcomposedinSanskritbyAshvaghoshaintheearly2ndcenturyAD.It
is about the life of the Buddha.
Some terminologies associated with Buddhism
● Nirvana: The concept of Nirvana in Buddhism is entirelydifferentfromHinduism.Buddhismdeniedthe
concept of Moksha, however,itdefinesNirvanahastogettingridoftheCycleofDeathandbirth.Itis
achievedinthelifetimeitselfandnotafterdeath.Toachievenirvanaoneshouldfollowamoralcodeof
Conduct.
● Jatakas:They contain the tales of previous births of Buddha in poems. There are 547 poems.
● BuddhaCharita:BuddhaCharitaisanepicstyleSanskritworkbyAshavaghosaandwascompiledinthe
second century BC.
○ DharmaraksawhoisknowntohavetranslatedmanyworksofBuddhisminChinese,translatedthis
work in Chinese in 420AD.
○ It mainly deals with Buddha's Life. Asvaghosa also wrote a Sanskrit Drama "SariputraPrakaran"
which deals with Sariputta or Sariputra the disciple of Buddha.
● BodhiVamsa:BodhiVamsaisamixofSanskritPalitextwhichwascomposedbyUpatissaundertherule
ofMahindaIVofSriLankainthe10thcenturyAD.ItdescribesthearrivalofabranchoftheBodhitree
in Sri Lanka and many other things mentioned in Mahavamsa.
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Ancient History
Lecture 13: Buddhism (Part 2)
Buddhist Council
Council Year Venue Chairman Patron Outcome
First 483 B.C. Satparini Mahakassap Ajatashatru ● It was held soon after the
Cave, a (Haryanka) Mahaparinirvan of the Buddha.
Rajagriha ● Themainobjectiveofthecouncilwas
to preserve Buddha’s teachings
(Sutta) and rules for disciples.
● During this council, the teachings
of Buddha were divided into three
Pitakas.
o SuttaPitakawasacollection
of Buddha’s sermons by
Ananda.
o VinayaPitakacontainedrules
of the order and was recited
by Upali.
● Atthiscouncil,Anandacomposedthe
Suttapitaka (Buddha's Teachings)
and Mahakassapa composed the
Vinaypitaka (monastic code).
Second 383 B.C. Chulla Sabbakami Kalashoka ● It washeld100yearsafterBuddha’s
Vanga, (Shishunaga death.
Vaishali ) ● The main objective was to discuss
ten disputed points under the
Vinaypitaka.
● SincemonksofVaishaliwantedsome
changes in rites, there was a divide
between Sthaviradins &
Mahasanghikas.
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o Theravada (Thera in Pali
meaning elder)- Wanted to
preserve the original spirit of
the Buddha’s teachings.
o Mahasanghikas (Great
Community) interpreted more
liberally.
Third 250 B.C. Ashoka Mogaliputta Ashoka ● The Abhidhamma Pitaka was
DramaBihar, Tissa composed here making the almost
Pataliputra completion of the modern Pali
Tipitaka.
● The council's objective was to purify
the Buddhist movement from
opportunistic factionsandcorruptions
in the sangha.
● 60,000 heretical monks were expelled
● Origin of Theravada school.
● Tripatikaiscodedinthefinalformin
thePali language.
● Send Buddhist missionaries to other
countries.
Fourth 98 A.D. Kundalavana Vasumitra Kanishka ● Compilation of Mahavibhasha Shastra.
(Kashmir) and (Kushan) ● All deliberations were conducted in
Ashwaghosh Sanskrit.
a ● Abhidhamma textsweretranslated
from Prakrit to Sanskrit.
● This council resulted in the division
of Buddhism into two sects namely,
Mahayana (the Greater Vehicle) and
Hinayana (the Lesser Vehicle).
● Mahayana sect believed in idol
worship, rituals, and Boddhisattvas.
They regarded the Buddha as God.
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● Hinayana continued the original
teachings and practices of the
Buddha.
● Theyadheretothescriptureswritten
in Pali while the Mahayana includes
Sanskrit scriptures as well.
Additional Information:
Some believe that the Fourth Buddhist Council is the name of two separate Buddhist council meetings.
● Theravada:FourthBuddhistCouncilin1cBCEinTambapanni,i.e.SriLankaatAlokaLena(now
Alu Vihara) during the time of King Vattagamani- Abaya.
● The Mahayana School held the second one in Kashmiraroundthe1stcenturyCE.Ashwaghosha
participated in this. Commentaries called Vibhasas/ Vibhas Shastra.
Other Buddhist Councils:
Fifth Buddhist Council (1871)
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● TheFifthBuddhistCounciltookplacein1871underthepatronageofKingMindoninMandalay,Burma.It
was presided by Jagarabhivamsa, Narindabhidhaja, and Sumangalasami.
● TheideawastorecitealltheteachingsoftheBuddhaandexaminethemsystematicallyifanyofthem
were dropped or altered.
Sixth Buddhist Council (1954)
● The Sixth Buddhist Councilwasheldin1954/inBurmaatKabaAye,inYangoonunderthepatronageof
the Burmese Government led by Prime Minister U Nu.
○ ThegovernmentauthorizedtheconstructionofMahaPassanaGuha,whichisverysimilartoIndia's
Sattapanni Cave where the first Buddhist Council had been held.
○ ItwasaimedtopreservethegenuineDhammaandVinayaPitaka.Itwasheldunderthepresidency
of Mahasi Sayadaw and Bhadanta Vicittasarabhivamsa. 500 Buddhist scholars from 8 countries
participated in this council.
Schools of Buddhism:
Mahayana:
● ThetermMahayanaisaSanskritwordthatliterallymeans"GreatVehicle".ItisaHeterodoxschoolthat
originated later than Hinayana. It has two chief philosophical schools- Madhyamika/Shunyavad -
Nagarjuna and Yogachara/Vijnanavada - Maitreynath and his disciple Asanga.
● Its scriptures are inSanskrit,thelanguageofIndianscholasticism.Thephilosophyoftheschoolisas
follows:
○ TreatsBuddha as God.
○ Worships idolsof Buddhas.
o dhisattvas embody Buddha's nature.
○ B
Bodhisattvas
● In Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhists, a bodhisattva is a being who is dedicated to achieving
complete Buddhahood but delays attainment or Nirvana for the welfare of the people.
● Beings with a high degree of enlightenment.
● "Bodhi (enlightenment) being" in Sanskrit.
● Amitabha
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● Mahayana believes in universal liberation from suffering for all beings hence the 'Great Vehicle'. Its
ultimate aimis 'spiritual upliftment'.
● It allows salvationtobealternativelyobtainedthroughthegraceoftheAmitabhaBuddhausingfaith
and devotion to the mindfulness of the Buddha. It believes inmantras.
● Mahayanaoftenadoptsapragmaticconceptoftruth:doctrinesareregardedasconditionally"true"inthe
sense of being spiritually beneficial. It did spread as anorthern Buddhist religion.
➢ ThissectofBuddhismspreadin:Japan,China,andotherAsiancountries.Kanishkapatronizedit,
while Harshavardhana supported it.
Vajrayana:
● A third major Buddhist tradition, the Vajrayana or Esoteric (गुप्त) tradition, developed out of the Mahayana
school and became a powerful and dynamic religious force.
● It belongs toTantric Buddhism andwas formed duringthefinal period of Buddhism in India.The
enactment of Buddhist ideas in individual life.
➢ 'Vajra'means absolutelyreal and indestructibleina human being, as opposed to the fiction an
individual entertains about himself and his nature. This school of Buddhism appeared ineastern
Indiain theeighth century.
➢ Also, it was established inTibet in the 11th centurydue to a mission sent from Vikramshila
University - Vajrayana monastery.
○ The new form of text associated with this tradition, the tantras, appeared during the Gupta period,
and there are indications that distinctively Tantric rituals began to be employed at this time as
well.
● It was during the Pala period (8th-12th centuries), however, that the Vajrayana/Esoteric tradition emerged
as the most dynamic component of Indian Buddhist life. The Vajrayana tradition of Buddhism spread to
China, Mongolia, and Tibet.
● Vajrayana Buddhists recognize a large body of Buddhist Tantras, some of which are also included in
Chinese and Japanese collections of Buddhist literature, and versions of a few even in the Pali Canon.
● Philosophy
○ Esoteric extension of Buddhist thought and practice
○ Is a quicker, more effective path to enlightenment.
○ Salvationcan be best attained by acquiring the magical power, which they calledVajra.
○ It emphasizes the role of theBodhisattva, but favour fierce deities known as theTaras.
Hinayana Mahayana
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● Gauthama Buddha was like a teacher. ● Gautama Buddha was considered a God.
● They used symbols for worship. Ex: ● They worshipped Buddha in image form.
footprints, flowers, etc.
● Merit and demerit were dependent on ● They believed that merit could be
previous birth. strengthened through rebirth.
● Merit cannot be transferred from one ● Merit can be transferred from one person to
person to another person. another by conducting pious acts.
● Very few rulers patronaged Hinayana. ● Many rulers patronaged Mahayana.
Causes of the Spread of Buddhism:
● Buddhism had a favourable nature for urbanization and monetary economy. Buddhism was liberal &
democratic as compared to Brahmanism.
● New forms of worship like temples, idols, etc. Everybody now was eligible to get Nirvana (Moksha). Sangh
was made open to everyone.
● The monks travelled to different places preaching the teachings of Buddha. It received royal patronage
including from Bimbisara, Ajatasatru, Ashoka, Kanisha, and Harshavardhana.
● Magadh, kosala, kausambi & several republican states adopted Buddhism. Ashoka embraced Buddhism &
spread it to Central Asia, West Asia, and Sri Lanka.
● Vaishya varna adopted it and spread it in central India and East Asia. Moral upbringing gave a sense of
happiness in growing materialistic life.
Causes of Decline of Buddhism:
● By the early 12th Century, A.D Buddhism became practically extinct from India.
● The prime reasons were:
○ Rituals and Ceremonies:Originally Buddhism was inspiredby the spirit of reform. However,
eventually, it came into the grip of rituals and ceremonies. Thus, it became a victim to the evils of
Brahminism against which it had fought in the beginning.
○ Lack of morality:Moral degeneration & violation of the key principle of incontinence due to the
presence of women & monks living in the monasteries together.
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○ Role of other religious sects: TheVajrayana sect was a big reason behind the decline of
Buddhism, there was a lack of royal patronage, an increased influence with the rise of the Bhakti
movement along with Shankaracharya boosting Vedic region again.
○ Reforms in Brahmanism: Brahmanism on the other hand underwent reforms to meet the
Buddhist challenge. They stressed the need to preserve the cattle's wealth and assured women and
Shudras of admission to heaven.
○ Language:Gradually Buddhist monks gave up Pali whichwas a common language and took to
Sanskrit. Due to this, they were cut off from the mainstream of people’s life.
○ Corruption:From the 1st Century A.D. Buddhism underwentfurther deterioration. They started
practicing idol worship on a large scale and started receiving numerous offerings from devotees. For
example:Nalanda Monasteryreceived revenue from around200 villages.
○ Persecution:The Brahmana ruler Pushyamitra Sungais said to have persecuted the Buddhists.
➢ The Huna KingMihirakula,who was a worshipper ofShiva, killed hundreds of Buddhists.
➢ TheShaivite Shashanka of Gaudacut off the BodhiTree at Bodh Gaya- the place where
Buddha attained Nirvana.
➢ In south India, bothShaivites and Vaishnavitesbitterlyopposed Jainism and Buddhism in
early medieval times which further weakened Buddhism.
○ Turkish Invaders:Buddhist monasteries came underthe attack of Turkish invaders because of
their richness. Rich monasteries attracted Turkish invaders who looted the monasteries & killed
many monks in Nalanda (Bihar). So, Buddhism disappeared from the land of its birth land by the
12th century AD.
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Ancient History
Lecture 14: Jainism
Sarvastivadin:
● SarvastivadaisaSanskrittermthatcanbeglossedas:"t hetheoryofallexists".Itwasoneoftheearly
Buddhist schoolsestablished around the reign of Ashoka(3rd century BCE).
● It was particularly known as an Abhidharma tradition, with a unique set of seven Abhidharma works.
AbhidharmaareancientBuddhisttextsthatcontaindetailedscholasticpresentationsofdoctrinalmaterial
appearing in theBuddhist sutras.
● Philosophy:
○ Created a pluralist metaphysical and phenomenological system, in which all experiences of
people, things, and events can be broken down into smaller and smaller perceptual or
perceptual-ontological units called"dharmas".
○ It is "t he theory of all that exists". Sarvastivada argued that all dharmas exist in the past,
present, and future, the "three times".
● Sub-schools:Vaibhāṣika, Dārṣṭāntikas and Sautrāntikas,and Mūlasarvāstivādins
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Pitakas of Buddhism:
Sutta Pitaka (Encyclopedia of Buddhism):
● It is divided intofive books (nikayas)namely:
○ Digha-nikaya:It is a collection of long discourses
○ Majjhima-nikaya:It is a collection of medium-lengthdiscourses
○ Samyutta-nikaya: It is a collection of kindred/relatedtopics
○ Anguttara-nikaya:It mentions 16 Mahajanapadas.
○ Khuddaka-nikaya (smaller collection): It is dividedinto 15 books
➢ Jataka (poems related to previous births of the Buddha),
➢ Dhammapada (sayings of Buddha in verse form),
➢ Buddhavamsa (hagiography of Buddha)
➢ Theragatha & Therigatha (two collections of biographical verses of Buddhist monks and nuns).
❖ Therigatha: it describes women's experiences of renunciation and is one of the few
surviving ancient texts attributed to women.
Vinaya Pitaka (Basket of Discipline):
● It is a compilation of rules of monastic disciplines. It is observed by monks and nuns in the Sanghas.
● Sutta Vibhanga contains:
○ Patimokkha: the basic code of monastic discipline.
○ 227 rules for monks (given in Maha-vibhanga).
○ 311 rules for nuns (given in Bhikkuni-vibhanga).
○ Also includes a list of transgressions against monastic discipline and atonements
● Khandaka - two volumes. It includes:
○ Mahavagga (includes accounts of episodes in Buddha's life)
○ Chullavagga (includes accounts of the first and second Buddhist councils and the founding of the
order of nuns).
● Parivara (appendix).
Abhidhamma Piṭaka:
● ItiscompiledbyMogaliputtaTissa.ItisadetailedscholasticanalysisandsummaryoftheBuddha's
teachingsin the Suttas.
● It is written in Question Answer form. Here, the suttas are reworked into a schematizedsystemof
general principles that might be called'BuddhistPsychology'.
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● In the Abhidhamma, the generally dispersed teachings and principles of thesuttasareorganizedintoa
coherent science of Buddhist doctrine.
Buddhist Text:
● MostlywritteninPaliandPrakrit.BuddhistliteraturecanbedividedintoCanonicalandNon-canonical
works.The Canonical literature consists of "Tripitaka'or baskets (of knowledge) written in Pali.
Pali Texts Sanskrit Texts
● Tripitaka ● Buddhacarita
1. Sutta Pitaka - Buddha’s sayings ● Saundarananda
2. Vinaya Pitaka - monastic code ● Sutralankar
3. Abhidhamma Pitaka - religious discourses of ● Sariputra Prakaran
Buddha ● Vajra Suchi (Ashwaghosh)
● Milindapanho ● Mahavibhasa Sastra (Vasumitra)
● Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa (Sri Lanka) ● Visuddhimagga, Athakathayen, Sumangalvasini
● Buddhaghosha
● Madhyamika karika & Prajnaparimita Karika
● Nagarjuna
Jataka:
● JatakasarethebestexampleofBuddhistnon-canonicalliterature.Itisacompilationofthestoriesfrom
the previous births of Buddha. It consists of st ories of the Bodhisattva or the (future) would-be
Buddhaare also discussed in these Jatakas.
● ItisavailableinSanskritandPali.Ittellsabout550birthsbeforehewasbornasGautam.Itconsistsof
popular tales, ancient mythology as well as socio-political conditions in North India.
Avadana:
● Buddhist literature correlates past lives' virtuous deeds to subsequent life events.
Milinda-Panha (questions of Milinda):
● Monk Nagasena or Nagarjuna debates Indo-Greek ruler Menander. It is composed by Nagasena/
Nagarjuna.It is considered asBuddhavacana(wordof Buddha).
Mahavamsa (550 AD):
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● It was a Monk Mahanama epic poem similar to Dipavamsa(350AD),writteninPalilanguage.Itwas
also called theChronicles of Kings of Ceylon,etc.
Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa:
● It was written inPali.
● Contents:
○ It is ahistoricalcummythicalaccountoftheBuddha'slifeandBuddhistcouncils.Ashokaand
the arrival of Buddhism to Sri Lanka.
Mahavastu:
● It was written in mixedSanskrit-Prakrit. Itdealswithsacred biography, i.e., the hagiography of theBuddha.
agiography means idealizing the biography of a venerated person. It contains Jakata andAvadana
○ H
tales. It is written in mixed Sanskrit, Pali, and Prakrit. (Mahasanghika related).
Nettipakaraṇa:
● The Nettipakaraṇa is a mythological Buddhist scripture, sometimes included in the Khuddaka Nikaya of
Theravada Buddhism's Pali Canon. The main theme of this text is Buddhist Hermeneutics through a
systematization of the Buddha's teachings.
● ItisregardedascanonicalbytheBurmeseTheravadatraditionbutisn'tincludedinotherTheravadacanons.
AvadanaisthenamegiventoatypeofBuddhistliteraturecorrelatingpastlives'virtuousdeedstosubsequent
life events.
Lalitavistara Sutra:
● "The play in full" - Mahayana text. - stories associatedwiththelifeofBuddhatillhisfirstsermonat
Sarnath
Udana:
● Theravada- "Blind Men and the Elephant".
Bodhi Vamsa:
● It was a prose poem from the 12thcenturyinSriLanka.ItwastranslatedfromaSinhaleseversion.It
was written by Upatissa in Sanskritised Pali.
Nidanakatha:
● It was the first connected life story of Buddha.
Other Texts:
Ashvaghosha (Advisor of Kanishka):
● It was composed in the first century AD. He was thefirst playwright in Indian history.
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● Famous Books:
○ Sariputra-prakaranain Sanskrit.
○ Buddhacharita:He wrote an epic on the life of MahatmaBuddha in Sanskrit
○ Vajra Suci
○ Saundarananda:AkavyapoemwiththethemeoftheconversionofNanda,Buddha'shalf-brother,so
that he might reach salvation.
Nagarjuna:
● He was a great teacher of Buddhism. He wrote:
○ Satasaharika,
○ Prajnaparamita (Deals with perfection in various traits)
○ Madhyamika Sutras.
Buddhaghosa:
● Visuddhimagga (path of purification) was composed by Buddhaghosa in Sri Lanka. It is related to
Theravada teachings.
Mahavibhasa Shastra:
● It was written in 150 AD. It consists of discussions about other non-Buddhist philosophies also. Itis
essentially aMahayana text.
Abhidhammakosa:
● It was written by Vasubandhu.
Sutralankara:
● It was written byAsanga. It is theearliest bookof the Yogacara School of Buddhism.
Jainism:
Introduction to Jainism:
● Theword'JainisderivedfromJinnaorJainawhichmeanstheConqueror.TheyBelievethattheirreligion
is comprised of people who have managed to control their desires.
● Jainism does not have a single founder. It is commonly mistaken that Mahavir was the founder of
Jainism. However, he was the last Tirthankar.
● There were 23 Tirthankars before him. The states of Gujarat and Rajasthan have the highest
concentration of Jain population in India.
● TheJainasbelievedthattheirmostimportantreligiousteacher-Mahavirahadtwenty-threepredecessors
who were calledtirthankara(maybe mythology or antiquity).
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● The24 Tirthankarasare considered to be responsible for the origin & development of Jainism.
○ Among the 24 Tirthankaras, two Tirthankaras - Rishab and Arishtanemi (also known as
Neminatha) names are found inRigveda.
nd
○ The 22 Neminatha (from Gujarat) is also known as Arishtanemi, whose symbol is conch or
Shankha.
Who was the First Tirthankara?
● The first tirthankara is considered to be Adinatha/Rishabhanatha/Rishabha. He was the traditional
founder of Jainism. He wasborn in Ayodhya, whichmakes it a sacred place for the Jains.
● One year after renunciation, the day on which he took his first ahar (meal) is celebrated as Akshaya
Tritiya. He attained mokshaonMountAshtapada(intheKailashranges),whichmakesKailashsacred
for the Jains.
● His symbol is the Bull. Vishnu Purana and Bhagavad Purana describe Rishabhnathasanincarnationof
Vishnu.
rd
Who was the 23 Tirthankara?
● The23rdTirthankarawasParshvanathawhowasborninVaranasi.Hemayhavelivedinthe8thor7th
century BC.
● All the Tirthankaras were Kshatriyas by birth. His main 4 teachings were: Satya, Ahimsa, Asetya,
Aparigraha (Critic of Vedas & Vedic Gods).
th
Mahavira: The 24 Tirthankara:
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● He is regarded as the real founder of Jainism – Vardhamana Mahavira. His symbol is the lion. His
childhood name is Vardhman and was born in 540 B.C. [599 BC** Debatable] at Kundagrama (Vaishali).
● His father Siddhartha was the chief of the Jnatrikas,aKshatriyaclan,andhismotherTrishlawasthe
sister of lichhchavi chief Chetak, whose daughter was wedded to Bimbisara.
○ HewasmarriedtoYashodaandhadadaughternamedPriyadarshana.Heleftthematerialworld
a t 30 years of age just after his father’s death.
○ At the age of 30, Vardhaman renounced his home and became a wandering ascetic. He also
observed self-mortification (आत्मसाधन).
● After12yearsofpenance(तपस्या),heattainedthehighestspiritualknowledgecalledKaivalya(Supreme
Knowledge). He attained this at Jimbhikagrama village under a sal tree at age 42. This is called Kaivalya.
○ Thereafter, he was called Mahavira, Jina, Jitendriya (one who conquered his senses), Nigrantha
(free from all bonds), and Kevalin.
● Hepreachedhisteachingsfor30yearsanddiedatPava(nearRajagriha)aged72.Mahavira'sfamilywas
connectedwiththeroyalfamilyofMagadh,andsuchhighconnectionsmadeiteasyforhimtoapproach
princes and nobles in the course of his mission.
Causes of the rise of Jainism:
● Vedic religion had become highly ritualistic.
● JainismwastaughtinPaliandPrakritandthuswasmoreaccessibletothecommonmanascomparedto
Sanskrit. It was accessible to people of all castes.
● Jainism offered lower people an honorable place in society, specially Vaishya people got a very reputed
place.
● It opposed rituals and gave equal status to women.
● It stressed moral teaching and ethical behaviour.
What led to the spread of Jainism?
● Power of royal patronage: Jainism received royal patronage from Mauryan power,Kharvel,Guptapower,
etc. Chandragupta Maurya became a Jain and spent the last years of his life in Karnataka as a Jain
ascetic, spreading Jainism to South India.
● Great Famine of Magadh (260BC): Many Jains migrated south underBhadrabahuwhileseveralstayed
under Sthalabahu.
● Differences & Mistrust upon return to Magadha.
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● The migration of Jaina monks to thesouthledtosignificantpatronagebythekingsofKarnataka,who
donated land and supported these monks generously. This era saw the establishment of several Jaina
monastic institutions.
● In Kalinga, King Kharavela was a notable patron of Jainism, furthering its spread. In western India,
Jainism expanded through trade and commerce, though it did not receive as much state support as
Buddhism did during the same period.
Teachings of Jainism
● MahavirarejectedVedicprinciples.HedidnotbelieveinGod'sexistence.Accordingtohim,theuniverseis
a product of the natural phenomenon of cause and effect.
○ HebelievedinKarmaandthetransmigrationofthesoul.Thebodydiesbutthesouldoesnot.One
will be punished or rewarded as per one's karma.
● He advocated a life of austerity and non-violence and stressed equality but did not reject the caste
system, unlike Buddhism. But he also said that man may be 'good' or 'bad' as perhisactionsandnot
birth.
● Asceticism was taken to a great length. Starvation, nudity, and self-mortification were expounded. In
Jainism, it was believed that salvation was attained by believing in penance and dying of starvation
(Santhara and Sanlekhna). Jainism believes that there are only two elements of the world: Jiva
(conscious) and Atma (unconscious).
Doctrine of Jainism:
Triratna (Three Gems of Jainism):
● The aim of existence is to attain through the Triratna of:
○ Samyak Shradha, Vishwas or right faith:It talks aboutthe belief in Tirthankaras
○ Samyak Jyan or
Right Knowledge: It
deals with the
knowledgeoftheJian
creed
○ Samyak Karma,
Acharan, or Right
Action/Conduct: It
guides the practice of the 5 vows.
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Five types of Knowledge:
● Matigyan:Perception through the activity of senseorgans
● Shrutajnana:Knowledge revealed by scriptures
● Avadhijnana:Clairvoyantperception.(Aclairvoyantisapersonwhoclaimstohaveasupernaturalability
to perceive events in the future or beyond normal sensory contact.)
● Mahaparayana jnana:Telepathic knowledge
● Keval jnana:Temporal knowledge or omniscience
● As per Jain philosophy, knowledge is of two kinds:
(a)Pramana (knowledge of a thing as it is, i.e., complete knowledge)
(b)Naya (knowledge of a thing about something, I.e., partial knowledge).
● Only kevalins, i.e., those who have attained kevala gyana have complete knowledge.Kevala Gyanaare:
○ Translated as supreme knowledge/omniscience.
○ Believed to be an intrinsic quality of all souls,
○ Obscured by karmic particles that surround the soul.
○ Every soul has the potential to attain omniscience by shedding off these karmic particles.
Pancha Mahabharata:
● Pancha Mahavratas i.e., five vows of Jainism
○ Ahimsa:Do not commit violence.
○ Satya/sunrita:Do not tell a lie.
○ Astey/achaurya:Do not steal.
○ Aparigraha:Do not hoard or acquire property.
○ Observe continence(brahmacharya)
● ItissaidthatonlythefifthdoctrinewasaddedbyMahavira:theotherfourweretakenoverbyhimfrom
previous teachers.
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Ancient History
Lecture 15: Jainism (Part 2)
Jain Philosophy:
● Jainaphilosophyenvisionstheuniverseaseternalandeverlasting,composedofsixfundamentalelements
known as Drouya.
○ These elements include Jiva (soul or spirit) and Ajiva (physical matter). The universe also
encompasses Dharma (motion), Adharma (motionlessness), and Kala (time), with Akasha
(space)being the medium in which everything exists.
➢ In this framework, every objectisbelievedtopossessasoul,andconsciousnessisclosely
tied to states of happiness and energy.
➢ According to Jaina's thought, all souls are bound by karma and trapped in the cycle of
rebirth within physical bodies.
● Jainism is a transtheistic religion of ancient India. Transtheism refers to a system of thought or
religious philosophy that is neither theistic nor atheistic but is beyond them.
● Kaivalya,orspiritualliberationinJainaphilosophy,isachievedthroughthepursuitoftherightknowledge,
which can be attained in three primary ways:
○ Pratyaksha(direct knowledge),
○ Anumana(inference or contemplation), and the
○ Teachings of the Tirthankaras.
➢ The journey to Kaivalya involves the practice of right faith, right knowledge, and right
conduct. Jain concept of knowledge is known asAnekantavadअनेकान्तवाद orSyadavad.
➢ KeyethicalprinciplesguidingthispatharethePanchMahavrata(fivegreatvows),which
include
❖ Satya(truthfulness),
❖ Ahimsa(non-violence),
❖ Asteya(non-stealing),
❖ Aparigraha(non-possessiveness), and
❖ Brahmacharya(celibacy).
■ Additionally,practicessuchasSanthara(aritualoffastingtodeath)and
Sanlekhna (austerity) are undertaken to purify the soul and transcend
karma, ultimately leading to liberation.
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● ThePanchMahavrata,orFiveGreatVows,arecentralethicalprinciplesinJainaphilosophy,intendedfor
ascetics and those deeply committed to spiritual practice.
○ However, for laypeople, these vows are adapted into lesser vows known as Anuvrata, which are
more practical and manageable in everyday life as most of their activities involve some sort of
violence.
○ Ancient Jaina texts acknowledge that while laypeople may not fully observe all the majorvows,
they can still adhere to these minor vows according to their circumstances.
➢ For example, while complete Brahmacharya (celibacy) might be challenging for worldly
individuals, they can practice a form of chastity by being sexually faithful to their partners.
❖ The Jaina community,predominantlyengagedintradeandotherworldlyactivities,
often follows these adapted vows to align their daily lives with spiritual principles.
Six Eternal Substance:
● Jainism believes that the universeismadefromthecombinationofthesixuniversalsubstances.Allof
the six substances are indestructible, imperishable, immortal, eternal, and continuously go through
countless changes.
Soul of Consciousness Jiva Living Being
Matter Pudgala Non-Living Being
Medium of Motion Dharma Non-Living Being
Medium of Rest Adharma Non-Living Being
Space Akasa Non-Living Being
Time Kal or Samay Non-Living Being
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Jiva (Living Substances):
● Jainsbelievethatsouls(Jiva)existasareality,havingaseparateexistencefromthebodythathousesit.
Jiva is characterized by:
○ Cetana (consciousness)
○ Sukha (bliss)
○ Energy (Virya)
○ Upayoga (knowledge and perception).
● Thoughthesoulexperiencesbothbirthanddeath,itisneitherreallydestroyednorcreated. Decayandorigin
refer respectively to the disappearance of one state ofthesoulandtheappearanceofanotherstate,these
being merely the modes of the soul.
○ Everythinghasasoulinthemandeverysoulistrappedwithinabody.Thesoulgetstrappedwithinone’s
body due to one’s karma and finally, one’s karma destroys his/her soul upon being impure.
Ajiva (Non-Living Substances):
● Pudgala (Matter):
○ Matter, which is classifiedassolid,liquid,gaseous,energy,fineKarmicmaterials,andextra-fine
matter or ultimate particles. P
aramanu or ultimate particles are the basic building block of
matter.
○ OneofthequalitiesoftheParamanuandPudgalaisthatofpermanenceandindestructibility.It
combinesandchangesitsmodesbutitsbasicqualitiesremainthesame.AccordingtoJainism,it
cannot becreated or destroyed.
Jaina Scriptures
● Traditionally, the original doctrine of Jainism was contained in scriptures called Purva. There were fourteen
Purva.
○ These are believed to have originated from Rishabhanatha, the first tirthankara. However, gradually
these Purvas disappeared and little knowledge remained about these Jain Purvas.
● There was a twelve-year famine around the fourth century BCE. At that time, Chandragupta Maurya was
the ruler of Magadha and Bhadrabahu was the head of the Jain community.
● Bhadrabahu went south to Karnataka with his adherents and Sthulabhadra, another Jain leader remained
behind along with his followers. During this time the knowledge of the doctrine was getting lost.
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○ A council was formed at Pataliputra where eleven scriptures called Angas were and the remnant of
fourteen purvas was written down in the 12th Anga, Ditthivaya by the adherents of Sthulbhadra.
○ Split in Jainism:When Bhadrabahu left for South India,Sthulabahu remained in the North with
his followers. Sthulabahu changed the code of conduct and said that white clothes could be worn.
Thus, split Jainism into two sects:
➢ Swetambaras:White-clad; Northerners dress. Wear white
➢ Digambaras:Sky-clad (Naked); Southerners
Jain Councils:
● When followers of Bhadrabahu returned, there was a dispute between them regarding the authenticity of
the Angas.
○ Also, those who stayed at Magadha started wearing white clothes which was unacceptable to the
other who remained naked. This is how the Digambara and Svetambara sect came about.
● The second Jain Council was held at Vallabhi (Gujarat) in 512 A.D. and was presided over by Devardhi
Kshamasemana.
○ The purpose of this Council was to collect the sacred texts and write them down systematically.
However this time the 12th anga drawn at the first Council needed to be recovered. All the
remaining angas were written in Ardhamagadhi.
Royal patrons of Jainism
South India North India
Kadamba dynasty Bimbisara
Ganga dynasty Ajatasatru
Amoghavarsha (Rashtrakuta Dynasty) Chandragupta Maurya
Kumarapala (Chalukya dynasty) Bindusara
Iksavaku dynasty Kharavela
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Contribution of Jainism
● Jainism made the first serious attempt to mitigate the evils of the Varna order.
● It discarded Sanskrit as a language of Brahmins & adopted Prakrit common language Religious literature
started to be written inArdhamagadhiand compiled in the 6th century AD at Vallabhi (Gujrat)
● Adoption of Prakrit helped its growth and thus the development of regional languages,Sauraseni language
(dramatic Prakrit), and Marathi.
● Jains composed earliest works inApbhramsh(non-grammatical language) which is the source for several
regional languages like Kannada.
● Jain literature contains epics, puranas, drama, and novels. Much of this is still in manuscript form
Kalpasutraphilosophy.
Jainism Spread to:
● Kalingain Orissa in thefourth century BC.
● In the second and first centuries BC, it also seems to have reached the southern districts of Tamil
Nadu.
● In later centuries Jainism penetratedMalwa,Gujarat,andRajasthan,andevennowtheseareashavea
substantial number of Jainai who are principally engaged in trade and commerce.
● Parshva, Mahavira's predecessor, had askedhisfollowerstocovertheupperandlowerportionsoftheir
bodies
● Mahaviraasked them to discard their clothing altogether.
Causes of limited spread of Jainism:
● Hard disciple of 5 principles (Panch Mahavrat).
● Preached strict rules and unfeasible methods of life.
● Lack of missionary zeal.
● Agriculture was also not allowed and a large section of people still are connected with agriculture
● Limited royal patronage.
● But Jainism continued to be practiced in the Indian states of Karnataka, Gujarat, and Rajasthan, unlike
Buddhism.
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Other Heterodox Sects:
● AJIVIKA SECT:The Ajivika sect was founded by MakkhaliGosaa. It was popular between 5th and 3rd
century B.C. He preached the doctrine of Niyati (pre-determinism) and denied the theory of karma.
Materialism
● LOKAYATISM:Lokyatism was founded by Charvaka. Itpreached total materialism and did not believe in
Gods.
● UCHCHEDVAD(उच्छेदवाद): Its promoter was Ajita KeshKambali.According to him, everything is destroyed
after death.
● AKRIYAVAD:According to this view promoted by PuranKasayap, there is no fruit of good and bad deeds
of human beings.
● NITYAVAD:Its promoter was Pakudha Kachaiyan. He toldonly seven elements, such as earth, water, fire,
air, happiness, sorrow, and soul (these elements do not interact with one another).
● SANDEHVAD:Its promoter was Sanjay Beluttaputra. Heneither accepted any opinion nor denied any
opinion.
● STHANAKAVASI:It is a sect of Svetambara Jainism foundedby a merchant named Lavaji in 1653 AD. It
believes that idol worship is not essential in the path of soul purification and attainment of
Nirvana/Moksha. Svetambarins who are not Sthanakavasins are mostly part of the Murtipujaka sect.
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Ancient History
Lecture 16: Mahajanapada Period
Sources of Pre-Mauryan History
● Therearetwotypesofsources-LiteraryandArchaeological.Theliterarysourcesincludereligiousaccounts
of Brahmins and non-Brahmins like the Buddhists and the Jains and non-religious accounts of Indian
scholars and foreign accounts.
● List of Religious works:
○ Brahmin Literature includes:
➢ Upanishads,
➢ Six Vedangas:
❖ Shiksha:Phonetics of Science of Pronunciation,
❖ Kalpa:Rituals and ceremonies
❖ Vyakarana:Grammar
❖ Nirukta:Etymology (Origin of words)
❖ Chhanda:Metrics, rules of poetic composition
❖ Jyotisha:Astronomy
➢ Sutra literature likeKalpa Sutra, theShrauta Sutra,Griha SutraandDharma Sutra.
❖ BrahminliteraturehasbeenwrittenwithkeepingthehigherVarnasofthesociety
at the centre while the lower Varnas have been disregarded
○ Buddhist Literature includes:
➢ Tripitaka is importantasSutapitaka,VinayapitakaandAbhidhammaPitaka.Apartfrom
Tripitaka, the Anguttara Nikaya, the Digha Nikaya, etc. throw a special light on this
period's political, economic, and social system.
➢ Written inPali language.
○ Jain literature includes:
➢ Bhadrabahu Charit.
➢ Kalpa Sutra (The Kalpa Sutra is a Jain text containing the biographies of the Jain
Tirthankaras, notably Parshvanatha and Mahavira.)
➢ Bhagavati Sutra, written in Prakrit. Above all, Buddhist and Jain literature reflect an
alternative view in historiography. It throws light on the lower castes of society.
● List of Non-Religious works:
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○ Non-religious literature includes:
○ Kautilyas Arthashastra because some part in Kautilya s Arthashastra is of pre-Mauryan
period.
○ Panini's Ashtadhyayi which is a book on grammar, associated with vyakaran, is the
foundational text of the Vyakarana branch of the Vedanga).
○ Foreign literature: Some Greek writers have also highlighted the history of the North West.
Herodotus, Niryakus, Cassius, and Onesicritus (He claimed to have been the commander of
Alexander's fleet) are a few of the most notable Greek writers.
➢ They came with Alexander, who threw light on the region of North West India, likethe
wordSandrocotes,usedbytheGreekwriter,wasidentifiedwithChandraguptaMaurya
by William Jones,and then the history of Indian historyitself was solved.
● Archaeological source:
○ Northen Black Polished Ware culture: It is associated with the
Mahajanapada period.
○ Punch Marked Coins: These date back to aroundthe5thcentury
BCE. These currencies were made of silver and copper and many
types of pictures were inscribedonthem.Thesecoinswereissued
by trading corporations (Shrenis), not by dynasties.
The transition from Chiefships to Kingdoms:
Janapadas Mahajanapadas Ganasanghas
● Janapada literally means ● They are larger and more ● These are republics where
the place where a group of powerful than janapadas, political power was shared
people, or a tribe/clan and their rulers exercised among a group of elite
(jana) place their foot greater power and enjoyed families or clans, rather
(pada). more prominence than the than being concentrated in
● Janapadas - well-defined rulers of the janapada a monarchy, and were
territories inhabited by characterized by collective
people over whom ruled a decision-making through
political authority. assemblies.
What were the Mahajanapadas?
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● The term *Mahajanapada* combines "Maha" (great realm) and "Janapada," (foothold of a tribe or
country).Inthe6thcenturyBCE,northernIndiasawtheriseoflargeterritorialstates,bothmonarchies
and republics.This era marks the beginning of India'spolitical history.
○ Northern India was fragmented into small independent states, lacking political unity,withrulers
often engaged in conflicts for power and economic gain.
● The Mahajanapadas existed from around 600 BCE to 550 BCE, spanning from the Kabul Valley in the
northwesttothebordersofBengalintheeast,andfromthefoothillsoftheHimalayasinthenorthto
the Godavari River in the south.
○ Most Mahajanapadas were monarchies, primarily located in the Gangetic basin while republican
states were found at the foothills of the Himalayas, to the northwest of the monarchies.
○ The extensive use of iron, agricultural expansion, and urbanization - contributed to the rise of
these territorial states - evolving from the tribal political structures of the Vedic period.
● Mahajanapadas literally means ''Great Kingdoms." In the sixth century BCE, there was a rise in the
development of a few kingdoms that became prominent and earned the name Mahajanapada, or great
country.
○ TheyextendedfromnorthwesternPakistantoeasternBiharandfrommountainousregionsofthe
Himalayas to the river Godavari in the south. This was the period of second urbanisation
th
● The four Mahajanapadas - Magadha, Kosala, Avanti, and Vatsawerevyingforsupremacyfromthe6
th
century BC to the 4 century BC. Magadha is situated in modern Bihar, the most powerful state in
ancient India.
○ Jarasandha,whowasadescendantofBrihadratha(eldestofthefivesonsofVasu,theKuruking
of Chedi) founded the empire in Magadha.
There were two types of states:Monarchical and Republican.
○
➢ Malla, Vajji, Kamboja and Kuru wereRepublican states.
➢ Magadha, Kosala,Vatsa,Avanti,Anga,Kashif Gandhara,Shursena, Chedi,andMatsyawere
monarchical in nature.
Reasons behind the Transformation of Janapadas into Mahajanapadas:
● Janapadas with the availability ofiron toolscould have made better types of war tools.
● The janapadas whose economic basewasstrongandtheavailabilityofresourceswashigh,movedahead
by suppressing their neighboring janapadas.
● Surplus productionwhich further supportstrade and commerce.
● Emergence of large towns.
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● Rise of military power.
● The idea of territorial states came into existence.
Literary and Archaeological Sources on the Mahajanapadas:
Anguttara Nikaya’s List of Mahajanapadas:
● Kasi (Kashi)
● Kosala (Koshala)
● Anga
● Magadha
● Vajji (Vrijji)
● Malla
● Chetiya (Chedi)
● Vamsa (Vatsa)
● Kuru
● Panchala
● Machchha (Matsya)
● Shurasena
● Assaka (Ashmaka)
● Avanti
● Gandhara
● Kamboja
Bhagavati Sutra's List of Mahajanapadas:
● Anga
● Banga (Vanga)
● Magaha (Magadha)
● Malaya
● Malava
● Achchha
● Vachchha (Vatsa)
● Kochchha
● Ladha (Lata or Radha)
● Padha (Pandya or Paundra)
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● Bajji (Vajji)
● Moli (Malla)
● Kasi (Kashi)
● Kosala
● Avaha
● Sambhuttara
Mahavastu’s List of Mahajanapadas:
● Similar to Anguttara Nikaya's list but substitutes Shibi (in Punjab), andDasharna(incentralIndia),
replaces the north-western states of Gandhara and Kamboja.
Characteristics of Mahajanapadas:
● Monarchies were concentrated on the Gangetic plain.
● Republics were located on the foothills of the Himalayas.
● Emergence of Mahajanapadas linked with second urbanization.
● The monetary economy came into existence.
● Trade and commerce got well established.
● The social division took a defined shape.
● New and non-orthodox sects came into light like Buddhism and Jainism.
Details on Mahajanapadas:
● Anga Mahajanpada:
○ Anga, corresponding to present-day Bhagalpur and Monghyr districts of eastern Bihar, had its
capital at Champa, near modern Champanaqara or Champapura.
○ Champa, a major commercial center in the 6th century BCE, was strategically located at the
confluence of the Ganga and Champa rivers.
○ Excavations revealed defensive fortifications, including a moat, around the city. Merchants from
Champa sailed to Suvarnabhumi, possibly referring to Southeast Asia.
● Magadh Mahajanpada:
○ ThekingdomofMagadhawastobecometheforemostpoliticalentitybythe4thcenturyBCE.
The kingdom roughly covered the areas ofmodern-dayPatna and Gaya districts of Bihar.
○ ItwasboundbytheGanga,Son,andChampariversonthenorth,west,andeastrespectively
and theVindhyan rangeon thesouth.
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○ Its first capital was Girivraja or Rajagriha which later became Rajgir. This city was closely
associatedwiththelivesoftheBuddhaaswellasMahavira.Howeverlater,itscapitalshifted
to Pataliputra, often associated with modern Patna.
○ Excavations at Rajagriha have revealed several defense structures like stone fortification walls
dating to about the times ofBimbisara and Ajatashatru,i.e., the 6th-5th centuries BCE.
○ In the Rig Veda, a territory calledKikatais mentioned,ruled by a chieftain namedPramaganda.
Yaska (Nirukta VI. 32) identifies Kikata as a non-Aryan land. In later texts, Kikata is
○
synonymouswithMagadha(e.g.,AbhidhanaChintamaniandBhagavataPurapaI.3.24).Sridhara
locates Kikata in the Gaya. The name Magadha first appears in the Atharva Veda.
○ BrahmanicaltextsportrayedtheMagadhansaspeopleofmixedoriginwhodidnotadheretothe
varna system or Brahmanical rituals, while Buddhist tradition h
olds the area in high regard, as
Buddha attained enlightenment there and often visited Rajagriha.
○ Magadhan rulers like Bimbisara and Ajatshatru were followers of Buddha, and thekingdom's
fertile lands, iron ore resources, and open social structure made it a dominant power.
○ Magadha'scontroloftheGanges,Gandak,andSonrivertraderoutesprovidedsignificantrevenue,
and Bimbisara governance was village-based, as suggested by his assembly of 80,000 village
leaders, though this number may be exaggerated.
● Kasi Mahajanpada:
○ ThekingdomofKashi,oneoftheearliestmahajanapadas,waslocatedbetweentheVarunaandAsi
rivers, with its capital Varanasi on the Ganga.
○ The Jatakas mention a long rivalry between Kashi and Kosala, which ended when Kosalan King
Prasenajit absorbed Kashiintohiskingdom.Today,KashicorrespondstotheareaaroundBenaras
in Uttar Pradesh.
● Surasena Mahajanapada:
○ The Surasenas were based in the Yamuna d oab region with their capital at Mathura. Buddhist
traditionmentionsKingAvantiputra,aBuddhistdisciple,suggestingamatrimonialalliancebetween
the Surasenas and Avanti.
○ Mathura wasakeytradehub,linkingnorthernIndiatotheDeccanandthewesterncoastGreek
writers refer to the Sourasenoi and their cities Methora and Cleisobora.
○ The Mahabharata and the Puranas describe the Mathura ruling family as the Yadu or Yadava
family. Yadu and his tribe are frequently mentionedin the Rig Veda.
● Panchala Mahajanapada:
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○ The Panchala mahajanapada spanned the Rohilkhand area. The Bhagirathi (Ganges) divided
NorthernandSouthernPanchalaintotwocapitals:AhichchhatrainthenorthandKampilyainthe
south.
○ Initially a monarchy, Panchala later adopted a non-monarchical government. Key urban centers
included Kanyakubja (Kanauj).
○ Ancient texts like the Mahabharata, Jatakas, and Divyavadana mention Panchalas' division into
northern and southern regions.
● Kuru Mahajanapada:
○ The Kurus were located in the Ganga-Yamuna Doab region, with their capital Indapatta or
Indapattana, identified with Indraprastha or Indraprasth near modern Delhi.
○ Initially, Hastinapura was their capital until a flood ledtoitsrelocationtoKaushambi.TheKuru
kingdom, ruledbytheYudhishthirafamily,wasamonarchyduringthetimeoftheBuddha,later
transitioning to a ganasangha.
● Matsya Mahajanapada:
○ The Matsyas were located in the eastern parts of present-dayRajasthan,includingareasaround
Jaipur, Alwar, and Bharatpur.
○ Their capital was Viratnagara (modern Vairat), named after their founder, King Virata. Buddhist
texts often link the Matsyas with the Surasenas.
○ The Matsya kingdom was probably annexed by theneighboringkingdomofChediatsomepoint.
Mahabharata mentions a king named Sahaja who ruled both Chedi and Matsya. Matsya was
eventually absorbed into the Magadhan Empire.
● Chedi Mahajanapada:
○ Chedi was one of the regions encircling theKurus(MahabharataIV.1.11)andislocatednearthe
Yamuna River. It roughly corresponded to modern Bundelkhand and nearby areas.
○ The Vedabbha Jataka notes that the road from Kasi to Chedi was unsafe due to bandits.
● Avanti Mahajanapada:
○ Avantihadtwocapitals:Ujjaininthenorth(onthebanksoftheShipraRiver)andMahishmatiin
the south (modern Maheshwar), divided by the Narmada River and located in present-day Malwa.
○ Founded by theHaihayaclanoftheYadus,itdevelopedstrongironworkingandfortificationsdue
to its proximity to iron mines in eastern Madhya Pradesh.
○ UjjaineventuallysurpassedMahishmatiinimportancebythe5thcenturyBCE.Avantiwasamajor
rival of Magadha, and after a century-long struggle, Magadha Finally subjugated it.
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○ King Pradyota, a contemporary of the Buddha, was powerful enough to intimidate Ajatashatru.
However, his successors were weak, leading to Avanti's conquest by Magadha.
● Gandhara Mahajanapada:
○ Located in the modern-day Peshawar and Rawalpindi districts of Pakistan, its capital city
Takshasila (Taxila), is a major hub for trade and learning.
● Vatsa Mahajanapada:
○ Vamsa or Vats was a countrywithitscapitalatKausambi,modernKosamnearAllahabad,Uttar
Pradesh.
○ TheSatapathaBrahmanamentionsProtiKausambeya,whomcommentatorHarisvaminidentifiesas
a native of Kausambi. Epic tradition attributes the foundation of Kausambi to a Chedi prince.
● Asmaka Mahajanapada:
○ Assaka was located on the banks of the Godavari River. The name "Assaka" corresponds to the
Sanskrit term "Asmaka," which is identified with Maharashtra by Bhattasvamin.
○ TheJatakamentionsakingofAssakanamedArupaandhisministerNandisena,whodefeatedthe
king of Kalinga in battle. Asmaka is mentioned by Panini and associated with Dakshipatya
(southern region) and Kalinga.
● Kamboj Mahajanapada:
○ Rajapura(modernRajouri)wasthecapital,locatedneartheHindukushmountainsinKashmir.King
Pushkarsarin had friendly relations with Magadha, and according to the Behistun inscription of
Darius, it was conquered by the Persians in the 6th century BCE.
○ The region was known for its excellent horses and skilled horsemen. Initiallyamonarchyinthe
6th century BCE, the Arthashastra later referred to it as a sangha.
● Vrijji or Vajji Mahajanapada:
○ The Vrijji ganasangha, located north of the Ganga in eastern India, had its capital at Vaishali
(identified with Basadh, near Muzaffarpur in Bihar).
○ AprominentmahajanapadaduringtheBuddha'stime,itwasaconfederacyofeightornineclans
that maintained equal, independent status while preserving their identities. Magadha's King
Bimbisara formed marriage alliances with the Vrijjis.
○ Although often described as Kshatriya clans in Buddhist and Jaina texts, they did not strictly
follow varna society and governed through clan assemblies.
Characteristics of this time period (6th Century BCE):
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● Second Urbanization: Marked by the re-emergence of cities and urban life, particularly in the Ganga
Valley.
● Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW): A distinctive type of pottery associated with urbanizationand
trade.
● Punch-markedCoins:TheearliestformofcoinageinIndia,foundinexcavationslikethoseatTaxila'sBhir
mound.
● FlourishingTrade:Extensivetradenetworksdeveloped,bothinlandandwithdistantregions,supportedby
growing urban centers.
● Rise of Buddhism and Jainism: Along with the emergence of various religious sects, reflecting
philosophical and social changes.
● Iron Use: The widespread use of iron tools andweaponscontributedtoagriculturalproductivity,warfare,
and the expansion of trade.
Rise of Magadh: Conflict between four Mahajanpadas
● Kasi under KosalanRule:BythetimeofMahakosala(6thcenturyBCE),Kasiwasfullyintegratedinto
the Kosalan empire.
○ Mahakosala gave a village in Kasi as a dowry when his daughter married Bimbisara, king of
Magadha. Pasenadi (Mahakosalas son) ruled Kosala and maintained control over Kasi.
○ TheBhaddasalaJatakasuggeststhattheSakyaterritory,includingBuddha'sbirthplace,wasunder
Kosala's control.
○ TheSuttaNipataandMajjhimaNikayaalsodescribeBuddhaandtheSakyasasbeingpartofthe
Kosalan realm.
● End of the Period: Bimbisara of Magadha ascended the throne around the same time asMahakosala's
reign. Bimbisara became king at age 15, as mentioned in the Mahavamsa, marking the end of this
historical period.
Society of Mahajanpadas:
● In this period, caste and class were clearly defined. There were four major Varnas in the society -
Brahmins,Kshatriyas,VaishyasandShudras.Theemergenceofanti-cultcanalsobeunderstoodasthe
Brahmin Kshatriya struggle which struggled to achieve the highest level.
● NewsocialclassescameintoexistencelikeGrihapatiandShreni.Asaresultoftheurbanrevolutioninthe
Ganges valley and the remarkable progress in trade and commerce.
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○ TheVaishyaclassbecamethemostprosperousvarnaofthesociety.ThepositionoftheShudrasin
society was pathetic.
○ BelowShudra,anewcategorycametolight.TheChandals,whodealwiththedisposalofcorpses-
Pukkas, Nishad, etc. belonged to this category.
○ Theirconditionwasextremelypatheticandtheywereavoidedbyanykindofcontact,evenbythe
mere shadow and touch of them.
● Condition of Women:
○ The condition of womenintheBuddhistliteraturethattheirconditionhaddeclinedcomparedto
the Vedic period, especially since their social and educational rights were cut.
○ The age of marriage of women wasreducedcomparedtotheVedicperiod.BuddhaandMahavira
also suffered from prejudice towards women.
○ EvenifBuddhagavewomenentryintotheSanghabymakingstrictrulesregardingtheconductof
women, women were placedundermonks,consideringthemtobeinferiortomonks.Jainismtold
that if a woman wanted to Nirvana she had to be reborn as a male.
Economy of the period:
● Agricultural economy: The 6th century BCE saw extensive changes in the agriculturaleconomy.Inthe
central Doab region, forests were cleared, and farming spread. Fire wasalreadybeingusedtocleanthe
forests and it continued even during this period.
○ Theuseofirontoolsmadetheplowingoflandrelativelyeasyalongwithcleaningtheforestslike
iron hoe and iron ploughshare.
nd
○ Surplus production started and it gave a strong base for trade, state formation & 2 urbanization.
Economy. The agricultural surplus paved the way for craft development.
● Craftsmanship: In Buddhist texts, 18 types of crafts are reported. The organization of craftsmen was
called Shreni. The organization oftraderswasNigam(corporation).Theheadofabusinessorganization
(Nigam) was the Jyeshthak or Pramukh. The head of the S
hreni was called the Shreshth. In one
Buddhist text, it is reported that 100 families of craftsmen worked under two jyeshthaks.
○ Role of Shrenis:
➢ Shreniplayedanimportantroleintheeconomiclifeofthisperiod.Thequalityandvalueof
goods were determined by it.
➢ The Shrenis had their own flags, their own separate identities, and also their own seal.
➢ TheShrenishadtheirownlawswhichranparalleltostatelaw.Shrenisusedtoparticipate
in social life.
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➢ ItissaidthatifawomanwantedtojointheBuddhistSangha,shehadtogetpermission
from her husband as well as her husband's Shreni.
● Development of Money Economy:The Punch Marked currencieswere mostly made of silver and Copper.
● Mahajani System (banking system): Buddhism and Jainism recognized Mahajani or money lending.
Therefore, this was a major reason that Buddhism and Jainism also got the support of merchants.
● TradeviaLandroute:ArouteledfromTaxilatonorthAfghanistanandIranandfromtheresilver,gold,
Lapis lazuli, and jade (ornamental mineral) were obtained as raw materials. Taxila and Charasada
(Rajasthan) were important trading centers.
● TradeviaSearoute:ThePalitextsofthisperiodthrowlightonforeigntrade.Thereisamentionofsea
merchantsintheAnguttaraNikaya.Abirdontheirshipcouldgivedirectionsandpointtowardtheland.
It also details the route leading to West Asia. Sandalwood and pearls were important items for trade.
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Ancient History
Lecture 17: Rise of Magadha
Magadhan Empire
● TheMagadhaEmpirewastheepicenteroftheAncientIndia.ItisalsomentionedintheMahabharata
and the Ramayana. It was the most powerful among thesixteen mahajanapadas.
● TheempirewasestablishedbyKingBrihadrathaand
his son Jarasandha. Rajgir was the capital of
Magadha but was later shifted to Pataliputra in the
4th century BCE.
● The term "Magadha," first mentioned in the
Atharvaveda, reflects the region's non-Aryan origins
anditsresistancetoconventionalBrahmanicalnorms,
further demonstrating its unique socio-cultural
identity.
● Kikata was an ancient kingdom. It is believedthat
they were the forefathers of Magadhas because
KikataisusedasasynonymforMagadhainthelater
texts. Magadha was ruled by different dynasties.
● According to Puranas and Mahabharata, Brihadratha was the king of Magadha the founder of the
Brihadratha dynasty. Jarasandha was the most famous king.
Causes for the Rise of Magadha
● Geographical location: Various hills and extensive natural wealth. On this basis, it couldnotonlyavoid
directattacksbyenemiesbutcouldalsoresistlong-termattacks.Pataliputra,thecapitalofMagadha,was
like a water fort at the confluence of the Ganges, Gandaka, and Son rivers.
● Abundantresources:Theironreservesavailableinthisareaweresuccessfullyusedforthemanufacture
of weapons and agricultural tools. The availability of Timber encouraged construction work. Theregion's
fertileandwell-irrigatedlandallowedforsurplusproduction,whichwasbolsteredbyitsabundanceof
resources, including thick forests for timber, extensive grasslands, and a large population of elephants.
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● Strongarmy:AnadequatenumberofwildelephantsestablishedastrongGajaArmy.Magadhawasalsoin
an advantageous position in terms of iron reserves. They had strong standing armies.
● Socio-culturaladvantages:Socialreadinessandanti-conservativeswereimportantintheriseofMagadha,
as the region of Magadha remained outside the influence of the Aryan civilization.
● Rise of powerful rulers: The ambitiousrulersofMagadha,includingBimbisaraandAjatashatru,andthe
patronage of Chandragupta Maurya, who supported non-orthodox beliefs, significantly contributed to the
region’s growth. Notably, Emperor Ashoka’s adoptionofBuddhismhighlightedMagadha’sprogressiveand
inclusive approach to religion, which contrasted with the conservative Brahmanical traditions of the time.
● Development of trade and commerce: Due to the multiplicity of rivers, the trade and commerce
importance of the region increased.
The Rise and Growth of the Magadha
Kings of Magadha:
● Haryanka dynasty
○ Bimbisara
○ Ajatshatru
○ Udayin
● Sisunagas
○ Sisunaga
○ Kalasoka or Kakavarin
● Nandas
○ Mahapada Nanda
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○ Dhanananda
● Mauryas
○ Chandragupta Maurya
○ Bindusara
○ Ashoka
Haryanka Dynasty
● ThedynastywasfoundedbykingBhattiya,fatherofBimbisara.Bimbisararuledfrom544BCto492BC.
He was acontemporary of Buddha.
● Marriage alliances helped in building
political alliances and King Bimbisara
married a lot of princessesfromnearby
kingdoms.
○ His wives were daughters of
Kosala king Prasenjit. His 2nd
wife was Challena, a Lichchavi
princess from Vaishali and his
3rd wife was Khemaprincessof
Punjab state (Madra Clan). His
capital at Girivraja (Rajgir).
● The important kings of the Haryanka dynasty are:Bimbisara,Ajatasatru, and Udayin.
Bimbisara (544BC-492 BC)
● Hefollowedapolicyofconquestandexpansion.
The most notable conquest by Bimbisara was
that of Anga.
○ He had an effective and excellent
administrative system. The officers
occupying high posts were divided into
three - executive, military, and
judicial.
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● He was the first king to have a standing army who also started the practice of using matrimonial
alliances to strengthen his political position.
Ajatasatru (492BC-460BC)
● He was the son of Bimbisara and Chellana. He became the ruler after killing his father. Ajatasatru
embraced Buddhism. He convened the First Buddhist Council at Rajagriha just after the death of
Buddha in 483 BC.
● HefollowedanaggressivepolicyofexpansionandwonwarsagainstKosalaandVaishali.Healsofortified
the capital city of Rajgir.
● Ajatasatru also expanded his father's territories
considerably; he annexed Kosala, the Lichchhavi
Republic, Kashi, and Avanti.
○ The battle with the Lichchhavi republic was a
long-drawn-out affair, and we havedescriptions
of some of the military innovations that
Ajatasatru implemented:
➢ One was a catapult that could throw
heavy stones a great distance
(mahashilakantaka),
➢ Anotherwasaself-propelling,coveredchariotthathadrotatingspearsandbladesattached
to its wheels (rathamushal).
Udayin (460 BC to 444 BC)
● UdayinorUdayabhadrawasthesuccessorofAjatasatru.HeshiftedthecapitaltoPataliputra(Patna)
from Rajgrih and built forts ontheconfluenceofGanga&Son.hewasthelastofthemajorHaryanka
rulers.
● Hewaslatersucceededbythreekings-Aniruddha,Manda,andNagadasaka.Theywerelatersucceededby
the Sisunaga dynasty.
Sishunaga Dynasty
● According to Sri Lankan chronicles, the people of MagadharevoltedduringthereignofNagadasakaand
placed an Amatya (minister) namedSishunaga as king.This dynasty ruled from 413 BC to 345 BC.
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● Kalasoka was the viceroy of Kasi beforebecomingkingofMagadha.Graduallyhecametobeassociated
withtheearlyMagadhancapitalGirivraja,orRajgir,andre-establishedthecityVaishaliinnorthBihar.He
annexed Avanti and brought an end to the long rivalry between Magadha and Avanti.
● KalasokawasthesonofSisunaga.HeconductedtheSecondBuddhistCouncilatVaishali.Hewaskilled
in a palace Conspiracy that brought the Nanda dynasty to the throne.
Nanda Dynasty
● The Nanda Dyansty was the first non-Kshatriya dynasty. The founder was Mahapadma Nanda who
usurped the throne of Kalasoka. The dynasty lasted from 345 BCE- 321 BCE.Butitstimeperiodwas
debatable.
● The Nanda dynasty became immensely wealthy. Mahapadma Nanda was called the "first historical
emperor of India."He murdered Kalasoka to become the king. His origins are not clear.
○ AsperthePuranas,hewasthesonofthelastSisunagakingfromaSudrawoman.Aspersome
Jain texts and Greek writer Curtius, he was the son of a barber and a courtesan.
○ He is also called "Sarva Kashtriyantaka" (destroyer of all the Kshatriyas) and "Ekrat". He
conquered many kingdoms including Kalinga and Kosala
● Dhana Nanda was the last Nanda ruler. He is referred toasAgrammesorXandramesinGreektexts.
Alexander invaded North-Western India during his reign.He inherited a huge empire from his father.
○ He possessed a standing army of 200,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalry, 3000 elephants, and 2000
chariots.Hebecameapowerfulrulerbecauseofthis.Heissaidtobeoneofthe8or9sonsof
Mahapadma Nanda.
○ He became unpopular with his subjects owing to an oppressive way of extortingtaxes.Also,his
Sudra origins and anti-Kshatriya policy led to a large number of enemies.
○ Finally, he was overthrown by Chandragupta M
aurya along with Chanakya, which led to the
foundations of the Maurya Empire in Magadha.
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Ancient History
Lecture 18: Mauryan Empire
Foreign Invasions during the Pre-Mauryan Age
Persian Invasion of India:
● Cyrus,thefounderoftheAchaemenidEmpireinancientIraninvadedtheNorth-WesternFrontofIndia
in 550 BC. At that time, many small provinces like Gandhara, Kamboja, and Madra were constantly
fighting one another.
● Atthattime,theBimbisaraoftheHaryankadynastywasrulingoverMagadha.RulerCyrus,Darius,Darius
III, etc were the main
invaders.
○ Cyrus succeeded in
bringingunderPersian
control all the Indian
tribes west of the
Indus like Gandhara.
Punjab and Sindh
were annexed by
Darius I, Cyrus's
grandson.
○ The son of Darius Xerxes, could not move ahead withthefurtherconquestofIndiabecauseof
war with the Greeks. He had employed Indian cavalry and infantry.
Effects of the Persian invasion:
● Trade & commerce grew between India and Iran grew.
● Culturalimpacts:TheKharoshtiscriptwasbroughttonorthwestIndiabythePersians.Someinscriptions
of Ashoka were written inKharosthi script in theseparts.
● Maurayan sculptures like Ashokan pillars.
● Large numbers of Greeks, Persians, and Turks settled in North Western region
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Greek Invasion of India
● Alexander (356 BC - 323 BC) was the son of Philip of Macedonia. He became king in 336 BC.
Alexander had conquered Asia Minor (AsianTurkey)alongwithIranandIraq.Hethenmarchedinto
northwest India from Iran.
○ HehadannexedthewholeofPersia(Babylon)bydefeatingPersianKingDariusIIIintheBattle
of Arbela (330 BC). Alexander was attracted to India's wealth.
○ In northwest India, just before Alexander's invasion, there were many smallrulerslikeAmbhiof
Taxila and Porus of the region of Jhelum (Hydaspes).
○ Ambhi accepted Alexander's sovereignty but Porus put up a valiant but unsuccessful fight.
● AlexanderwassoimpressedwithPorus'sfightthathegrantedhimhisterritoryback.Thebattlebetween
him and Porus is called the Battle of Hydaspes.
● After that,Alexander'sarmycrossedtheriverChenabandannexedthetribesbetweenRaviandChenab.
But his army refused to cross the river Beas and revolted.
○ They were exhausted after years of battles. Alexander was forced to retreat in326BC.Onhis
way back, he died in Babylon in (323) BC aged (32). After his death, the Greek Empire split.
➢ In northwest India,Alexanderleftfourofhisgeneralsinchargeoffourregions,including
Seleucus I Nicator, who would later trade his territories in the Indus Valley with
Chandragupta Maurya. Eudamas was the last General of Alexander in India.
Effects of Alexander’s invasion:
● Alexander'sinvasionaugmentedpoliticalunification
in northern India under the Mauryas.
● ItcreatedtheneedforpoliticalunityinIndiawhich
saw the emergence of Chandragupta Maurya and
his descendants who united India under their rule.
● After the invasion, India and Greece had direct
contact.
● Post the invasion there were Indo-Greek rulers in
the northwest part of India.
● Grecian impact on Indian art can be seen in the
Gandhara school of art.
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● The foreign invasions helped in the political unification of the Indian subcontinent as well as in the
development of trade, commerce, art, and culture.
Mauryan Period (324 – 185 BCE)
● The Mauryan empire is considered the first subcontinental empire that stretchedacrosstheIndian
subcontinentexcludingKerala,TamilNadu,andsomepartsofNorthEastIndia. Itwasaninnovativeand
stable government.
● Sources of Mauryan history:
autilya's Arthashastra
○ K
○ Megasthenes's Indica.
○ Vishakhadutta’s
Mudrarakshasa which is
the story of Amatya
Rakshasa (minister of
Dhana Nande), tactics
used by Chanakya
against enemies of
Chandragupta Maurya.
○ Puranas
○ Buddhist literature
➢ Part of Kuddanikaya of Sutta Pitaka/549 stories
➢ Dipavamsa (Ashoka) | Mahavamsa (CGM)
➢ Divyadana (Ashoka) which is a Tibetan Buddhist text
➢ Ashokavadana
➢ Mahabhasya (CGM)
➢ Milindpanho (CGM))
○ Jatakas
Ashokan Edicts and Inscriptions:
● James Princep deciphered the Ashokan script in 1837. There are:
○ 14 Major/3 Minor rock edicts
○ 7 Major/3 Minor pillar edicts
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○ 3 cave edicts
● Other Inscriptions:
○ Junagarh Rock inscription of Rudradaman(beginningof construction of Sudarshana Lake).
○ Sohgaura copper plate inscriptionGorakhpur.
○ Mahasthan inscription| Bogura, Bangladesh.
● Material Remains:
○ Wooden palace of Chandragupta
○ Northern Black polished ware
○ Punch-marked coins
● Ashokan Edicts and Inscriptions:
○ Kautilya,alsoknownasVishnuguptaandChanakya,wasascholaratTakshashilaandadvisorto
Chandragupta Maurya.
➢ He is credited to have written Arthashastra. It can betranslatedas"politicalscience,"
"economic science," or "statecraft."
➢ It is an ancient Sanskrit treatise on statecraft, political science, economic policy, and
military strategy.
○ It is the science of material well-being. Artha is considered superior to dharma and kama.
Arthashastra
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● Arthashastra was composed, expanded, and added between the 2nd centuryBCE-and3rdcenturyCE
lost after 12 cCE. In 1905 rediscovered byR. Shamasastryas a copy of palm leaves.
○ He worked at Mysore Govt. Oriental Library which was handed over by a priest of Tanjore and
published in 1909) with the first English translation released in 1915 by him.
● It gained global interest in the 21st century, thereby compared withThe Prince of Machiavelli.
Indica
● It was written by Megasthenes, who was a Greek ambassador of Seleucus Nikator. This book did not
survive but some parts were derived and preserved in Greek and Latin works of:
○ Diodorus: He was a historian who describes Alexander's Indian campaign and provides a general
description of India.
○ Strabo:He was a geographer whose books dealt withthe geography of India and Persia.
○ Pliny:He was a Roman scholar who cites Megasthenes's observations. 7.
○ Arrian:HewasastatesmanandsoldierwhoprovidesuswithanaccountofAlexander'scampaign
and also of Admiral Nearchus's voyage back to Babylon.
● It gives a detailed description of India:
○ India is a quadrilateral-shaped country, bound by the ocean on the southern and eastern sides.
○ It contains lengthy descriptions of soil, climate, rivers, plants, and animals (including elephants,
horses, and monkeys).
○ It produces, has an administrative setup, has a society, has legends, and folklore, etc.
○ The Greeks referred to the Indians' worship of LordKrishnaandaddressedhimasDionysusand
Herakles/Hercules.
➢ HementionedthatfaminehasnevervisitedIndiaandneitherthefoodscarcity.Asperhis
observation even in wartime, the cultivated fields will not be destroyed.
➢ HewasimpressedbythecontentmentandprosperityofthepeopleofIndia.Heportrayed
Indians as honest (since theft was rare) and having great character and moral values.
➢ InspiredbytheclassificationofEgyptiansociety,Herodotusmentionedtheclassificationof
Indian society into 7 castes such as:
❖ Brahmanas and Shramanas;
❖ Farmers, herdsmen, and hunters;
❖ Artisans and traders;
❖ Soldiers; overseers; and
❖ King's counselors.
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● Major faults of Megasthenes' work:
○ TheuncriticalacceptanceofIndianfolkloreandimaginarycreatures.ItidealizesIndiancultureby
the standards of Greek philosophy.
○ It provides a classification of Indian society into 7 castes Philosophers (Bahmans), farmers,
hunters & pastoralists, artisans, traders, soldiers,overseers,andKing'scounselors.Itwasinspired
by the classification of Egyptian society by Herodotus.
➢ He wrongly mentioned thatIndiansdidn'tknowsmelting.writing,ordrinkingwineatthe
time of sacrifice only. He mentioned that there was no slavery and no occurrence of
famine.
○ Strabo also wrongly states that Indians were ignorant of writing and smelting, and neverdrank
wine except at sacrifices.
Chandragupta Maurya (324/21-298 BCE)
● TheMauryadynastywasfoundedbyChandraguptaMaurya,whobelongedtoanordinaryfamily.Hisorigin
is considered as Ambiguous:
○ He was born ofMura - a shudra womanin the courtof the Nandas- as per Brahmanical texts.
○ TheearliestBuddhisttraditionspeaksoftheexistenceofaKshatriyaclancalledMauryanlivingin
the region of Gorakhpur adjoining the Nepalese Terai. (Digha Nikaya, Mahavamsa, Divyadana).
● ByextendingintothekingdomofMagadhaintheIndo-GangeticPlainontheeasternsideoftheIndian
subcontinent, the empire had its capital city at Pataliputra (modern Patna) with p rovincial capitals at
Taxila and Ujjain.
○ The empire was the largest to have ever existed in the Indian subcontinent, spanning over 5
million square kilometers at its zenith under Ashoka.
○ HetookadvantageoftheNandasinthelastdaysoftheirrule.WiththehelpofChanakya,whois
known as Kautilya, he overthrew the Nandas and established the rule of the Maurya dynasty.
➢ His machinations of Chanakya against Chandragupta's enemies are described in detail in
the Mudrarakshasa, a play written by Vishakhadatta later in 5th c. CE and
Parshsishtparvan of Hemachandra.
● ChandraguptathusbuiltupavastempirethatincludednotonlyBiharandsubstantialpartsofOrissaand
Bengal but also western and north-western India, and the Deccan.
○ Chandraguptaliberatednorth-westernIndiafromtheclutchesofSeleucusNikator,whoruledover
the area west of the Indus.
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○ Eventually,peacewasconcludedbetweenthetwo,andinreturnfor500elephants,Seleucusgave
himnotonlyhisdaughter(Barentice)butalsoArachosia(Kandahar)andGedrosia(Balochistan),
and Paropamisadae (Gandhara).
➢ SeleucusNikatorwasAlexander'sGeneral.HegotcontrolofEasternAsiaticprovincesafter
Alexander's death.
❖ Seleucus Nikator sent Megasthenes as an ambassador, who later wrote Indica.
Greek Scholars
● Greek scholars called Chandragupta Maurya as Sandrocottus. T
hey wrote about the meeting of
Chandragupta Maurya and Alexander. He also mentioned the battle between Chandragupta Maurya and
Seleucus Nikator in 301 BC.
● Chandragupta Maurya defeatedSeleucusNikatorandwasforcedtoyieldArachosta(Qandahar);Gedrosia
(South Balochistan) and Parapomisadai (including Kabul,Herat,andGandhara).Inreturn,Chandragupta
Maurya gave him 500 elephants
Spread of Jainism
● Spread of Jainism during Chandragupta
Maurya's time:
○ The spread of Jainism in Karnataka is
attributed to Chandragupta Maurya
(322-298) BC).
○ TheemperorbecameaJaina,gaveuphis
throne, and spent the last years of his
life in Karnataka as a Jaina ascetic.
○ He also performed Sallekhana, also
known as Santhara, which meansdeath
by fasting. His teacher wasBhadrabahu.
Mauryan Dynasty Timeline
324/21-298 BCE Chandragupta Maurya
BCE Bindusara
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BCE Ashoka
BCE Dasharatha
BCE Samprati
BCE Shalishuka
BCE Devavarman
BCE Satadhanvan
BCE Brihadratha
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Ancient History
Lecture 19: Mauryan Empire (Part 2)
Mauryan Dynasty Timeline
Timeline Kings
324/21-298 BCE Chandragupta Maurya
298-272 BCE Bindusara
268-232 BCE Ashoka
232-224 BCE Dasharatha
224-215 BCE Samprati
215-202 BCE Shalishuka
202-195 BCE Devavarman
195-187 BCE Satadhanvan
187-180 BCE Brihadratha
Mauryan Kings:
Bindusara (Amitraghata- 298-272 BCE)
● Bindusara succeeded Chandragupta Maurya. Bindusara's life is not documented. Information about
Bindusara comes from legendary accounts written several hundred years after his death. Bindusara
consolidated the empire created by his father.
● Buddhist sources (mostly silent on Bindusara) that provide information about Bindusara include
Divyavadana, Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa, and the 16th-century writings of Taranatha.
● The Jain sources include the 12th-century Parishishta Parvan by Hema Chandra and the 19th-century
RajavaliKathabyDevachandra.TheHinduPuranasalsomentionBindusaraintheirgenealogiesofMauryan
rulers. Mahabhasya refers to him as Amitraghata (killer of enemies).
● Deimachus was a Greek ambassador at his court. He had appointedhisson,AshokaastheGovernorof
Ujiain. He joined the Ajivika sect (Niyati doctrine of absolute determinism that there is no free will),
founded by Makkali Gosala.
● Bindusara is believed to have extended the Mauryan Empire to Mysore as well. Ashoka was his successor.
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Emperor Ashoka
● Sources of information about Ashoka:
○ Buddhist source and
○ Ashoka's edicts.
● James Prinsep, a British antiquary and colonial administrator was the first person to decipher Ashoka's
edicts. Ashokavadana (Sanskrit) written in the second century AD, Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa (Sri
Lankan Pali chronicles give most of the information about Ashoka.
● Binduara death led to a struggle for succession in 272 BC. Ashoka won in this war & throned in 268 BC.
● AshokawasSonofMauryanEmperorBindusaraandSubhadrangi.HewastheGreatestrulerofMauryaas
well as India.
○ ThewarofKalinga(262BC)changedhislife.HewasafollowerofBuddhism.Knownforhis
Dhamma policy.
○ His other names were Devanampiya (Sanskrit Devanampriya meaning Beloved of the Gods) and
Piyadasi. His reign lasted from 268 BC to 232 BC when he died.
● Territory: At its zenith, Ashoka's empire stretched from Afghanistan in the west to Bangladeshinthe
east.
○ It covered almost the whole Indian subcontinent except present-day Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and
modern-day Sri Lanka.
○ Ashoka built many edicts all over India including in present-day NepalandPakistan.Hiscapital
was at Pataliputra (Patna) and had provincial capitals at Taxila and Ujjain.
● Earlylife:Ashoka’sFamily:Ashoka'smother'snamewasSubhadrangi.Hiswife'snamewasDeviorVedisa
who was the princess of Ujjaini.
○ HisothertwowiveswereAsandhimitraandKaruvaki.Mahendra,Tivara(theonlyonementionedin
an inscription), Kunala, and Taluka were prominent among Ashoka's sons.
○ Two of his daughters Sanghamitra and Charumati were known.
● Rise to power: Ashoka was not the eldest son of Bindusara and so was not the heir presumptive.
Bindusara wanted his elder son Susima to be crowned the next king.
○ ButAshokawastrainedinmilitaryandweaponsandshowedgreatskillsasanadministratorwhen
he was made the Governor of Ujjain.
○ In the war of succession that followed Bindusara's death in 272 BC, Ashokaemergedvictorious
aided by his father's ministers.
○ Whenhebecametheking,hewassaidtobebad-tempered,ruthless,andverycruel.Heevenbuilt
a torture chamber to torture his prisoners to death.
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○ Oncehebecametheking,hestartedexpandinghisempirebyconquest.Intheninthyearofhis
reign,hewagedawarwithKalinga(inpresent-dayOdisha).ThebattlewasknownasBattlewith
Kalinga, 262BC/261BCE
● ConversiontoBuddhism:TheBattlewithKalingafoughtin262BCwaspersonallyledbyAshokaandhe
wasabletovanquishtheKalingas.Wholecitiesweredestroyedandmorethanahundredthousandpeople
were killed in the war.
○ Thehorrorsofwardisturbedhimsomuchthathedecidedtoshunviolencefortherestofhislife
and turned to Buddhism.
○ Ashoka's 13th Rock Edict describes the Kalinga war vividly. He nowbecameDharmashoka(the
pious Ashoka) from Chandashoka (Cruel Ashoka).
○ Later Ashoka converted to Buddhism. Moggaliputta Tissa, a Buddhist monk became his mentor.
○ Ashoka even conducted the third Buddhist Council at Pataliputra in 250 BCunderMoggaliputta
Tissa's presidency.
Ashoka’s Dhamma (or Dharma in Sanskrit)
● Ashokaestablishedtheidealofpaternalkingship.Heregardedallhissubjectsashischildrenandbelieved
it was the king's duty to look after the welfare of the subjects.
○ Through his edicts, he said everybody should serve parents, revere teachers,andpracticeahimsa
and truthfulness.
○ He asked everyone to avoid animal slaughter and sacrifice. He expounded humane treatment of
animals, servants, and prisoners.
○ Headvocatedtolerancetowardsallreligions.HesoughtconquestthroughDhammaandnotwar.He
sent missions abroad to spread the word of the Buddha. Notably,hesenthissonMahindaand
daughter Sanghamitra to Sri Lanka.
○ Most of his edicts are written in Pali and Prakrit in Brahmi script. Some are written in the
Kharoshti and Aramaic scripts also.
○ There are some edicts written in Greek as well. The language depends on the location of the pillar.
Ashoka's Dhamma Dhamma
● Dhamma is the Prakrit word for the ● This would be the basis of Ashoka's rule
Sanskrit term 'dharma', which means
religious duty.
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● Ashoka gave up the policy of conquest ● Meaning: the ideal performance of the
through war (digvijaya) and began to social role into which one is borm is a
followapolicyofconquestthroughdharma variation of dharma.
(dhammavijaya). ● Ashokausedthistorefertothevirtueof
● Spreading dhamma became Ashoka's goal the social as well as the individual
in life.
Nature of Dhamma Policy
● The nature of Ashoka's Dhamma policy has been a controversial issue in the historiography of ancient
India. Ashoka's Dhamma was a type of moral and social conduct.
● Factors:
○ Political factors:Use of Dhamma policy instead ofpenal power to keep a vast empire united.
○ Economic Factors:Encouraging the agricultural economyby discouraging animal killing.
○ Cultural factors: An attempt to keep the multilingual, multi-ethnic, and multicommunal empire
connected through religious harmony.
Relevance of Dhamma Policy:
● Soon after independence, the impact of Ashoka's policy of universal fraternity was seen in Jawaharlal
Nehru's personality.
○ He considered thispolicynecessaryfortheunityandintegrityofIndia.ThentheAshokaChakra
was also taken as the national symbol.
● The relevance of Ashoka's Dhamma policy becomes clear given intense religious and social tension in
present-day India too.
● Ashokashoweddeepsensitivitytowardsanimals-birds,andtheenvironment.TheimportanceofAshoka's
pointofviewintermsofenvironmentandbiodiversitybecomescleargiventhepresentdayenvironmental
crises.
○ Duetothisreason,theinternationalmeetingonbiodiversityheldinHyderabadin2012beganwith
the remembrance of Ashok the Great.
○ Above all, in the last nearly 2400 years, the world has progressed immensely on a physical level.
○ But in a moral sense, the world could not progress beyond the Dhamma policy of Ashoka the
Great.
● Ashoka's Dhamma policy has had a profoundinfluenceontheforeignpolicyofindependentIndia,which
has sometimes been expressed as the principles of the Panchsheel or Gujral doctrine.
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Ashoka’s Edicts
● The great Emperor Ashoka, the third monarch of the Maurya dynasty converted to Buddhism after
witnessing the horrific effects of war in Kalinga.
○ He became a champion and patron of Buddhism and strove to spread Dhamma throughout his
empire and beyond.
● He erected pillars and edicts all over the subcontinent and even in modern-day Afghanistan, Nepal,
Bangladesh, and Pakistan to spread the Buddha's word.
● James Prinsep, a British antiquary and colonial administrator was the first person to decipher Ashoka's
edicts.
○ TheseinscriptionsarethefirsttangibleevidenceofBuddhism.Theywerekeptinpublicplacesand
along trade routes so that a maximum number of people would read them.
● More than religious discourses, they talk about the moral duties of the people, how to conduct life,
Ashoka's desire to be a good and benevolent (दयालू) ruler, and about Ashoka's work towards this end.
● These inscriptions can be classified into three:
○ Pillar edicts
ajor rock edicts
○ M
○ Minor rock edicts
Pillar Edicts:
● There are seven pillar edicts. Two types of stones are used:
○ Spotted white sandstone (from Mathura) and
○ Buff coloured sandstone and quartzite (from Amaravati).
● All the pillars are monoliths (carved out of stone).
● Monolithic Pillars:Capital further divided into Threeparts:
○ Inverted lotus or bell
○ Base pedestal
○ Animal with dhamma chakra
○ Capital Design Symmetrical from all 4 directions
● Fragmentsofthesameedictarefoundindifferentplaces.Manypillarsareashighas50feethighand
weighasmuchas50tons.Thepillarsdepictanimalssuchaselephantsandligns,andwheelsandlotuses
which are all significant symbols in Buddhism.
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James Princep (1799 - 1840):
● HewasanEnglishscholar,orientalist,andantiquary.HewasthefoundingeditoroftheJournalofthe
AsiaticSocietyofBengalandisbestrememberedfordecipheringtheKharosthiandBrahmiscripts
of ancient India.
● Around 1836, Princep was able to decipher the inscriptions on rock edicts found around India.
● The edicts in Brahmi script mentioned a king Devanampriya Piyadasi, initially assumed to be a Sri
Lankan King.
Fourteen Major Rock Edicts:
First Edict Declared prohibition ofanimal sacrifice.
Second Edict Medical treatment of humans and animals, planting beneficial medicinal
herbs and roots, fruits, and the digging of wells.
Third Edict MentionPradeshikas,Rajukas,andYuktasandtheirneedforgoingontours
of inspection every five years as part of their other duties, preaching
dhamma, and also adopting a liberal attitude towards Brahmanas and
Shramanas.
Fourth Edict Bheri Ghosha (war drum) was replaced by Dhamma Ghosha and King
Ashoka attached the greatest value to this duty.
Fifth Edict AppointmentofDhammaMahamattas,aspecialcadreofofficialsentrusted
to spread dhamma within the kingdom.
Sixth Edict Mantri Parishad and officers like Pulisani and Pativedakas (reporters).
Seventh Edict Religious tolerance amongst all sects and welfaremeasuresforthepublic
not only in his own kingdom but also in the neighboring kingdoms of
Cholas, Pandyas, and Antiochus in the northwest.
Eighth Edict Royal pleasure tours (Vihara-yatras) were replaced by dhamma tours
(dhamma yatras). Ashoka himself went to Sambodhi at Bodhgaya.
Ninth Edict Criticism of the uselessness of various ceremonies, instead laysstresson
dhamma and moral conduct.
Tenth Edict King desires no more fame or glory.
Eleventh Edict Announces that the gift of dhamma being the best gift of allgiftsand
thePolicyofDhammaisthebestpolicytofollow.Dhammaincludedgiving
respect to elders, and good behavior towards slaves.
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Twelfth Edict Mention of Ithijika Mahamatta (mahamattas in charge of women’s
welfare) and appeals for not only tolerance amongst sects but also for
people to honor and understand the dhamma of others.
Thirteenth Edict The Kalinga war (261 BCE, which occurred in the ninth year after
Ashoka’s consecration) changed his attitude and Ashoka, who was the
worshiper of Shiva, turned towards Buddhism.
Fourteenth Edict Purpose of rock edicts.
14 Major rock edicts (Summary):
● Prohibition of animal sacrifices and festive gatherings
● Measures of social welfare
● Respect to Brahmanas
● Courtesytorelatives,elders,andconsiderationforanimalsAppointmentofDhammaMahamatrasandtheir
duties
● Need for efficient organization for administration
● Need for tolerance among all religious sects
● System of Dhamma yatras
● Attack on meaningless ceremonies and rituals
● Conquest through dhammas instead of wars
● Explanation of Dhamma policy
● Appeal for tolerance among all religious sects.
● Kalinga war, mentions 5 contemporary Hellenic kings
● Inspiration to spend religious life.
Pillar Edicts:
It signifies the axis of the world that separates heaven and earth.
● Lauriya Araraj
● Lauriya Nandangarh
● Rampurva :Bull capital
● Nigali sagar
● Sarnath
● Topra
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● Meerut: shifted to Delhi by Firoz Shah Tughlaq
● Copper inscription:
● Bull capital : Rampurva
● Lion capital: Vaishali
● Kollam pillar: Without capital
They are made of sandstone and are similar in form and dimensions
They are mostly monolithic and lustrous, polished surfaces
They have plain, smooth cylindrical shafts taper slightly upwards to a height of 12-14 m
They are curved on all sides so that they can be viewed from all sides.
Ashokan Inscriptions:
● Inscriptions of Ashoka were written in four different scripts.
○ In the easternpartoftheempire,MagadhilanguageinBrahmiscriptwasused.(Magadhiis
the dialect of Prakrit found in Magadha).
○ In western parts of the Mauryan Empire, Prakrit in kharoshti script was used. Major Rock
Edict XIII contains an extract inGreek and Aramaicas well.
Script Language Area
Greek Greek Afghanistan
Aramaic Aramaic Afghanistan
Kharosthi Prakrit language Pakistan
Brahmi Prakrit language Other Areas
Mauryan Administration
● The Mauryan Empire had an efficient andcentralizedadministrative system.
● The chief source of information regarding administration under the MauryanEmpireisChanakya'swork,
Arthashastra.
● Megasthenes also gives some information in his bookIndica.
The Mauryan Empire as per:
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Megasthenes Pataliputra
● Greek ambassador visited the Mauryan Empire ● Greatest city, Mauryan capital: magnificent
during Chandragupta's reign palaces, temples, parks
● Wrote about his observations and ● Government controlled economy
● Described land of prosperity ● Emperorownedland,rentmoneyfromfarmers
Pataliputra funded government.
Mauryan Administration
● TheMauryanEmpirewasdividedintofourprovinceswiththeimperialcapitalatPataliputra.FromAshokan
edicts, the name of the four provincial capitals were:
○ Tosali (in the east),
○ Ujjain in the west,
○ Suvarnagiri (in the south), and
○ Taxila (in the north).
● AccordingtoMegasthenese,theempireexercisedamilitaryof600,000infantry,30,000cavalry,and9,000
war elephants.
● For internal and external security, there was a vast espionage system there to keep a watch on the
officials. Kings appointed officials to collect faxes from herders, and farmers. traders and craftsmen etc.
● The king was the center of the administrative superstructureandthekingusedtoselectministersand
high officials.
Administrative structure was as follows:
Central Government:
● Mauryan administration was highly centralized. The King was the supreme power and source of all
authority. He was assisted by a Council of Ministers. It was called 'Mantriparishad' and the ministers
were called 'Mantris.' The council was headed by 'mantriparishad-adhyakshya' akin to the Prime
Minister of today.
● Tirthas were the highest category of officials in the administration. There were 18 Tirthas.
● Adhyakshya ranked next only to Tirthas. There were 27 Adhyakshyas.Theyhadeconomicandmilitary
functions.
○ The Adhyakshyas were formed into a secretariat, which was divided into many departments.
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○ Arthashastra mentions many Adhyakshyas for commerce, store houses, gold, ships, agriculture,
cows, horses, city, chariots, mint, infantry, etc.
● Mahamattas also were higher ranking officials. Amatyas were high ranking officials almost like
present-day secretaries. They had administrative and judicial roles.
○ Yuktas:Subordinate officers responsible for the king'srevenue.
○ Rajjukas:Officers in charge of land measurement andboundary-fixing.
○ Sansthadhyasksha:Superintendent of mint (टकसाल)
○ Samasthadhyasksha:Superintendent of markets
○ Sulkaadhyaksha:Superintendent of tolls
○ Sitaadhyaksha:Superintendent of agriculture
○ Navadhyaksha:Superintendent of ships
○ Lohadhyaksha:Superintendent of iron
○ Pauthavadhyakhsa: Superintendent of weights and measures
○ Akaradhyaksha: Superintendent of mines
○ Vyavharika Mahamatta:Judiciary officers
○ Pulisanj:Public relations officers
○ Registrationofbirthsanddeaths,foreigners,industries,trade,manufactureandsaleofgoods,sales
tax collection were under the administration's control.
Area Province Capital
Northern province Uttarapatha Taxila
Western Province Avantipatha Ujjain.
Eastern province Prachyapatha Toshali (Kalinga)
Southernmost province Dakshinapatha Surarnagiri
Central province Magadha Pataliputra (It was also the
headquarters of the entire
kingdom)
Important Officials in Mauryan Central Administration
Bhandagaradhikreta Head of the royal treasury
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Cahapaksha-Patalik Head of the accounting department
Dandapashika Head of the Police department
Khadyakpakika Inspector of the royal kitchen
Mahadandanayak Chief Justice
Mahamahipilapati Controller and executor of Elephantry
Mahanarpati Head of foot soldiers (infantry)
Mahapratihar An official to maintain the royal palace
Mahasandivigrahak An official for post-war conciliation
Mahaswapati Controller or cavalry
Local Administration
● The smallest unit of administration was the village.
○ Head of a village(Gramika): Villages had a lot of autonomy.
○ Pradeshika: Was the provincial governors or district magistrates.
○ Sthanika: Tax collectors working under Pradeshikas.
○ Durgapala: Governors of forts.
○ Antapala: Governors of frontiers.
○ Akshapatala: Accountant General
○ Lipikaras: Scribes
Military Administration
● Thecommander-in-chiefoftheentiremilitarywascalledSenapatiandhispositionwasnexttotheking's.
He was appointed by the king.
● Themilitarywasdividedintofivesegmentsnamely,infantry,cavalry,chariots,elephantforces,navy,and
transport & provisions. The army's salary was paid in cash.
Revenue Administration
● The revenue department chief was called Samharta. Another important official was Sannidhata (treasurer).
● Revenue was collected on land, irrigation, shops, customs, forests, ferries, mines, and pastures.
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● License fees were collected from artisans and fines were charged in the law courts.
● Most of the land revenue was one-sixth of the produce.
Police
● All the main centres had police headquarters. Jail was called Bandhangara.
Espionage
● TheespionagesystemoftheMauryaswaswell-developed.Therewerespieswhoinformedthekingabout
the bureaucracy and markets. There were two types of spies: Sansthana (Stationary) and Sanchari
(Wanderer).
● Gudhapurushas were the detectives or secret agents. They were controlled by the Mahamatyapasarpa.
These agents were pickedfromdifferentsegmentsofsociety.TherewerealsoagentscalledVishakanyas
(poisonous girls).
Transport
● The transport department fixed the width of the chariots, Cattle Tracks, and Pedestrians.
Economy
● Mauryan economy representsthegradualprocessofthedevelopmentintheexpansionoftheagricultural
economy and second urbanization. Measure change was the directinvolvementofthestateineconomic
activity
● Agriculture Economy:
○ The useofirontoolsincreasedinagricultureduringthisperiod.Alargenumberofirontoolshas
been found in Ataranjikheda. Iron made ploughshares were also part of these agricultural tools.
○ The land of the state was called Sita Bhoomi. Slaves and Shudras were also employed in Sita land.
○ Animal slaughter was discouraged in Ashoka's Dhamma policy. Seems to becompatiblewiththe
need for a new agricultural economy.
● CraftandTrade&Commerce:Statehadamonopolyonsomecraftsforexample,weaponmanufacture,
shipbuilding, etc, craftsmen and traders wereorganizedinShreniandNigam.Shrenishadtoworkunder
state control. Uttarapath & Dakshinapath were important trade route.
● Monetary Economy: Monetary Economy and Urbanization: The abundance ofpunch-markedcoinsduring
this period reflects the developed currency economy.
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○ ThesePunchMarkedcoinswerenotissuedbythestatebutbytheNigams.Karshapana&Panna:
names of currency. Important cities: Taxila, Ujjain, Kosambi, Toshali, Champa, Suvarnagiri etc.
Decline of the Mauryan Empire
● After the death of Emperor Ashoka, the Mauryan Empire collapsed withinfivedecades.Therearemany
reasons given by historians for this disintegration of a once mighty empire.
● At its zenith, the Mauryan Empire stretched from Afghanistan in the west to Bangladesh in the east.
● ItcoveredalmostthewholeIndiansubcontinentexceptpresent-dayKerala,TamilNadu,andmodern-day
Sri Lanka. A few years after Ashoka's death, the weakening of the empire started.
● The various reasons for the fall of the Mauryan Empire:
○ The partition of the Empire: After the death of Ashoka, the Mauryan Empire split into two
halves: Western and Eastern Parts.
➢ Thisweakenedtheempire.Kalhana, authoroftheworkRajataranginiwhichisanaccount
ofKashmir'shistorysaysthatafterAshoka'sdeath,hissonJalaukaruledoverKashmiras
an independent ruler. This partition resulted in invasions from the northwest.
○ Highly centralized administration: Historian Romila Thapar is o f the view that the highly
centralizedadministrationundertheMauryasbecameaproblemwiththelaterMauryankingswho
were not as efficient administrators as their predecessors.
➢ PowerfulkingslikeChandraguptaMauryaandAshokacouldcontroltheadministrationwell.
Butweakrulersledtoaweakeningoftheadministrationandultimatelyledtotheempire's
disintegration.
➢ Also, the sheer vastness of the Mauryan Empire meant that there had to be a very
effective ruler at the center who could keep coherent all the regions.
➢ A weakening of the central administration coupled with alargedistancetocommunicate
also led to the rise of independent kingdom.
○ WeakmonarchsafterAshokaThesuccessorsofAshokawereweakkingswhocouldnotcarrythe
burden of the huge empire that was bequeathed to them.
➢ After Ashoka, only six kings could rule over the kingdom for a mere 52 years. The last
Maurya king. Brihadratha was overthrown by his own army commander, Pushyamitra.
➢ Only the first three kings of the Mauryan Empire were men of exceptional abilities and
character. The later kings were no match in quality to their illustrious ancestors.
○ Independence of the Provinces: After Ashoka, under the later kings, the centre'sholdoverthe
vast empire began to disintegrate. This led to the emergence of various kingdoms.
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○ It is already mentioned that Jalauka ruled over Kashmir independently. Kalinga became
independent.
○ According to Tibetan sources, Virasena ruled over Gandharaindependently.Vidarbhabroke
away from Magadha.
○ As per Greek sources, a king named Subhagasena(Sophagasanus)begantoruleoverthe
north-western provinces independently.
○ InternalRevolt:DuringtheruleofBrihadratha,therewasaninternalrevoltledbyhisarmychief
Pushyamitra Shunga in about 185 or 186 BC.
➢ Bana describes in Harshacharita how Shunga killed Brihadratha during an army parade.
➢ ThisendedtheruleoftheMauryasoverMagadhaandthencestartedtheShungadynasty's
rule.
○ Foreign Invasions: During the reign of the first three Mauryan kings, no foreign power tried to
attack India from the north-west as there was a fear of the mighty Mauryan army.
➢ ButafterAshoka'sdeath,thekingdomsplitupintotwo.ThisledtheGreekkingAntiochus
to attack India unsuccessfully.
➢ But in time, foreign tribes attacked and established their kingdoms on Indian soil. The
notable ones were the Indo-Greeks, the Sakas, and the Kushanas.
○ Ashoka’sPolicies:SomescholarssuggestthatAshoka'spoliciesofnonviolenceandpacifismledto
the weakening of the empire.
➢ Since he stopped waging wars, foreign powers were once again tempted to attack the
kingdom. Ashoka gave a lot of importance and effort to the propagation of Buddhism.
○ Brahminical reaction: According to some historians, the Brahmins were unhappy with Ashoka's
unabashed patronage of Buddhism.
➢ He had banned animal slaughter which was a sacrifice conducted by the Brahmins. But
this theory is refuted because many of Ashoka's inscriptions talk of respecting Brahmins.
➢ Also, Pushyamitra Shunga, a general in the Mauryan army was a Brahmin which proves
that they had powerful posts under the Mauryas.
Ashoka’s Death
● Ashokadiedin232BCafterrulingfor40years.Itisbelievedthatafterhisdeathhisempirewasdivided
into western and eastern parts.
● The eastern part was ruled by Ashoka's grandson Dasaratha while the western part was governed by
Samprati (son of Ashoka's blind son, Kunala). The size of his empire in 265 BC was so vast.
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Significance of the Mauryan Age:
● AnewerawasopenedinIndianHistoryaftertheestablishmentoftheMauryanEmpire.Itwasthevery
first time in history that the whole of India was politically united.Inaddition,fromthisperiodhistory
writing became clear because of accuracy in chronology and sources.
● State formation took place in remote areas like theDeccanregionthatformedasolidbaseforcultural
harmony and gave a rich cultural & artistic heritage.
● Become a source of inspiration for further ruler Indian foreign policy finds its roots in this era.
● Welfare state policy concept can be found.
● Ashokahadawell-organisedadministrationSoit'snotsurprisingthatleadersofthenationregardedhim
as an inspiring figure. Even today. Ashoka's Dhamma has its relevance.
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Ancient History
Lecture 20: Mauryan Empire (Part 3)
Saptanga Theory:
● The Mauryan Empire had an efficient and centralized administrative system. The chief source of
information regarding administration under the Mauryan Empire isChanakya's work, Arthashastra.
● Arthashatsra provides us with widespread information about the administration. Megasthenes also gives
some information about the Mauryan administration in his bookIndica.
● ChanakyaporatrysMauryanadministrationasSaptangaSiddhanta.Itmentionstheessentialorgansofthe
State. Kautilya enumeratedseven Prakritis oressentialorgans of the state. They are as follows:
○ Swami (The Ruler)
○ Amatya (The Minister)
○ Janapada (The Territory)
○ Durga (The Fortified Capital)
○ Kosha (The Treasury)
○ Danda (The Army)
○ Mitra (Ally and Friend)
Mauryan system of administration:
● AccordingtoMegasthenese,theempireexercisedamilitaryof600,000infantry,30,000cavalry,and9,000
war elephants.
○ Even though Dhananda had only 3000 war
elephants,Sikanderdidnotdaretoproceedtowards
Magadha.
○ NowwhentheMauryanarmywassoexclusiveand
extravagant,nootherrulerthoughtofattackingthe
Mauryan empire.
● At the centre of the State was the king who exercised
control over all the administrative unitsasperhiswillas
he was the supreme power. To aid the Raja (King), he had a body of council of ministers
(m
ahamantriparishad) under him.
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● Both the Tirthas and Adhyaksha were the were high-rankingofficials.Arthashastramentionsseveral
Adhyakshas to deal with various departments.
Mauryan Society:
● In the Mauryan Society, the Varna system was prominent, with Brahmins and Kshatriyas holding
significant roles.
● During this period, the position of Vaishyas became more prominent due to the growth in trade and
commerce.
○ Additionally, there was anincrease in the numberof untouchablesduring this time.
○ TheChandals,agroupfromtheMauryanera,didnotusetheVarnasystemorpracticeSati,as
indicated by Ashokan edicts.
○ Despite Megasthenes' descriptions of Indian society, which noted the absence of slavery, the
Arthashastra does mention the existence of slaves.Itspecifiesthatnofreemanorevenany
Aryan could be made into a slave.
➢ Additionally,Ashokaninscriptionsusetheterm"Dasa"(slave)butalsoadvocateforrespect
towards Dasas and Bhritakas (servants) in the context ofDhamma.
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Ancient History
Lecture 21: Merchantile Era/Post Mauryan Period
Merchantile Age (200 BC to 300 AD)
● Inthisphase,therewasanabsenceoflargeempires.ThefocusshiftedfromMagadhatoNorthWestern
India.
● There were invasions and the emergence of regional kingdoms along with a new type of government -
joint rule, and subordinate rule.
● The expansion of cities led to the development of urban culture. The development of c raft, trade, and
currency usage was evident.
● During this period, new cultures, doctrines, image worship, and institutionalization of religious activities
took place. New styles were developed in the field of sculpture and architecture.
Situation Post Mauryan Age:
● Following the collapse of the mighty Mauryan Empire, which had once unified much of the Indian
subcontinent,several small states began to emerge.
○ Among these were Kashmir, Kalinga, and the Satavahanas.ThenorthwestofIndiaexperienced
frequentforeigninvasionsduetotheabsenceofastrongempireliketheMauryastoprotectthe
region.
● These invasions fostered significant foreign contact, leading to a flourishing of trade and commerce.
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○ Cultural fusion occurred as Indian culture intermingled with Greek and Iranian influences,
creating new dimensions in political, economic, social, and religious spheres.
○ The northwestregion,inparticular,facedinstabilityduetotheseconstantattacks,resultingina
volatile environment marked by frequent changes and disruptions.
The northwest region of India was of significant importance due to several key
factors:
● Strategic Location:It served as a crucial junction for global trade routes, including the Silk Road, which
connected East and West Asia. This made the region a central point for commerce and cultural exchange.
● Proximity to Fertile Lands:The northwest was near some of the most fertile lands, contributing to its
economic significance and agricultural productivity.
● Trade in Silk:Its location facilitated trade in valuable goods like silk, which was highly sought after and
further integrated the region into global trade networks.
● Political Instability:The region's political landscape was often unstable and prone to conflict, especially in
the absence of a strong, unified leadership. This instability made it vulnerable to invasions and control by
external powers.
● Cultural and Strategic Hub:It acted as a central hub for interactions between East, West, and South
Asia, enhancing its strategic and cultural importance.
● Mostly tribal population:As the region was mostly inhabited by tribals, it was easier for foreign powers
to conquer the region easily without the presence of a powerful king.
● Challenges from the Great Wall of China:Although the construction of the Great Wall of China made
invasions from the north more difficult, the region's strategic position continued to attract attention and
conflict.
Post Mauryan Kingdoms:
Shunga Dynasty (185-73 BCE)
Rulers Timeline
Pushyamitra Shunga 185-149 BCE
Agnimitra 149-141 BCE
Vaso Jyeshtha 141-131 BCE
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Vasumitra 131-124 BCE
Bhadraka (aka Andraka Odruka) 124-122 BCE
Pulindaka 122-119 BCE
Ghosha (aka Ghoshavasu) 119-108 BCE
Vajramitra 108-94 BCE
Bhagabhadra (aka Bhagavata) 94-83 BCE
Devabhuti 83-73 BCE
Background to the Dynasty:
● TheShungaDynastywasestablishedbyPushyamitraShunga,aBrahmincommander-in-chiefofthelast
Mauryan ruler, named Brihadratha.
○ Pushyamitra Shunga killed
Brihadratha while he was
inspecting his troops. It ruled
only a part of the Mauryan
empire.
○ The capital of the Shunga
DynastywasatVidisha.The
Buddhist stupa at Bharhut was built during his p eriod, despite being an orthodox Hindu. The
Brahmin and Buddhist texts term him as a Brahmin commander.
○ Some historians consider the rise of the Shungas as a result ofinternalconflictwhereasothers
call it a brahmanical reaction against Ashoka’s policies and religious ideas.
● Sources:
○ Harshacharita by Banabhatta
○ Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
○ Panini's Ashtadhyayi
○ Kalidas's Malavikagnimitram
○ Divyavadana
○ Taranatha's account
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● Pushyamitra Shunga:
○ Since he was a Brahmin king, Vedic sacrifices like the Ashwamedha, Rajasuya, and Vajapeya
yajnaswere performed.
○ Pushyamitra Shunga was also credited with repulsing the
two attacks of the Greeks and the conquest of Vidarbha
(region of Maharashtra).
➢ ThefirstoftheseattacksfromGreeks,whichwere
repulsed by Pushyamitra Shunga, was under
Demetrius, and another was under Menander.
➢
Pushyamitra is also known to have repelled the
Kalinga's king Kharavela conquest.
○ Some of the evidence says that Pushyamitra Shunga
destroyed many stupas of Ashoka.
➢ HeisalsosaidtohavepersecutedBuddhistmonks
in a large number and contributed toaresurgenceofBrahmanismthatforcedBuddhism
outwards to Kashmir, Gandhara, and Bactria.
➢ He is said to have burned down Buddhist monasteries, destroyed stupas, massacred
Buddhist monks, and put rewards on their heads, but some consider these stories as
probable exaggerations.
❖ But, the stupas of Bharhut and Sanchi were renovated under his reign. A
sculptural gateway in front of Sanchi was built during his reign.
❖ Buddhistscripture,suchasAshokavadana'saccountoftheDivyavadanaandancient
Tibetan historian Taranatha have written about the persecution of Buddhists.
➢ He was challenged by the Greeks and also had an encounter with Vasumitra (son of
Agnimitra).
➢ As per the Puranas, he ruled for 36 years and then died in 151 BCE whereas some
accounts mention the date to be around 149 BCE.
● Agnimitra:
○ He was the next and lastpowerfulruleroftheShungaDynasty.Afterhim,theShungadynasty
started to decline. He was portrayed as a hero in Kalidas's Malavikagnimitra.
➢ Also,theMalavikagnimitraclaimsthattheempireofPushyamitraextendedtotheNarmada
iver in the south. They may also have controlled the city of Ujjain.
R
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○ During this time, Kabul and much of Punjab passed into thehandsoftheIndo-Greeksandthe
Deccan Plateau to the Satavahana dynasty.
○ The ShungasnearlydoubledthediameteroftheinitialstupaatSanchiencasingitinstone,and
built a balustrade and a railing around it.
➢ His court poet was Patanjali who wrote Yoga Sutra and Mahabhashya. He was also the
priest of 2 Ashwamedha Yagya performed byPushyamitra Shunga.
➢ H
e was the next and last powerful ruler of the Shunga Dynasty. Afterhim,theShunga
dynasty started to decline. He was portrayed as a hero inKalidas's Malavikagnimitra.
❖ Also, theMalavikagnimitraclaimsthattheempireofPushyamitraextendedtothe
Narmada River in the south. They may also have controlled the city of Ujjain.
❖ During this time, Kabul and much of Punjab passed into the hands of the
Indo-Greeks and the Deccan Plateau to the Satavahana dynasty.
❖ TheShungasnearlydoubledthediameteroftheinitialstupaatSanchiencasingit
in stone, and built a balustrade and a railing around it.
Last Phase of the Shunga Dynasty:
● Indo-GreeksandtheShungasseemtohavereconciledandexchangeddiplomaticmissionsaround110BCE,
asindicatedbytheHeliodoruspillar,whichrecordsthedispatchofaGreekambassadornamedHeliodorus,
fromthecourtofthe Indo-Greek king Antialcidas at Taxila to the court of the Shunga emperor
Bhagabhadra at the site of Vidisha in Central India.
● He built theBesnagar pillar inscriptionfor Heliodorus at Vidisha. Thelast ruler was Devabhuti.
○ He was killed by his Brahman minister Vasudeva Kanva as per Harshacharita. His Brahman
minister as perHarshacharita.In Central India they werereplaced by Satavahanas.
Kanva Dynasty (73-28 BC)
● The Kanvas were the ministers of theShungasandwereaBrahmin
dynasty. The capital of theKanva Dynasty was Pataliputra.
● The empire was considerably small in size and the majority of the
north-eastern part of the e mpire was captured by the Greeks or
Scythians.
● ThefirstruleroftheKanvadynastywasVasudeva.Hewassucceeded
by his son Bhumimitra. Coins bearing the legend Bhumimitra have
been discovered from the Panchala realm.
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● Bhumimitra ruled forfourteenyearsandwaslatersucceededbyNarayana.Susharmanwasthelastking
of the Kanva dynasty.He was killed by Pulamayi I of Satavahanas.
Chedi Dynasty:
● The Chedi Dynasty, which emerged in Kalinga in the 1st century BCE, is known for its significant
historical contributions.
● The dynasty was founded by Mahameghavarman. The most prominent ruler of the dynasty was King
Kharavela, who reigned as the third Chedi king.
○ Information about Kharavela comes from the
Hathigumpha inscription found at Udayagiri, near
Bhubaneswar.
○ Kharavela is recognized as the most powerful king of
this dynasty and was a notable follower of Jainism.
➢ His reign marked a revival of Kalinga, and he
establishedextensivetradeconnectionswithSri
Lanka, Burma, Thailand, and various East
Asian countries.
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Ancient History
Lecture 22: Mercantile Age/Post Mauryan Period (Part 2)
Satavahana Dynasty (100 BC-200 AD)
● The area around Deccan and Central India was ruled by the Satavahanas. They were the immediate
successor of the Mauryas and ruled for 460 years. They are also called Andhras in Puranas.
● The Satavahana coins had bilingual legends.
Mainly theircoinsweremadeoflead.However,
they also usedcopper, bronze, and potion.
● The name of the kings was written in Prakrit
and it was also the official language of the
dynasty. Edicts of Ashoka mention that
Satavahanas as feudatories of Ashoka.
● The capital of the Satavahana Dynasty was set
up at Pratishthan/Paithan|Amravati
(Dharanikota).
● Famous ruler of the Satavahana Dynasty:
○ Simuka:100-70 BCE
○ Kanha:70-60 BCE
○ Sri Satakarni:1st century BCE
○ Sivaswathi:1st century BCE
○ Gautamiputra Satakarni:2nd century CE
○ Vasishthiputra Pulumavi:2nd century CE
○ Shivaskanda Satakarni:2nd century CE
○ Yajna Sri Satakarni:2nd century CE
○ Vijaya:2nd century CE
● Thereisnoagreedchronologyoftheirorigin.TheSatavahanakingdommainlycomprisedthepresent-day
Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Maharashtra.
More on Satavahana Kings:
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● Simuka:
○ SimukaismentionedinPuranasasthe"first"ruleroftheSatavahanaregime.However,hisname
hasbeenmentionedasSishuka,Sindhuka,Chhismaka,Shipraka,etc.Hedeclaredhisindependence
from Mauryan rule in about 230 BC.
● Kanha:
○ Simuka's brother who succeeded him. Extended the kingdom up to Nashik in the west. His
successor was Satakarni I.
● Shri Satakarni I:
○ HewasSimuka'ssonand KingoftheSatavahanaDynasty.HeconqueredwesternMalwa,Anupa
(Narmada valley), and Vidarbha, taking advantage of the turmoil caused by Greek invasions of
northern India.
○ He also performed Vedic sacrifices. Details of Satakarni I are mentioned in the Nanaghat
inscription by Naganika (wife).
● Hala:
○ He was the 17th ruler of the Satavahana Dynasty. H
e composed Gatha Saptashati (700 erotic
verses in Maharashtri or Paishachi Prakrit).
○ Gunadhya, the author of 'Vrihat Katha' (in Prakrit), was the contemporary of Hala.
● Gautamiputra Satakarni (103-127AD):
○ He was the 23rd rulerandmostfamousruleroftheSatavahanadynasty.HedefeatedtheSaka
Satraps Nahapana. He restocked 8000 coins.
○ He was alsoknownasEkabrahmana,whichmeansapeerlessBrahmana.Hedonatedlandtothe
Buddhist monks, the Mahasanghikas, at Karle and Nashik.
○ His achievements are written in the Nasik cave inscription, built by his mother Gautami Balashri.
● Gautamiputra Satakarni (103-127 AD):
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○ In the Nashik Inscription, he is described as the destroyer of the Shakas, Pahlavas, and the
Yavanas; the uprooter of the Kshaharatas, and the restorer of the glory of the Satavahanas.
○ HeassumedthetitlesRaja-Raja(KingofKings)andMaharaja(GreatKing)andwasdescribedas
the Lord of Vindhya.
● Vashihstaputra Pulamavi:
○ He was the son of Gautamiputra Satakarni. He retained control over Nasik and Pune (Karle)
Mentioned in Ptolemy's Geography. He repaired and enlarged the old stupa at Amaravati.
○ He was the 24th ruler, was married to the daughter of Saka Kshatrapas Rudradaman, but was
defeated by him twice.
○ Pulumavi features in a large number of Satavahana inscriptions and his coins have been found
distributed over a wide area.
● Yajna Sri Satakarni:
○ Inscriptions at Nasik, Guntur and Kanheri mentions about Yajna Sri. He ruled over the whole
Deccan and recovered much of the territory lost to the Western Kshatrapas, and issued silver
coinage, imitating them. He later recovered North Konkan and Malwa from Sakas.
● Pulamayi IV:
○ He was the last Satavahana king and ruled until 225 BCE. Several Buddhist monuments were
constructed at Nagarjunakonda and Amaravati.
○ Satavahanas were finally succeeded by the Ikshvakus in the 3rd century AD.
Administration under the Satavahanas:
● At different times, their ruleextendedtopartsofmodernGujarat,MadhyaPradesh,andKarnataka.The
dynasty had different capital cities at different times, including Pratishthana (Paithan) and Amaravati
(Dharanikota).
● The kingdom fragmented into smaller states by the early 3rd century CE. The Satavahanas were early
issuers of Indian state coinage struck with images of their rulers.
● Theyformedaculturalbridgeandplayedavitalroleintradeandthetransferofideasandculturetoand
from the Indo-Gangetic Plain to the southern tip of India. They supported Brahmanism as well as
Buddhism and patronized Prakriti literature.
● TheyhadtocompetewiththeSungasandthentheKanvasofMagadhatoestablishtheirrule.Later,they
played a crucial role in protecting a huge partofIndiaagainstforeigninvadersliketheSakas,Yavanas,
and Pahlavas.
○ In particular, their struggles with the Western Kshatrapas went on for a long time.
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○ ThegreatrulersoftheSatavahanaDynastyGautamiputraSatakarniandSriYajnaSatakarniwere
able to defeat the foreign invaders like the Western Kshatrapas and stop their expansion.
○ In the 3rd century CE, the empire was split into smaller states and later on, it disintegrated.
● Satavahanas were tolerant rulers. The Satavahana rulers were followers of the Vaishnav religion, but
BuddhistartandarchitectureflourishedagreatdealandresultedinBuddhistmonumentsfromEllora(a
UNESCO World Heritage Site) to Amaravati.
○ They were the first solid d ynasty of south India, who ruled for more than four centuries and
providedpeaceandglorytowardsthehistoryofDeccan,whiletherewasuncertaintyandinstability
in south India.
○ The Satavahana coins, inscriptions, and literature are a rich source of knowledge about their
administrative system.
● The Satavahanas followed the administration guidelines of the Shastras. Their government was less
top-heavy than that of the Mauryans, and featured several levels of feudatories:
○ Rajan, the hereditary rulers
○ Rajas, petty princes who struck coins in their names
○ Maharathis, hereditary lords who could grant villages intheirnamesandmaintainedmatrimonial
relations with the ruling family
○ Maha Senapati, civil administrator under Pulumavi II; governor of a janapada under Pulumavi IV
○ Mahatalavara were the "great watchman"
○ The royal princes (kumaras) were appointed as viceroys of the provinces.
● Representation of King:
○ The Satavahana rulers strived to achieve the ideals outlined in Dharmashastra. The king was
represented as an upholder of Dharma.
○ The Satahavana King is represented as possessing the qualities of mythical heroes like Ram,
Bhima, Keshava, Arjuna, etc. All this was meant to attribute divinity to the King.
○ Several officials helped the king.
➢ Senapati and Amatya
➢ Koshadhyaksha Rajdoot
➢ SpecialofficialscalledUparakshitawerechargedwiththedutyofbuildingcavesetcforthe
monks.
➢ The king was the head of the Government as well as the protector of his people.
○ The people were involved in decision making and their opinions were respectable at every level.
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➢ Public grievances were well heard and there was an effective mechanism of redressalof
their complaints.
➢ Theiradministrativesystemwasfeudal.Theyhaddividedtheirempireamongseveralfeudal
chiefs who managed the land revenue system and looked after the administration.
○ The Satahavanas retained some of the administrative units found in Ashokan times. For example:
➢ the districts were called Ahara.
➢ the officials were called Amatyas and Mahamatyas.
➢ Other officials were known as Senapati, Koshadhyaksha, and Rajdoot.
➢ Therewerespecialofficialscalled'Uparakshita'chargedwiththedutyofbuildingcaves,etc.
for the monks.
● Provincial Governance:
○ The kingdom was divided into provinces and 'Janapadas' for administrative efficiency.
○ The highest officialinaprovincewas'Amatya'orminister.Hisofficewasnothereditary.Menof
proven ability were appointed to this official. Each unit had several villages.
○ The Satahavanas appointed their Senapati as provincial governors. Strong military control in the
Deccan was necessary as the tribal people were not thoroughly and reconciled.
● Village Administration:
○ Rural areas during the Satavahanas were put under the control of Gaulmikas. Gaulmikawasthe
head of a military regiment consisting of 9 chariots, 9 elephants, 25 horses, and 45-foot soldiers.
○ The military character of Satavahana rule is also evident fromtheuseoftermssuchasKataka
and Skandhavaras in their inscriptions.
○ Theseweremilitarycampsandsettlementswhichservedasadministrativecenterssolongasthe
king was there.
○ The towns were administered by a body called the 'Nagar Sabhas' while in villages there were
'Gram Sabhas'.
● Military Administration:
○ There were separate organizations to look after the administration of the towns and the villages.
○ The Military character of Satavahana rule is also evident fromtheuseoftermssuchasKataka
and Skandhavaras in their inscriptions.
○ Thesewerecampsandsettlementswhichservedasadministrativecenterssolongasthekingwas
there. Their army consisted of foot soldiers, cavalry, and elephants.
○ Footsoldiersorinfantrywerethebackboneofthearmyandtheyformedthevanguardandwere
flanked on either side by horses and elephants.
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○ Thesoldiersusedswords,spears,axes,andarmorasweaponsofwar.Theykeptaregimentposted
in each village to maintain peace and order.
○ Theyweremaintainedattheexpenseoftheruralinhabitants.Thus,thevillagewasanimportant
unit in the Satavahana administration.
● Land Grants:
○ Satavahanas started the practice of donating land with fiscal and administrative immunities to
Brahmans and Buddhist monks, which eventually weakened their authority.
○ The earliest inscriptional evidence of land grants in India belongs to the 1st century BC.
○ Position of 'Bhikkhus' (monks) and Brahmanas:
➢ The 'bhikkhus' (monks) and Brahmanas were held inhighesteemandtheytooobserved
and preached high standards of conduct. They were beyond the ordinary laws of the
Government.
➢ The Satavahanas also started the practice of granting tax-free villages to theBrahmans
and Buddhist monks.
➢ The BrahmansandBuddhistmonksinturnusedtomakethesocietypeacefulandstable
with their teachings. The Satavahana kingdom had three grades of feudatories.
Disintegration of the Satavahana Period:
● ThedynastyreacheditszenithundertheruleofGautamiputraSatakarniandhissuccessorVasisthiputra
Pulamavi.
● Thekingdomfragmentedintosmallerstatesbytheearly3rdcenturyCE.Satavahanaempirefragmented
into five smaller kingdoms:
○ Thenorthernpart,wasruledbyacollateralbranchoftheSatavahanas(whichendedintheearly
4th century.
○ The western part around Nashik is ruled by the Abhiras.
○ The eastern part (Krishna-Guntur region), is ruled by the Andhra Ikshvakus.
○ South-western parts (northern Karnataka), are ruled by the Chutus of Banavasi.
○ South-eastern part, was ruled by the Pallavas.
○ Deccan was ruled by Vakatakas.
○ Mysore was ruled by the Kadambas
Political, Administrative, and Economic system under the Satavahanas:
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● The Satavahana Empire had a well-structured political and administrative system, with territory divided
among various officials including Ahars (local rulers), Amatyas (ministers), Mahamatyas (high-ranking
officials), and Mahasenapatis (commanders-in-chief).
○ The king held supreme authority and was seen as the upholder of dharma. In terms of
administration, the rural governance was vested with Gaulmikas, who were part of the military.
Tax-free land grants were often given to Brahmins.
● The Satavahanas improved agriculture through advanced irrigation systems and reservoirs and practiced
plantation agriculture, particularly for paddy cultivation.
● Althoughtheydidnotusegoldcoins,theyusedgoldasbullionandissuedcoinsmadefromlead,copper,
and a mixture of copper and lead known as Potin. They engaged in trade with the Roman Empire.
● Even though initially they were tribals, later they declared themselves to be Brahmins. The society
exhibited both matrilineal and p atriarchal traits; kings sometimes used their mother's name, such as
Gautamiputra Satakarni.
○ However, the prevailingsocietalstructurewaspatriarchal.WhiletheyadheredtoBrahminism,the
Satavahanas also gave patronage to Buddhism.
Indo-Greek Rule
Initial presence of Greeks in India
● They were called BACTRIAN GREEKS because they ruled Bactria. They invaded India in the early 2nd
centuryBC.ThebuildingoftheChinawall&growingpressurefromScythiantribeswerethereasonsto
enter India.
● Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius invaded the Indian subcontinent in 180 BC. Alexander invaded the
northwest part of the subcontinent in 323
BC. One of his generals, Seleucus Nicator,
founded the Seleucid Empire.
○ Seleucus's conflict with the mighty
Chandragupta Maurya. Megasthenes
atChandraguptaMaurya'scourt.Other
Greek residents at Mauryan courts
were Deimachus and Dionysius.
Ashoka's
○ edicts & Kautilya's
Arthashastra provided information
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about Greek populations. They lived in the north-western part of the Mauryan Empire.
○ Mauryas also had departments to take care of foreigners like Yavanas (Greeks) and Persians".
Greeks were called Yavanas (Sanskrit) and Yonas (Pali).
● The Indo-Greek kingdom was ruled from the 11th century BC to the beginning of the first century AD.
○ The kingdom started when Graeco-Bactrian kingDemetrius(sonofEuthydemusI)invadedIndia
around 180 BC.
○ For about 25 years, the Indo-Greek kingdoms were under the Euthydemid rule.
● Indo Greek Rulers:
○ Menander I (Reign: 165 BC-145 BC):
➢ MenanderIwasalsoknownasMinedra,MinadraorMilinda(inPali).Hewasanimportant
Indo-Greek ruler. His capital was Sakala/ Siyalkot (Pakistan).
➢ HewasconvertedtoBuddhismbyNagasena.MilindaPanho(questionofMilinda)recordsa
dialogue between Milinda and the Buddhist sage Nagasena.
❖ Originally written in Sanskrit, only the Pali version is available now.
❖ Inthework,Milindaisdescribedasawise,learnedandcapableking.Attheendof
it, Milinda accepts Buddhism and converts.
● Significance of the Indo Greek Rule:
○ Issued coins
○ Ruler to issue gold coins too. Coins are the source to know about them. They inscribed date
human figures on the coins.
○ Many coins have been found with images of Indian deities also.
○ Also introduced drama/play with use of curtain.
○ Most of the Indo-Greek kings were Buddhists
○ They patronized Buddhism.
○ Greekinfluenceismostlyseeninartandsculpture,particularlytheGandharaSchoolofArt.Greek
artifacts were imp to rewrite Indian history.
Decline of the Indo-Greek kingdom:
● The last Indo-Greek king was Strato II. He ruled the Punjabregionuntil55BC,somesayuntil10AD.
Their rule ended with the invasions of the Indo-Scythians (Sakas).
● ItisbelievedthatGreekpeoplelivedforseveralcenturiesmoreinIndiaundertheIndo-Parthiansandthe
Kushans. But they had very significance place in Indian history.
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Scythians/Sakas
● Yavanas were followed by Sakas. The Indo-Greek rule lasted from about 180 BC till about 55 BC. The
building of the wall of China and tribal conflicts pushed them towards India.
○ The Sakas (also written Shakas), alternatively known as Indo-Scythians, invaded northwest India
in the first century BC onwards. They had five different branches.
● Scythians (referred to as Sakas in Indian sources) were
a group of Iranian nomadic pastoral tribes.
○ In the second century BC, central Asian nomadic
tribes and tribes from the Chinese region invaded
the region of present-day Kazakhstan whose
inhabitants were Scythians.
➢ This promoted the Scythians to move
towards Bactria and Parthia.
● After defeating the Parthian king, they moved towards
India.
○ Scythians who migrated to India are known as
Indo-Scythians.
○ The Sakas's Indian kingdom was much larger
than the Indo-Greeks.
● Rulers of Sakas:
○ Maues (Reign 80BC-65BC):
➢ Maues, also known as Moga was the earliest Indo-Scythian king. He ruled over Gandhara
(present Pakistan and Afghanistan).
➢ He invaded Indo-Greek territories but unsuccessfully. His capital was at Sirkap (Punjab,
Pakistan).
➢ Many coins issued by Maues have been found. They contain Buddhist and also Hindu
symbols.
➢ The languages used in these coins were Greek and Kharoshti. His son Azes I acquired the
remaining Indo-Greek territories by defeating Hippo stratos.
○ Chastana (Reign 78AD – 130AD):
➢ He was a Saka ruler of the Western Kshatrapas (Satraps) dynasty who ruled over Ujjain.
➢ The Saka Era is believed to have started at his ascension to power in 78 AD. Ptolemy
mentions him as"Tiasthenes"or"Testenes".
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➢ HewasthefounderofoneofthetwomajorSakaKshatrapadynastiesinnorthwestIndia,
the Bhadramukhas.
➢ The otherdynastywascalledWesternSatrapsandincludedthekingNahapana(whowas
defeated by Satavahana king Gautamiputra Satakarni).
❖ TheoriginoftheShakaeraishighlycontroversial.ThebeginningoftheShakaera
is now widely equated to the ascension of king Chashtana in 78 CE.
★ Hisinscriptions,datedtotheyears11and52,havebeenfoundatAndhau
in Kutch region.
★ These years are interpreted as Shaka years 11 (89 CE) and 52 (130 CE).
❖ A previously more common view was that the beginning of the Shaka era
corresponds to the ascension of Kanishka I in 78 CE.
★ However, the latest research by Henry Falk indicates that Kanishka
ascended the throne in 127 CE.
★ Moreover, Kanishka was not a Shaka, but a Kushana ruler.
○ Rudradaman I (Reig 130AD-150AD):
➢ He is considered the greatest of the Saka rulers. He is from the Western Kshatrapa
dynasty. He was the grandson of Chastana.
➢ His kingdom included Konkan, Narmada valley, Kathiawar, other parts of Gujarat and
Malwa. He conducted the repair work of the Sudarshana Lake at Kathiawar. (Built by
Pushyagupta the provincial ruler of Chandragupta Maurya).
➢ He wroteJunagarh inscription- first inscription in Sanskrit- Described Sudarshana lake.
➢ He assumed up title of Makakshatrapa after becoming king. He maintained marital
relationships with the Satavahanas. Vashishtiputra Satakarni was his son-in-law.
➢ He was a victorious king who also regained through conquests most of the territories
previously under Nahapana. He supported Sanskrit literature and cultural arts.
➢ The Saka Empire started declining after their defeat at the hands of the Satavahana
Emperor Gautamiputra Satakarni.
❖ TheSakaruleinnorthwestIndiaandPakistancametoanendafterthedeath
of Azes II (12 BC) when the region came under the Kushanas.
❖ In western India,theirrulecametoanendinthe4thcenturyADwhenthelast
Western Satrap SakarulerRudrasimhaIIIwasdefeatedbyChandraguptaIIofthe
Gupta dynasty.
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Ancient History
Lecture 23: Mercantile Age / Post Mauryan Period (Part 3)
Post- Mauryan Empire:
Indo-Parthian Empire:
● The Indo-Parthian Kingdom, also known as the Suren
Kingdom, was a Parthian kingdom founded by the
Gondopharid branch of the House of Suren.
○ Attheirzenith,theyruledanareacoveringpartsof
eastern Iran, variouspartsofAfghanistan,andthe
northwest regions of the Indian subcontinent
(parts of modern Pakistan and northwestern India).
○ The kingdom was founded when the Parthian
g overnor Gondophares declared independence from
the Parthian Empire.
➢ He would later make expeditions into the west, conquering territory from the
Indo-Scythians and Indo-Greeks, thus transforminghis kingdom into an empire.
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● The domains of the Indo-Parthians were greatly reduced following the invasions of the Kushans inthe
second half of the 1st century.
○ The Indo-Parthians are noted for constructing the Buddhist monastery Takht-iBahi (UNESCO
World Heritage Site).
● GondopharesIoriginallyseemstohavebeenarulerofSeistaninwhatistodayeasternIran.Around20-10
BC, he made conquests in the formerIndo-Scythiankingdom,perhapsafterthedeathoftheimportant
ruler Azes.
○ Gondophares called himself "King of Kings", a Parthiantitlethatinhiscasecorrectlyreflects
that the Indo-Parthian empire was only a loose framework.
○ Many smaller dynasts certainly maintained their positions during the Indo-Parthian period.
○ AfterthedeathofGondopharesI,theempirestartedtofragment.ThenameortitleGondophares
was adapted by Sarpedones, who became Gondophares II and was possibly the son of the first
Gondophares.
○ TherewereotherminorkingsButtheIndo-ParthiansneverregainedthepositionofGondopharesI,
and fromthemiddleofthe1stcenturyADtheKushansunderKujulaKadphisesbeganabsorbing
the northern Indian part of the kingdom.
● TheIndo-ParthiansmanagedtoretaincontrolofSakastan(EasternIran),whichtheyruleduntilthefall
of the Parthian Empire by the SasanianEmpire(IranianEmpire).ThecityofTaxilaisthoughttohave
beenthecapitaloftheIndo-Parthians.LargestratawereexcavatedbySirJohnMarshallwithaquantity
of Parthian-style artifacts.
○ We do not know the religion of the Indo Parthians although we know they were in religious
conflict with the Zoroastrians.
○ Unlike the Indo-Greeks or Indo-Scythians, there are no explicitrecordsofIndo-Parthianrulers
supporting Buddhism.
○ Coins of the Hindu deity Shiva have also been found issued in the reign of Gondophares I.
Kushana Empire:
● Kushanas are considered to be one of the five branches of the Yuechi tribe that lived on the Chinese
frontier or in central Asia. They are known as Guishuang in Chinese sources.
● They eventually acquired dominance over the other Yuechi tribes. They moved eastward towards India
defeating the Parthians and the Sakas in the 1st century AD.
● Kushana Kings:
Kujula Kadphises (Reign: AD 30-AD 80) or Kadphises I:
○
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➢ KujulaKadphiseswasthefirstYuechichieftolaythefoundationoftheKushanaEmpirein
India.
➢ He established his supremacy over
Kabul, Kandahar, and Afghanistan.
➢ He was succeeded by his son Vima
Taktu or Sadashkana (AD80-AD95)
who expanded the empire into
Northwest India.
➢ He issued copper & gold coins in
imitation of the Roman empire.
○ Vima Kadphises (Reign: AD 95-AD 127):
➢ An inscription found at Rabatak in Afghanistan mentions that he was Vima Taktu'sson
and Kanishka's father.
➢ Hehasissuedalargenumberofgoldcoins.HewasaShivadevoteeasisclearfromcoins
issued by him.
➢ ThelargenumberofRomangoldcoinsfoundfromthiseraindicatestheprosperityofIndia
at that time and also the growing trade with the Romans.
○ Kanishka (127 AD-151AD):
➢
Kanishka was the most powerful ruler of the Kushana Empire. He was Son of Vima
Kadphises.
➢ The capital of his empire was Purushpura (Peshawar). Under his rule, Kushana Empire
extended from Uzbekistan, Tajikistan to Mathura and Kashmir.
➢ He is supposed to have started saka era in 78 AD (Controversy). His kingdom included
Afghanistan, parts of Sindhu, parts of Parthia, Punjab, Kashmir, parts of Magadha
(including Pataliputra), Malwa, Benaras.
➢ His empire covered Gandhara, Peshawar, Oudh, Pataliputra, Kashmir and Mathura. His
kingdomalsoincludedpartsofUzbekistaryandTajikistan.AfterthecaptureofPataliputra,
he is said to have taken away the Buddhist monk Ashvaghosha with him to Peshawar.
➢ The scholars in his court included Parsva, Ashvaghosha, Vasumitra,Nagarjuna,Charaka
and Mathara.
❖ He also patronised the Greek engineer Agesilaus. Kanishka convened the fourth
Buddhist Council at Kundalvana in Kashmir.
❖ He patronised Buddhism although he was very tolerant in his religious views.
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❖ His coins contain a mix of Indian, Greek and Zoroastrian deities. He was also a
patron of art and architecture.
❖ The Gandhara School of art flourished under him. He also propagated Mahayana
form of Buddhism.
★ It is not known how he died but it is believed that hewaskilledbyhis
officials to due continuous wars. (General Pan Chao- Chinese Text).
Significance of the Kushana Empire:
● Sanskrit literature began to be developed during this time. The fourth Buddhist council was held in
Sanskrit.
● Ashvoghosha is considered to be the first Sanskrit dramatist. Three distinct schools of art flourished:
Gandhara School in northwest India,AmaravatiSchoolinAndhraandtheMathuraSchoolintheGanges
valley.
● Trade prospered between India and China, and India and the Roman Empire.
● The Kushanas controlled large parts of the Silk Trade Route which led to thepropagationofBuddhism
intoChina.Itwasduringthistime
thatBuddhismbegantospreadto
Korea and Japan also.
● Many towers,Chaityas,townsand
beautiful sculptures were built
under the patronage of the
Kushana kings.
● Kushanas were foreign invadersto
begin with, but they were
completely indianised in ways and
culture.
● ItissaidthattheKushanaperiodinIndianhistorywasthepredecessortothegoldenageoftheGupta
period.
Some important facts related to Kanishka:
● It was during Kanishka's reign that Buddhism was divided into Mahayana and Hinayana. He was the
founderoftheShakaEraofA.D.78.(Disputed).HehadinvadedPatliputraandhadtakentheBuddhist
monk Asvaghosa to Purushpura.
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● Charaka and Sushruta wereinthecourtofKanishka.KanishkawasapatronofBuddhismandhecalled
the 4th Buddhist council in the Kundalvana of Kashmir in 78 AD.
● ThecouncilwaschairedbyVasumitraandduringthiscouncilthecollectionofBuddhisttextstookplace&
the commentaries were engraved on copper sheets.
● The scholars who resided in Kanishka's court were:
○ Vasumitra,
○ Asvaghosa,
○ Nagarjuna,
○ Charaka and
○ Parsva.
● Kanishka had fought against K
ing Han Ho-ti who was the king of the Han dynasty of China.
Kanishka defeated the Chinese king in the second attempt.
Mercantile Age (200 BC to 300 AD)
● Inthisphase,therewasanabsenceoflargeempires.ThefocusshiftedfromMagadhatoNorthWestern
India.
○ Therewereinvasionsandtheemergenceofregionalkingdoms.Therewastheemergenceofanew
type of government - joint rule, subordinate rule.
○ Expansion of cities took place led to the development of Urban Culture. Development of craft,
trade, and currency usage was evident.
● During this period, new cultures, doctrines, image worship, and institutionalization of religious activities
took place. New styles were developed in the field of sculpture and architecture.
● Trade and Commerce:
○ Unprecedented growth of craft was evident during this period:
➢ Digha Nikaya: (Pre-Mauryan) mentioned 2 dozen occupations.
➢ Mahavastu mentions 36 kinds of workers.
➢ Milind Panho mentions 75 occupations of which 60 are related to craft.
➢ Very high level of specializationandcraftsworkingofgold,silver,lead,tin,copper,brass,
iron, precious stones, and jewels.
Did you know?
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● Sophisticated iron artifacts were found in the Karimnagar Nalgondadistrict.Also,Indianiron&steel,
and cutlery were exported to Abyssinian ports & West Asia.
● Manufacturing:
○ Textiles: Cotton and silk weaving products were produced and of great demand in the Roman
Empire. Important Textile Manufacturing Centres were:
➢ Mathura was famous for shataka, a special type of cloth. Vanga (Eastern Bengal) was
known for cotton and silk textiles. Dyeing vats were found at Uraiyar and Arikarnendu
(Southern India).
➢ Apart from textiles, luxury items, handicrafts, and terracotta products rapidly progressed
during this period. Ujjain was an important bead-making center. The shell industry
flourished during this period.
○ Coin Minting: They started to mint various types of gold, silver,copper,bronze,potin,lead,and
fake Roman coins.
○ Terracotta:BeautifulpiecesofterracottaartfoundatKushana&Satavahanasites(Yelleshwaram
in Nalgonda).
○ Artisans and Merchants:
➢ With the specializationinartandcraft,theartisanbecameprosperousduringthisperiod,
various inscriptions refer to the donation by them to the monasteries.
➢ IthadacommunityofmerchantsfollowingthesameprofessionknownasShreniorguilds
under the headSreshti.
➢ Thecaravantradingcommunity,mostlyengagedwithinterregionaltrade,knownasSartha,
headed by Sarthavaha also emerged during this phase.
➢ All the craft communities were organized under a guilds-head known as Jethaka or
Pamukkha.
➢ Guilds elected their heads and framed their own rules. They determined the price and
qualityoftheproduct.Theyalsoperformedthefunctionofbanks,acceptingpublicdeposits
at a fixed rate of interest.
❖ YajnavalkyaSmritialsohintstowardstheirjudicialrole.Theymaintainedagood
rapport with the king, sometimes accompanying him. They were sometimes
appointed as Mahamatta.
❖ Bhandagarika, a n official who used to maintain the records of transactions and
conventions of guilds finds mention in Nigrodha jataka.
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★ Some guilds also had a shrenibala, which was a kind of business
organization run by these guilds that employed fighters.
★ Some guilds issued coins and seals. Various seals were found with the
captionNigam, nigamasya, Ahichhatra (Legend Kumhakara-potters).
● Discovery of Monsoon:
○ The discovery of the monsoons by Hippalus, a Greek navigator, in 46-47AD,ledtomoreand
more sea voyages for trading purposes.
○ ItprovedtobeablessingforSouthIndianmerchantsbecauseitacceleratedthetradeoperationof
South India.
○ The discovery ofthemonsoonsandtheuseofadirectsearoutebetweenIndiancoastsandthe
western world as well as South-East Asia was the main reason for the growth of trade.
● Trade and Agriculture:
○ Establishment of intimate contacts with Central Asia.
○ Trade flourished during this period.
○ Import of gold from the Altai mountains of Central Asia.
○ Kushanas had strong control over the silk route which led to revenue from tolls.
○ Gold coins were introduced by Indo-Greeks in India. Kushans were the first to dosoonalarge
scale.
○ During this period Kushanas promoted agriculture and increased the area under irrigation.
Impact of Central Asian Contact
● Building activities: use of burnt bricks & tiles
● Introduction of Cavalry & use of riding horse
● New wearing & living elements like Turban, trousers, heavy long coat, etc
● Trade & commerce like the Silk trade
● Make more diverse culture & introduce new caste in Varva system
● Spread of Buddhism & rise of Hinduism
● Coin currency
● Sculptures, idol & statue making, etc
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Ancient History
Lecture 24: Mercantile Age / Post Mauryan Period (Part 4)
Megalith:
● Amegalithisalargestonethathasbeenusedtoconstructaprehistoricstructureormonument,either
aloneortogetherwithotherstones.Thereareover35,000inEuropealone,locatedwidelyfromSwedento
the Mediterranean Sea.
● Most extant megaliths
were erected between
the Neolithic period
(although earlier
Mesolithic examples are
known) through the
Chalcolithic period and
into the Bronze Age.
○ Single Stones:
The largest
megalith of the
ancient world, found inBaalbek, Lebanon, wasquarried during the Roman Empire.
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○ Multiple Stones:Multiple megaliths placed with each other with intention.
➢ Dolmen: Megalithic
form created by
placing a large
capstoneontwoor
more support
stones creating a
chamber below,
sometimes closed in
on one or more
sides.Oftenusedas
a tomb or burial
chamber.
➢ Cist:ACistisasmallstone-builtcoffin-likeboxorossuaryusedtoholdthebodiesofthe
dead. Burials are megalithic forms very similar to dolmens in structure. These types of
burials were completely underground.
➢ Portals, doors, and gates.
Background of Megalithic Culture in South India:
● After the prehistoric period, several elements marked the beginning of the historical period. These were:
○ Settlements of large-scale rural communities that carry on plough agriculture withtheaidof
the iron plowshare.
○ Formation of the state system, the rise of social classes, the introduction of writing, the
introduction of metal coinage, and the beginnings of written literature.
○ All these phenomenadidnotcomeintobeingatthetipofthepeninsulauntilaboutthesecond
century BC.
○ UptothesecondcenturyBC,theuplandportionsofthepeninsulawereinhabitedbypeoplewho
were calledMegalith Builders.
Who were Megalith Builders?
● They are known not from their actual settlements asthatwasrare,butfromtheirfunerarystructures.
The graves are calledmegaliths because they were encircled by large pieces of stone.
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○ The graves contain not only the skeletons of the people who were buriedbutalsopotteryand
iron objects.
● The megalithic people used various types of pottery, including redware. However black-and-redware
seemstohavebeenpopularwiththem.Itwassowidespreadandimportantthatinitiallyblack-and-red
ware was calledMegalithic Ware by archaeologists.
● The practice of burying g oods in the graves with the dead bodieswasbasedonthebeliefthatthe
dead would need all these in the next world.
○ However, in comparison to the number of agricultural tools that were buried, those meant for
fighting and hunting are larger in number. This indicates that the megalithic people did not
practice an advanced type of agriculture.
● Themegalithsarefoundinalltheuplandareasofthepeninsula,buttheirconcentrationseemstobein
eastern Andhra and Tamil Nadu.The beginnings of the megalithic culture can be traced to c. 1000 BC.
● Inmanyinstances,themegalithicphaselastedfromaboutthefifthtothefirstcenturyBC,andina
few places, this phase persisted even as late as 1 AD.
● The megalithic people in the southerndistrictsofTamilNaduhadcertainnoteworthycharacteristics.
They buried the skeletons of the dead in urns made of red pottery in pits.
○ In many instances, these urns were not surrounded by stone circles, and there were not many
grave goods.
○ The practice of urn burial was different fromthatofpitburialsurroundedbystonecircles
that prevailed in theKrishna Godavari valley.
○ Although the megalithic people produced paddy and ragi, apparently the area of cultivable land
usedbythemwasverylimited,andtheygenerallydidnotsettleontheplainsorlowlandsdueto
their thick forest cover.
Sangam Period:
● TheSangamPeriod(300BCE-200CE)isgenerallyconsideredthe'classicalage'oftheTamils.Itis
regarded asanalogoustotheageoftheclassicsinGreeceandRomeandtothatoftheRenaissanceof
the later period in Europe.
● SomeevenconsidertheSangamageasthe'Goldenage'oftheTamils,whichmarkedauniqueepochin
the history of the Tamilakam.
● The archaeological sources found from different explored or excavated sites throw light on the various
aspects of the political, social, economic, religious, and cultural life of the Sangam age people.
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○ However, the precious literary finds of this period discovered from various places in South India
provide us with significant information in this regard.
➢ Inotherwords,theSangamliteratureisthemajorsourceforthestudyoftheSangam
age.
Meaning of Sangam
● Theterm'Sangam'literallymeans'confluence'.However,inthecontextofearlySouthIndianhistory,this
term can be rendered into English as an assembly, a college, or an academy of learnedpeople,held
under the patronage of the Pandyan kings,who were great lovers of literature and the fine arts.
● The Sangam was a voluntary organization of poets. It was similar to a Round Table Conference,which
allowed sitting room only to an authentic poet.
○ ThisacademyorassemblyoflearnedpeopleincludingtheSangampoetsproducedliteraryworksof
high quality.
○ There is controversy among scholars regarding the chronology of the Sangam age.
➢ T
he main reason behind this isthelackofunanimityconcerningtheageoftheSangam
works, which are of great historical value for the study of the Sangam age.
● Based on the composition of Sangam literature, the Sangam age has been traced to the period A.D.
100-250.
● The corroboration oftheliterarysourceswitharchaeologicaldataenablesustoplacetheSangamagein
the chronological span of roughly 600 years from c. 300 B.C to A.D 300.
Sangam Literature:
● Sangam literature is alsoconsideredthe"earlyclassicalTamilliterature".Sangamwasanassemblyof
Tamil poets Patronized by Pandyan Kings. The Poems were based on bardic songs and were orally
transmitted for a very long time (later written down).
● PoetswereusuallyfrombothCitiesandVillages.TheyincludeKings,ministers,merchants,astrologers,and
Commonmenliketeachers,soldiers,Carpenters,goldsmiths,blackblacksmiths,etc.Theliteraturewas
mainly Secular.
● About 30,000 lines of poetry are arranged in eight anthologies called Ettuthogai andthePattuppattu.
The anthologies include a total of 2381 poems ascribed to 473 poets, out of whom 30 poets were women.
Kingdom Emblem Capital First Ruler Famous
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Chera Bow and Vanjji/Karayur; Main Ports: Udiyangeral Senguttuvan
Arrows Muziris and Tondi
Chola Jumping Uraiyur – Inland capital & famous Elara Karikala
Tiger center for cotton trade; Puhar
(Kaveripattinam) -coastal capital -
main port.
Pandya Twin Fish Madurai Inland capital & venue of 1st Mudukudumi Nedunjeliyan
and third Tamil Sangam;
Korkai/Colchoi-coastal capital & famous
for pearls
Sangam Literature
Tradition of the Three Sangam:
Sangam Time Patron No. of Notable works Kamil
span King/ Poets Zvelebils
Dynasty Dating
First 4440 years Pantiya 549 Perum-paripatal, 400-300 BCE
(Ohutagecanka) Mutukuruku, Matunaral,
Kalariyavirai,
Perakattiyan
Second 3700 years Pantiya 1700 Toainupukkam, 300-100 BCE
(Itaiocankan) Näpuräpan,
Patappurànam,
Tolkappiyam,
Cirakattiyam
Third 1850 years Pantiya 449 Entire corpus of 100 BCE
(kataicankam) (543*) available Sangam -250/300 CE
Literature
Cheras
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● Inthecontinuingwars,theyfoughtwithoneanotherandalsowithSriLanka.Theywereweakenedby
thewars.TheygreatlyprofitedfromtheirnaturalresourcesandforeigntradedemandintheWestern
world:
○ Grew spices, especially pepper (yavanapriya)
○ Pearls
○ Mines produced precious stones,
○ Produced muslin and silk.
● For the first two and a half centuries, the southern kingdoms conducted a lucrative trade with the
Romans. With the decline of this trade, these kingdoms began to decay.
Cholas:
● The CholakingdomwasalsoknownasCholamandalam.ItwassituatedintheNortheastofthePandya
kingdombetweenthePennerandVellarrivers(correspondstoTanjoreandTiruchirapalli).Theyhadan
efficient navy.
● ThechiefcenterofpoliticalpowerandcapitalwasUraiyur,whichwasfamousforthecottontrade;itwas
the main source ofwealth.Inthemiddleofthe2ndcenturyBCE,aCholakingnamedElaraconquered
Sri Lanka and ruled over it for nearly 50 years.
● Puhar (Kaveripattinam) was the main port and also an alternate capital. Karikala wasthegreatest
king. He defeated the Pandyas and the Cheras in theBattle of Venni. He founded Puhar.
○ He was credited with having defeated a confederacy of Pandyas, Cheras, andtheiralliesatthe
battle of Venni.
○ He also won at Vahipparandalai and according to Sangam texts, several chieftains lost their
Umbrella.Pattinappalaigives an account of his reign.
○ 160KmoftheembankmentofKaveriusing12,000SriLankanslavesbroughtascaptives.Hemade
settlements of forest land and advanced irrigation systems with tanks and canals. He also
performed Vedic sacrifices.
➢ PostKarikalatheempirestartedtodecline;hehadabitterfightbetweentwosuccessors-
Nalankilli and Nedunkilli.
○ Theirneighboringpowersexpandedtheirempireattheirowncost.Fromthe4thto
9th Century AD, Cholas played only a marginal role in South Indian history.
Pandyas:
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● In the book Indica, Megasthenes mentioned that the Pandya kingdom was ruled byawoman.They
were famous for pearls Pandyas werealsomentionedinRamayanaandMahabharata.Othermentionsof
Pandyas are found inAshoka Major Rock Edicts 2 and 13.
○ Hathigumpha inscription mentions Kharvela destroyed a group of southern states:
tamira-desa-sangha.
● ThePandyanterritoryincludedmodernTirunelveli,Ranmand,andMadurai(capital,situatedatthebanks
of Vaigai river).
○ TheyusedtotradewiththeRomans,whichwasveryprofitable.Theyalsosentembassiestothe
Roman emperor Augustus and Trajan.
○ They performed Vedic sacrifices and the Brahmanas were influential.
● Pandya Kings:
○ Mundukudumi Palashaiwas the earliest known Pandyanruler.
○ Nedunjeliyan I was the greatest Pandyan King. He was accused by Kovalan of theft and as a
result,MaduraiwascursedbyKannagioftheSilappadikaram.Hediedofremorse.AsperSangam's
text, he was wealthy and prosperous.
○ Nedunjeliyan II was one of the most importantPandyaKings.Hehadmultiplemilitaryvictories
and acquired territories of Cheras, Cholas, and others in the Battle of Talaiylanganam(Hetook
Chera King as a prisoner of war).
➢ Two Tamil Brahmi inscriptions at Mangalam of the Century BCE mentioned that a
subordinate and relatives of Nedunjeliyan presented gifts to Jaina Monks.
● Coins:The earliest coins of the Pandyan Kingdom were copper squares and were struck with a die.
○ Thecoinshadfivedistinctimagesononeside,oftenanimageofanelephantonthatsideanda
stylized fish on the other, seen typically in thecoinsfoundaroundKorkai,theirancientcapital,
and in Northern Lanka.
Cheras:
● In the early centuries of the Christian era, the Chera state was as important as the statesofthe
Cholas and Pandyas and owed its position to trade with the Romans.Itissaidthattheyalsobuilta
temple of Augustus there.
● Pandyas had a flourishing tradewiththeRomans.Therewasacoinfactory.Theyalsodevelopedthe
art of jewel making.
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● The history of the Cheras is a continuing battle with the Cholas andPandyas.AlthoughtheCheras
killed the father of the Chola king Karikala, the Chera king also lost his life. Later,thetwokingdoms
temporarily became friends and concluded a matrimonial alliance.
○ The Chera king next allied himself with the Pandya rulers against the Cholas, but the Cholas
defeatedtheallies,anditissaidthatastheCherakingwaswoundedintheback,hefeltshamed
and committed suicide.
● The Chera country occupied a portionofbothKeralaandTamilNaduandtheircapitalwasVaniji.Their
main ports wereMuzirisandTondi.RomanssetuptworegimentsatMuzirisandalsobuiltatempleof
Augustus.
● Chera Kings:
○ Udiyangeneral:The first or the earliest known rulerof the Cheras.
○ Nedunjeral Adan:He may have defeated Seven crownedKings and took the title Ad Adhiraja.
➢ HedefeatedsomeenemiesatMalabarCoastandcapturedseveralYavanatraders,however,
released after taking ransom.
➢ He fought a battle against a Chola King, where he along with the Chola King lost his life.
○ Senguttuvan or Red Chera (Son of Nedunjeral): He invaded the north and crossed the river
Ganga.HefoughtagainstanAryanchieftaintogetastoneforthestatueofKannagiandbathed
in Ganga.
➢ He founded the Pattani cult which worshiped the goddess of Chastity Kannagi.
➢ As per the Chera poets, he was the greatest king,alsoknownasredorGoodChera.He
participated in the Chola succession conflict and killed 9 claimants.
Sangam Administration:
● The Sangam poems present asketchreflectingtheevolutionofthestatesysteminSouthIndiaforthe
first time.
● Theseworksindicatetheprocessofhistoricalevolutioninwhichwefindthetribesdecreasinginnumber
butexistingaswell-establishedunitsbythesideoftheking.So,theevidencessuggestthatthestateas
an unorganized political structure had come into existence although it was not yet stable.
● Kingship:
○ The Sangam works mention the names of so many kingsthatascertainingboththeirgenealogy
and chronology is highly problematic.
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○ Monarchy was the prevalent form of government. The "king" was called Ventana. He was the
headofthesocietyandgovernment.Astheheadofthesociety,hetooktheleadineveryevent
of social importance like the festival of Indra, inaugurations of dance performances, etc.
○ The "king" assumed importanttitlesatthetimeofcoronation.Hewasequatedwithgodsto
provide divine sanctity.
○ The a ncient Tamils considered the drum,thescepter,andthewhiteumbrellaasthethreegreat
insignia of his office.
○ According to theSangam classics,kingship descended by heredity from father to son.
➢ The kingwasresponsibleformaintaininglawandorderinthestate.Healsolookedafter
thewelfareofhissubjects,workedhardfortheirgood,andfrequentlytouredthecountry
to put things in order.
○ Thekingalsohadrecoursetoadvisersinthecourseofhisadministration.Theliteraturefrequently
mentions them as surram which means the men who always surrounded the king, giving him
advice whenever needed. The policies of the king were controlled by a system of checks and
balances in the councils.
➢ Silappadikaramreferstothetwotypesofofficials:AimperunkuluandEnperayam.The
Aimperunkulu or the council of five members was the council of the ministers.
➢ The Perayam or the greatassembly(perayam)consistedof8members(government
officers).This worked as an administrative machinery of the state.
❖ These two assemblies, that of the Five (Aimperunkulu) and that of the Eight
(Enperayam) functioned as administrative bodies, though their function was
generally advisory in character. However, their advice was rarely rejected by the
king.
❖ TheirimportantfunctionwasjudicialthoughtheAimperunkuluseemstohavebeen
solely in charge of it as described by Madurai Kanji.
○ Kingdom(Mandalam):ItwasdividedintoNadu(Provinces)–hereditarychiefs,villages(sin-ur
per-ur)-managed by manaram and towns (urs).
● Revenue Administration:The main revenue sources were:
○ Agricultural or land revenue and trade.
○ Land measurement and classification.
○ The revenue share (karai) is not known yet.
○ Toll and transit duties.
○ Security over roads.
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○ Smuggling was prevented at Puhar (dedicated officers).
○ Spoils of war further added to the royal income.
● Warriors: They were given much importance as Commanders of the army, their title was Enadi. A
rudimentary army was maintained and they had:
○ Chariots drawn by oxen
○ Elephants (important)
○ Cavalry (horses imported via sea)
○ Infantry
○ War heroes received aspecialpositioninthesociety(Memorialstones-Nadukul/Virukul)forthose
who died fighting were worshiped as God.
Agriculture:
● TheprosperityofpeopleintheSangamagewasrootedinthefertilityofagricultureandtheexpansion
of trade. The Madurai Kanji refers to agriculture and trade as the main forces of economic development.
● Agriculturewasthemainsourceofrevenueforthestate.Theimportanceattachedtocultivationisalso
seen in the interest people showed in cattle rearing.
○ The Sangam poemsfrequentlyrefertomilkandmilkproductssuchascurd,butter,ghee,and
buttermilk.
○ Theimportanceofcattleisalsoattestedbythecattleraidsonenemycountrieswhichhasbeen
mentioned in the literary works.
● Oneoftheprimarydutiesofthekingwastoprotectthecattleofhiskingdom.Thecattlewealthinturn
enhanced the wealth of the farmer. Silappadikaram also relates the happiness and prosperity of the
people, who were related to agriculture.
Trade
Exported items Imported items
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● The commodities exported to Rome ● The main articles ofimportfromRome
fetched high returns. consistedofcoins,coral,wine,lead,fin,
● Living animals like tigers, leopards, and jewelry.
monkeys,andpeacockswereexportedto ● Overallimportsincludedhorsesgoldand
Rome. wine.
● The chief animal products of export
includedivory and pearl.
● Plant products like aromatics and spices
(p
epper, ginger, cardamom, cloves,
nutmegs, etc.), coconut, plantain,
jaggery, teak wood, sandalwood, and
cotton cloth of a special variety called
argary (from Uraiyur).
● Mineral products like diamonds, beryl,
steel, semi-precious stones, etc.
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Ancient History
Lecture 25: Gupta Empire
Sources of Gupta Empire:
ishnu,Vayu,Bhagvata,Matysa).SomePuranasarehistoricaswell
● Literarysources:SuchasPuranas(V
as religious.
○ Matsya Purana is the oldest and is also an important source of genealogy in ancient history.
Another literary source is Kamanadaka Nitisara written by Sikhara, the prime minister of
Chandragupta II.
○ Kavya-Nataka Literature includes:
➢ Devi Chandraguptam by Vishakhadatta
➢
Mudrarakshasa by Vishakhadatta
➢ Mrichhakatika by Shudraka
➢ Travel account of Fa-Hein
➢ Play written by Kalidas like Vikramo Urvashiya, etc
➢ Setubandha kavya by Pravarsena
➢ Panchatantra by Vishnu Sharma
● Inscriptions:
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○ Udayagiri Cave Inscriptions
○ Mathura stone Inscriptions
○ Sanchi Stone Inscriptions
○ Gadhwa Stone Inscriptions
○ Bilsad Stone Pillar Inscription
○ Mankuwar Stone Image Inscription
○ Bilhar stone Pillar Inscription
○ Bhitari Stone Pillar Inscription
○ Junagadh Rock Inscription
○ Kahaum Stone Pillar Inscription
○ Indore Copper Plate Inscription
● Other Sources:
○ Seals:
➢ Seal of Dhruvaswamini, queen of Chandragupta II.
➢ Seal of other officials.
○ Monument:
➢ Vishnu temple at Tigawa
➢ Shiva Temple at Bhumara
➢ Parvati Temple at Nachna-Kuthara
➢ Buddhist shrines at Sanchi and Bodhgaya
➢ Dasvatara Temple at Deogarh, etc.
○ Coins:
➢ Every ruler mints their coins and so it is with their preferences. Some of them style
themselves on these coins but most of them are different types.
➢ For example, Tiger type, Lyrist type, Ashvamedha type, Archer type, Chhatra type,
Lion-slayer type, etc.
Origin of the Gupta Empire:
● The Gupta Empire came into power in the century. (320 AD to 550 AD).
● The founder of the Gupta dynastyisSriGupta,althoughwedon'thavecertaininformationaboutthe
origin of the Guptas.
● HistorianshavedifferentopinionslikeBengalorUttarPradeshorsomewhereelsebutUttarPradeshseems
to be more logical.
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○ Prayag(Allahabad)isconsideredduetotheavailabilityof
early coins and the process of the expedition.
○ Prayag Prashasti's Inscription of Samudragupta also
supports this opinion, Because it is the most imp source.
➢ Onanalysis,itisknownthatthecentralregionof
theGuptaEmpirewasPrayagandfromtherethe
Gupta rulers migratedtowardtheMagadharegion
in the East.
➢ It is almost clear that the Guptaswereprobably
a ssociated with the Vaishya community.
Famous Kings of the Gupta Empire:
● ThefirstrulerwasSriGupta[reignfrom240ADto280AD].HewassucceededbyhissonGhatotkacha
[reign: 280 - 319 AD]. Both Sri Gupta and Ghatotkacha are mentioned as Maharaja in inscriptions.
Chandragupta I (Reign: 320-335AD):
● HewasthesonofGhatotkachawhowasconsideredtherealfounderofGuptaDynasty.Hewasmarried
to a Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi. He established his empire & expanded it through matrimonial
alliance.
○ His territoryextendedfromtheGangesRivertoPrayagaby321AD.Heissuedcoinsinthejoint
names of his queen and himself. He assumed the title of Maharajadhiraja (great king of kings).
➢ However, there is a lack of information and sources about the victories of Chandragupta I.
❖ But Vayu Purana obscurely states the extent of Chandragupta I's kingdom from
Magadha in the east to Prayag in the west.
❖ Chandragupta I also started the Gupta era in 319-20 AD to commemorate his
victory and he was also thefirst of the Gupta rulers tohave issued gold coins.
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● He was successful in building a smallprincipalityintoagreatkingdomandisconsideredthefirstgreat
king of the Gupta Empire.
Samudragupta (Reign: 335-380AD):
● HewasthesonofChandraguptaIandKumaradeviwhobecameagreatconquerorofIndia.TheAllahabad
inscription/ Prayag Prashastidescribes his victories,composed by his court poet, Harisena.
● HewasalsocalledKaviraj,meaningonewhogavepatronagetoart&literature.Samudraguptaassumed
thetitleofVikramankaandperformedAshvamedhaYajna.Thisiswhyhereferredtohimselfas"t he
restorer of Ashvamedha."
● As per the Allahabad inscription, five phases of a military campaign.Thesevictoriesarehighlightedby
court poet Harisena-
○ Expansion from the Himalayas in the North to the Krishna and Godavari Rivers in the South;
○ Thereitissaidthathedefeated9kingsoftheGangesValley,12kingsfromthesouthernregion,
and 18 forest tribes
● He is called Napoleon of India by historian Vincent Smith. He was also known to be a good Veena
player. Even though he was a follower of Vaishnavite Hinduism, he was tolerant of other faiths. He
permitted the king of Sri Lanka, Meghavarna to build a monastery in Bodh Gaya.
Chandragupta II (Reign: 380-418AD):
● Chandragupta II’s reign was considered the watermark period of the G
uptadynasty.Hewasthesonof
SamudraguptaandhisqueenDattadevi.ButsomecoinsandDevichandraguptamsuggestthathewasthe
brother of Ramagupta.
● He was also known as 'Vikramaditya'. He used matrimonial alliances to expand his kingdom. He
established matrimonial alliances with the Nagas and the Vakatakas.
○ HegavehisdaughterPrabhapavatiGuptainmarriagetoVakatakarulerofMaharashtraRudrasena
II. He also assumed the titleParamabhagavata.
● He also annexed three Satrapa kingdoms and assumed the title Sakari (destroyer of the Sakas). He
defeated the Saka king Rudrasimha IIIthus acquiring Saurashtra and Kathiawar.
○ Through the western ports, the kingdom's prosperity grew through trade links with Roman Empires.
○ After East and West India, Chandragupta II defeated northern rulers also like the Hunas,
Kambojas, Kiratas, etc.
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● Hewasabrilliantconquerorandanableadministratoraswell.Likehisfather,hewasaVaishnavitebut
was tolerant of other religions. His other names (as mentioned in coins) include Vikrama, Devagupta,
Devaraja, Simhavikrama, Vikramaditya Sakari, etc.
○ HiscourthadninejewelsorNavaratnas,ninepeopleeminentinvariousfieldsofart,literature,
and science.
○ ThisincludedthegreatSanskritpoetKalidasa,Harisena,Amarasimha(lexicographer-aperson
who compiles dictionaries and grammar), and Dhanvantari (physician).
○ Fa-Hien, a Buddhist from China visited India during his reign. He records theprosperityofthe
Gupta Empire.
○ TheMehrauliinscriptionwasinscribedduringhisreign.Intheinscription,akingnamedChandra
was generally identified as the Gupta emperor Chandragupta II.
➢ The inscription is famous for the rust-resistant composition of the metals. This is a
testimony to the high level of skill achieved by the ancient Indian iron smiths.
Navaratna in the court of Vikramaditya
Kalidasa Sanskrit poet
Harisena Sanskrit poet
Amarasimha Lexicographer
Dhanvantri Physician
Kahapanaka Astrologer
Sanku Architect
Varahamihira Astronomer
Varauchi Grammarian and Sanskrit scholar
Vittalbhatta Magician
Kumaragupta I (c. 415 – c. 455 CE):
● ChandraguptaIIwassucceededbyhissonKumaraguptaI.Heruledtill455AD.KumaraguptaIwasthe
founder of theNalanda University.
○ He was also called Shakraditya and
was the last great king of the Gupta
dynasty.
● Skandagupta was the son of Kumaragupta I.
Damodarpur inscription refers to him as
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Maharajadhiraja.HewasknownasMahendraditya.HewasabletorepulseanattackbytheHunasbut
this strained his empire's coffers.
Skandagupta (455 – C. 467 CE):
● He succeededKumaragupta-IandlaterassumedthetitleofVikramaditya,Devaraj.Hewassuccessful
in throwing the Huns back. However, the economy under him was in poor conditions due to wars.
○ Thequalityandthenumberofgoldcoinswereinferiorandlimitedrespectivelyascomparedtothe
earlier period.
● SkandaguptaisalsoknownforJunagarh'sinscriptionabouthispublicworkliketherepairofSudarshan
Lake.
● The Gupta Empire declined after the death of Skandagupta in 467 AD. He was followed by many
successors. The last recognised king of the Gupta line wasVishnugupta who reigned from 540 to 550 AD.
Society and the Caste System of the Gupta Empire:
● DuringtheGuptaperiod,societywascharacterizedbyarigidcastesystem.Atthetopofthishierarchy
were the Brahmins, who held significant influence and power.
○ The Gupta rulers, often viewed as Vaishyas, were sometimes regarded as Kshatriyas by the
Brahmins.
● To reinforce their status, the Gupta rulersgrantedextensivelandtoBrahmins,whichcamewithvarious
social privileges, furtherentrenching the caste systemwithin society.
● DuringtheGuptaperiod,untouchabilitybegantoemergeasasignificantsocialissue.TheChinesetraveler
Fa-Hien noted the existence of the Chandals,who were socially segregated from othercommunities.
● Thepracticeoflandgrantscontributedtotheriseofthelandedclass,whoweregiventherighttogovern
and collect revenue. This led to the proliferation of various castes and sub-castes, particularly the
Kayastha and Bhumihars.
● Women’sconditionsdeterioratedduringthistime,astheywereoftenbarredfromstudyingreligioustexts,
reinforcing gender inferiority.
○ Despite some calls for their protection and fair treatment, women's rights were severely limited.
DuringtheGuptaperiod,thepracticeofSwayamvara,wherewomenchosetheirhusbands,began
○
to decline, coinciding with the rise of early marriage as prescribed in theManusmriti.
Religious Developments in the Gupta Empire:
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● Twosignificantreligioussectsemerged,onewasVaishnavism,whichwasfavoredbytheGuptarulers,and
the other wasShaivism.
● The era saw the growth of idol worship and the celebration of various religious festivals. Important
religioustexts,suchasthePuranas,werecomposedduringthistime,contributingtothedevelopmentof
Brahmanical religion.
● While Brahmanical traditions gained prominence, Buddhism experienced a decline intheGangeticValley,
although it continued to flourish in regions like western and southern India.
○ The Buddhist scholar Vasubandhu, for instance, received patronage from the Gupta rulers,
highlighting a complex relationship between different religious traditions during this period.
○ Jainism also thrived, adding to the rich tapestry of spiritual life in the empire.
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Ancient History
Lecture 26: Gupta Empire (Part 2)
Condition of the Society during the Gupta Empire:
● The pre-Gupta period in India witnessed aseries offoreign invasions.
● Indiansocietyhadgivenwaytoforeignerswhohadbecomepermanentresidents.However,duringthe
Gupta period, thecaste system became rigid.
● TheBrahminsoccupiedthetopladderofthesociety.LandgrantstotheBrahmanasonalargescale
suggest that the Brahmana supremacy continued in Gupta times.
○ The Guptas who wereoriginally vaisyascame to belooked upon as Kshatriyas by the Brahmanas.
○ TheBrahmanasrepresentedtheGuptakingsaspossessingtheattributesofgods,andtheGupta
princes became great supporters of the Brahmanical order.
○ The Brahmanas accumulated wealth on account of numerous land grants and claimed many
privileges, which arelisted in the law book of Narada.
● The practice of land grants led to theriseofthelandedclass.Righttogovernandtherevenueisalso
given to these grants receiver people.
● InwesternandsouthernIndiaJainismflourished.ThegreatJainCouncilwasheldatValabhiduringthis
period and theJain Canon of the Swetambaraswas written.
Gupta Period [320-550 AD]: Golden Age of India
● ThetermgoldenagereferstotheageofIndianhistoryduringwhichremarkableprogresswaswitnessed
in different spheres of human life likepolity, economy,culture, society, etc.
Gupta Period Polity:
● WiththedeclineoftheMauryanEmpire,theunityandintegrityofIndiashattered.Thecentralauthority
disappeared and regional principalities emerged everywhere.
○ This trend was reversed by the emergence of the Gupta rulers in the 4th Century AD.They
ruled over an extensive empire with their capital atPataliputra.
➢ Therefore,theGuptaagewitnessedthepoliticalunificationofIndiaafteralongperiodof
more than yearsafter the decline of the Mauryans.
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● Several strong and efficient rulerscametopower
during the Gupta period. For example,
Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, Chandragupta
II, and Skandguptaruled over extensive empires.
● There was decentralization and devolution of
power. This was triggered by land grants & rise
of thefeudal system (Samanta system).
○ Officials were paid through land grants,
religious institutions were given land
grants.
○ Political and administrative rights were
also transferred with land grants. This
led to the rise of newintermediariesin
power.
● TheCentrestartedtodependonthesenewregionalelementsformilitaryandrevenue.Sothisempire
was not like the Maurya empire.
Gupta Administration:
● ThevariousinscriptionsmentionthefollowingtitlesasusualforGuptas:Paraniadvaita,Maharajadhiraja,
Prithvipala, Paramesvara, Samrat, Ekadhiraja, and Chakravartin. The king was assisted in his
administration by aChief Minister called mantri orsachiva.
○ Pratiharas and Mahapratiharts were important officers in the royal court, though theydidnot
participate in the administration.
○ Among the important military
officers are mentioned Senapati,
Mahasenapati, Baladhyaksha;
Mahabaladhyaksha, Baladhikrita,
and Mahabaladhikrita who perhaps
represented different grades.
● There were two other high military officers
- the Bhatasvapati, commander of the
infantry and cavalry, and the Katuka,
commander of the elephant corps.
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○ AnotherimportantofficialmentionedintheBasarhsealswasRanaBhandagaraDhikarana,chief
of the treasury of the war office.
○ Onemorehighofficer,mentionedforthefirsttimeintheGuptarecords,wasSandhivigrahikaor
Mahasandhivigrahika, a sort of foreign minister.
○ One of the inscriptions mentions Sarvadhyakshas, superintendents of all, but it is not clear
whether they were central or provincial officers.
● NumerousinscriptionsmentionDutakaorDutywhocommunicatedroyalcommandstoofficersandpeople
concerned.Dandapasadhikaranarepresented the chiefof the police.
● Ordinary police officials were known as Dandapasika, Chatas, Bhatas, Dandika (chastiser), and
Chauroddharanika (officer apprehending - thieves).
● The king maintained close contact with the provincial administration through a class of officials called
Kumaramatyas and Ayuktas.
○ ProvincesintheGuptaEmpirewereknownasBhuktisandprovincialgovernorsasUparikas.They
were mostly chosen from among the princes.
○ Bhuktis were subdivided into Vishyas or districts.They were governed by Vishyapatis.
○ NagaraSreshtisweretheofficerslookingafterthecityadministration.Thevillagesinthedistrict
were under thecontrol of Gramikas.
● Fa Hien's account characterizes the Gupta administration as mild and benevolent. There were no
restrictions on people's movements and they enjoyed a large degree of personal freedom.
○ Therewasnostateinterferenceintheindividual'slife.Punishmentswerenotsevere.Imposing
a fine was a common punishment.
○ Theadministrationwassoefficientthattheroadswerekeptsafefortravelers,andtherewasno
fear of thieves.
➢ He mentioned that people were generally prosperous and the crimes were negligible.
○ Fa Hien also appreciated the efficiency of the Gupta administration as he was able to travel
without any fear throughout theGangetic Valley.
➢ On the whole, the administration was more liberal than that of the Mauryas.
Officers responsible for Central Administration (Council of Ministers):
● Maha Mantri (Chief Minister):Stood at the head of civil administration.
● Maha-baladhikrta:Commander-in-chief
● Sandhivgrahika:The foreign minister
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● Maha-dandanayaka:Chief justice
● Maha-asvapati:Commander of the cavalry
● Maha-pilupati:Commander of elephant
● Maja-ranabhandagarika:Master general of military stores
Economy of the Gupta Period:
● The Gupta age was full of economic prosperity. According to Chinese traveller Fa-hien Magadh, the
power centre of the Gupta empire was full of cities and rich people.
○ InancientIndia,theGuptasissuedthelargestnumberofgoldcoinswhichwerecalled'dinaras'in
their inscriptions.
● DuringtheGuptaperiod,agricultureformedasignificantpartoftheempire'seconomy.However,thetrade
and commerce activities of the Gupta Empire grew steadily.
○ Themerchantsandothertraderswereorganizedintoguilds.Theseguildsweregivenconcessionsin
the taxes that were liable to be paid to the government.
● The guilds played a chief roleinthegoodsindustryandalsohelpedtofurtherstrengthentheeconomic
condition of the empire.
○ The guilds had regulated their laws and all the member merchants were expected to abide by
these laws.
● The Gupta period, often considered a golden age of India, saw significant advancements in agriculture,
which served as a crucial source of revenue.
○ Kamandaka’s Nitisara emphasizes the importance of agriculture as a foundation for economic
stability and growth.
○ Agriculture flourished during this time, with staple crops such as rice, barley, pulses, andlentils
being widely cultivated.
○ As noted byKalidasa,SouthIndiawasparticularlyrenownedforitsspices,especiallypepperand
cardamom,which were highly sought after in both domesticand international markets.
○ VarahMihira’swritingsprovideinsightsintoplantationagricultureandthecultivationoffruit
trees.Thisindicatesadiversifiedagriculturalapproachthatnotonlyincludedstaplecropsbutalso
cash crops that could boost local economies.
● During the Gupta period, land was systematically classified, which played a significant role in revenue
collection:
○ Kshetra (Cultivable Land): This category comprisedlands that were actively farmed and
contributed significantly to the agrarian economy.
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○ Agrahara Land Grants: These were tax-exempt land grants given primarily to Brahmins,
encouraging agricultural development and settling new lands.
○ Khila (Waste Land): Uncultivated lands that had potential for development were often targeted
for reclamation.
○ Aprahata (Jungle): Forested lands that could be clearedfor cultivation, showcasing the
agricultural expansion efforts.
○ Dev-graha Grant: Lands granted for temple construction,reflecting the integration of religious
institutions and agricultural activities.
○ Vasti (Habitable Land): This category included residentialareas and supported local populations,
further contributing to economic activities.
○ Gapata Saraha (Pasture Land): Designated for grazinglivestock, essential for a pastoral economy.
Gupta Empire Literature
Gupta Art:
● Gupta rulers were patrons of art and literature. For example, Samudragupta was represented on his
coins playing the vina, and Chandragupta II is creditedwithmaintaining in his court nine luminaries.
● DuringtheGuptaagebeautifulimagesofBuddhawerefashionedatSarnathandMathura,butthefinest
specimens of Buddhist art in Gupta times are theAjantapaintings.
○ Although these paintings covered the period from the first century to the seventh century AD,
most of them relate to Gupta times.
○ The Gupta age is remarkable for the production of secular literature. For example, Kalidasa
belonged to this age.
➢ He was the greatest poet of classical Sanskrit literature and wrote
Abhijnanashakuntalamwhich is very highly regardedin world literature.
➢ There was also an increase in the production of religious literature.Thetwogreatepics
the Ramayana and the Mahabharatawere almost completedby the fourth century AD.
● The Gupta age in ancient India has been called the 'Golden Age of India' because of the many
achievementsinthefieldofarts,science,andliteraturethatIndiansmadeundertheGuptas,butnotin
the political sphere.
● TheprosperityundertheGuptasinitiatedaperiodofsplendidaccomplishmentsinartsandsciences.The
Gupta Empire lasted from 320 AD to 550 AD.
Gupta Literature:
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● SanskritliteratureflourishedundertheGuptas.Kalidasa,thegreatpoetandplaywrightwasinthecourtof
Chandragupta Vikramaditya. He composed great epics such as:
○ Play: Abhijnanashaakuntalam, Malavikagnimitram, Vikramorvashiyam
○ Kavyas:Ritusamharam, Meghadootam, and Raghuvamsham.Kumarasambhavam.
➢ The celebrated Sanskrit drama Mṛicchakatikam was composed during this time, it was
composed by Shudraka.
● Poet Harisena also adorned the court of Samudragupta. He wrote the Allahabad Prashasti (inscription).
Vishnusharma of Panchatantrafame lived during thisera.
○ Amarasimha, the famous grammarian composed Amarakosha during the Gupta period.
VishakhadattacomposedMudrarakshasaandDevichandraguptam.
○ Other grammarians who contributed to the Sanskrit language includeVararuchi and Bhartrihari.
Works towards Scientific Development During the Gupta Period:
● Aryabhatta who was one of the jewels of Chandragupta II’s court,wasthegreatIndianmathematician
and astronomer who wrote Surya Siddhanta and Aryabhattiya. Aryabhata is believed to have
conceptualized the digit 'zero'. He also gave thevalue of Pi.
○ He postulated that the earth is not flat thatitrotatesarounditsaxisandalsothatitrevolves
around the sun.
○ Hewasalsoknownasthe‘FatherofTrigonometry’ashecalculatedthelengthofthesolaryear
the time taken by the earth to make one revolution around the sun.
○ He also gave the distance between earth and sun which is remarkably close to the actual value.
○ He wrote on geometry, astronomy, mathematics, and trigonometry. He was an astronomer
(study of celestial objects and phenomena) and an astrologer (predict their future).
○ In mathematics, a work called Aryabhatiya was written by Aryabhata in age. Aryabhatta
displayed an awareness of both the zero system and the decimal system.
➢ A Gupta inscription of the 5th century AD from Allahabad suggests that the decimal
system was known in India.
● Varahamihira wrote Brihatsamhita.HewasalsothecomposerofPanchasidhhanta,whichisatexton
astronomy. It was he who predicted the presence of water on Mars.
● Dhanvantari, the great physician is supposed to have lived during this time. Sushruta, composed the
Sushrutasamhitaaround 600 AD. He has detailed surgicalprocedures in this work.
● The Nalanda University, a centre of Buddhist and other learning attracted students from abroad. The
Guptas patronized this ancient seat of learning.
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● TheGuptaagecraftsmendistinguishedthemselvesbytheirworkinironandbronze.Forexample,aniron
pillar was found at Mehrauli in Delhi.
○ Manufactured in the 4th century AD has not gathered any rust over the subsequent fifteen
centuries which is a great tribute to the technological skill of the craftsmen.
Art and Architecture:
● The temple architecture developed in this period. Threestylesarethere:Nagara,Dravida,andVesara.
Features of the style are as follows:
○ Freestanding temples
○ Shikhara, platform, Mandapa, etc developed
○ Panchayatan style developed
● Many magnificent temples, palaces, paintings, and sculptures were created. Dashavatara Temple in
Deogarh, UP is one of the earliest surviving Hindu temples. It is a fine example of Guptaarchitecture.
Other examples of temple architecture as as follows:
○ Vishnu temple at Tigawa
○ Shiva Temple at Bhumara
○ Parvati Temple at Nachna-Kuthara
○ Nachna Kuthar Temple
○ Bhitari Temple
○ Bhumara Temple
○ Buddhist shrines at Sanchi and Bodhgaya and the caves of Ajanta, Bagh, etc
● Theperiodwastermedagoldenageduetounprecedenteddevelopmentinthefieldofartandnotdueto
its extensive administrative and political system.
● MuralpaintingsofAjantadepictingthelifeoftheBuddhaastoldintheJatakataleswerecomposedin
this period.
● Places like Ajanta, Ellora, Mathura, Sarnath; and Anuradhapura and Sigiriya in Sri Lanka bear
examples of Gupta art and architecture.
● Classical Indian music and d
ance took shape at this time. The Gupta legacy in arts can be seen in
Southeast Asia also today.
● TheBronzeBuddhawhichis7.5feethighandfoundatSultanganjisaproductoftheGuptaage.The
Iron Pillar at Mehrauli, Delhiis a marvelous creationof this period.
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● Itisa7mlongpillaranditismadeupofacompositionofmetalssuchthatitisrust-free.Thisisa
testimonytothemetallurgicalskillsofIndiansofthattime.ThesilvercoinsissuedbytheGuptaswere
calledRupakas.
Gupta Period Religion:
● The Hindu epics were given their final touches during this time. The Hindu religion also received an
impetus under the Guptas and it flourished and expanded throughout India.
● Although the Gupta kings were Vaishnavas they weretolerantofBuddhismandJainism.TheShakti
cult rose around this time.Sacrifice was being replacedby Bhakti.
● The decline of Buddhism is due to the liberal face of Hinduism and its increasinglyritualisticnature.
Brahmanismhad come to the forefront.
● Vishnu andShivabecameimportantdeitiesofthisperiod.Puranas,Mahabharata,Ramayana,etc.were
composed.Bhagavatism came into light alongside tantrismalso emerged during this time.
Decline of the Gupta Empire:
● The Gupta declinestartedduringthereignofSkandagupta,thegrandsonofChandraguptaII.Hewas
successful in retaliating against theHunsandthePushyamitras,buthisempirewasdrainedoffinances
and resources because of this.
● ThePushyamitraswereatribethatlivedinCentralIndiaduringthe5thcenturyCE.Livingonthebanks
oftheriverNarmada,theyarebelievedtohaveposedaseriousthreattotheGuptaEmpireduringthelate
period of Kumaragupta I's reign.
○ Inscriptions covering the events between 455 and 467 CE emphasize the role of Skandagupta,
Kumaragupta's successor, in defeating the Pushyamitras.
● ThelastrecognisedkingoftheGuptalinewasVishnuguptawhoreignedfrom540to550AD.Internal
fighting and dissensions among the royal family led to its weakening.
○ During the reign of a Gupta king. Budhagupta, the Vakataka ruler Narendrasena of western
Deccan attacked Malwa, Mekala, and Kosala.
➢ Later on, another Vakataka king Harishena conquered Malwa and Gujarat from the
Guptas.
● During Skandagupta's reign, the Huns invaded northwest India but were restricted. But in the sixth
century, they occupiedMalwa, Gujarat, Punjab, andGandhara.
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○ TheHuninvasionweakenedtheGuptaholdinthecountry.Independentrulersemergedallover
thenorthlikeYasodharmanofMalwa,theMaukharisofU.P.,theMaitrakasinSaurashtra,and
others in Bengal.
● TheGuptaEmpirewasrestrictedtoMagadhaonly.(YasodharmanhadjoinedforceswithNarasimhagupta
to successfully retaliate against the Hun chief Mihirakula).
○ ThelaterGuptas'followingofBuddhismratherthanHinduismunliketheirancestorsalsoweakened
the empire.
○ Theydidnotfocusonempire-buildingandmilitaryconquests.Soweakrulersalongwithincessant
invasions from foreign as well as native rulers caused the decline of the Gupta Empire.
● By the beginning of the sixth century, the empire had disintegrated and was ruled by many regional
chieftains.
The Huna Invasions on Indian during the Gupta Era
● The Hunas had poured down from the steppes of Central Asia through the Northwestern passes and
devastated the smiling cities of India. These central Asian hordes were in four cardinal directions they
were known as follows:
○ Northern Huna:Black Huna
○ Southern Huna:Red Huna
○ Eastern Huna:Celestial Hunas
○ Western Hunas:White Hunas.
● The nomadic Mongol tribes known as Huns were the first mentioned in the Bhishma Parva of
Mahabharata.
● As per Dr. V. A. Smith, thesholkasthatmentiontheHunasmusthavebeenplacedaftereditinginor
century AD.
○ InMahabharatathesetribeshavebeenmentionedasMalechhasandMalechhasincludedseveral
tribes such asSakas, Yavanas, Savaras, Savaras, Kiratas,etc.
● The practice of polyandry was common in Hunas (several husbands and one wife). The Hunas moved
westwards and divided into two major streams.
○ One directed towards the valley of Oxus (today known as AmuDarya,aboundarybetweenIran
and Central Asia and in Indian texts known as Vaksu) and another towards Volga River
(Westwards towards Europe).
○ Hunas filled the land between Volga and Danube but they could not make full use of their
advantageous position.
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● TheHunicEmpireinEuropewasfinishedwithin20yearsbyafreshswarmofbarbariansfromNorthern
Asia.
○ However, the Asiatic domain of the Hunas lasted a bit longer. In Persia (Iran), the former is
known to have attacked theSassanid King of Persia,Peroz I, and captured him.
● Peroz I was killed in the hands of Hunas and these Hunas assailed theKushanKingdomofKabuland
then from from there poured into India.
○ Around 500 AD, Hunas under a chieftain Ramanila is known to have conquered Gandhara.
○ About Ramanila, we know only through his coins. Later, the Huna Power in Punjab regions is
known to have consolidated underToramana.
Toramana: The early white Huna King
● In the 6th century, White Huna King Toramana is mentioned in the Kura Inscription as 'Rajadhiraja
Maharaja Toramana Shahi Jaula'and is also referredto in theRajtarangini.
● ThesilvercoinsofToramanaareverysimilartotheGuptaKings.ItisthoughtthatToramanainvadedthe
Gupta Empire with the help of a scion of the Gupta family called Harigupta.
○ Moreover, the feudal structure of the administration was a facilitating factor for Huna's conquest.
● ToramanaacquiredtheMalwaregionby510ADandthelocalprinceBhanuguptawasunabletocheckhim.
Toramana was succeeded byMihirkula, his son.
Mihirkula: The Huna Tyrrant:
● Mihirkula means "onefromtheSunClan",InPersianMihirkulareferstoMehrGulwhichalsorefersto
SunFlower.Mihirkulacametopowerin ADandwasananti-buddhist,knownforhiscrueltyagainstthe
Buddhists.
○ Hedestroyed the temples and monasteriesand was tyrannicalto the Buddhists.
○ His reign extendeduptoGwalior.HiscontemporaryGuptaKingwasNarsimhguptaBaladityaraja
II.
● Narsimhgupta Baladityaraja II is known to be a devout Buddhist. He fought with Mihirkula and was
supported byYasodharman of Malwain this fight.
● Mihirkula was defeated, andcapturedbyYasodharmanbutwasallowedtotakerefugeinKashmirwhere
he died shortly afterward, probably due to a fatal attack by a King of Kashmir.
○ ThiswastheendofWhiteHunasinIndia.Theyearwas528AD.Thus,Yashodharmaniscredited
with checking the Huna expansion in India.
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Who was Yasodharman?
● Yasodharman is documented in the Mandsor Inscription and the Bijaygarh InscriptionofBayananear
Bharatpur, Rajasthan, which were created by Vishnuvardhana, his son.
○ He initially is thought to have been friendly with the Guptas but later turns their enemy and
carrieshisvictoriousarms.However,notmanydetailsareknownaboutYasodharman.Heappeared
and disappeared quickly, most probably by 540 AD.
● After the Hunas were checked, the Gupta Empire was destroyed into many parts and several kings
appeared in the scene all over north India.
○ By the middle of the 6th century, Guptas lost the control over the Magadha also. There were
many contemporary dynasties of the Guptas and probably the most ancient of them is Maukharis.
Conclusion:
● However, it should be noted that the Gupta age did not witness progress in socialdevelopment,for
example,thenumberofchandalas(untouchables)increasedandtheirconditionworsenedduringtheGupta
age,the first example of the sati occurred duringthe Gupta period in 510 AD, etc.
● In this way, the golden character of the Gupta age can be accepted only in degrees not in absolute terms.
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Ancient History
Lecture 27: Vakataka Kingdom
Who were the Vakatakas?
● TheVakataka dynasty succeeded the Satavahanasinpeninsular India.
● It emerged as a significant power in Northern Maharashtra and Vidarbha, exerting influence over the
Deccan for over two and a half centuries.
● The kingdom was contemporary to the Guptas.
○ Notably, their historical timeline coincided with the Gupta dynasty in northern India,
showcasing the dynamic political landscape of ancient India.
○ Fromthe3rdcenturyADtothe5thcenturyAD,partsofSouth-CentralIndiaweregovernedby
the Vakataka traditionand referred to as theVindhyakasin Puranic literature.
○ They belonged to theBrahmin communityand performedVedic sacrifices.
● Vakatakas were ardent supporters of Brahmanical religion promotion of Vedic sacrifices. They spread
Brahminical culture to southern India.
Debates Regarding the Geographical Roots of the Vakatakas:
● ThehistoryoftheVakatakasislargelyknownfrominscriptionsandtextslikethePuranas.Whilesome
sources suggest a northern origin for the Vakatakas, others to southern India.
● Complicating the issue, inscriptions in both Sanskrit and Prakrit resemble those found among the
southern Pallavas. Additionally, historical records present a notable absence of Vakataka's presence
north of the Narmada River.
Origin of the Vakatakas:
● Both the Puranas and the inscriptions give us referencetotheVakatakasThedynastyisreferredtoas
Vindhyakas in the Puranas. It is believed that theregionoforiginoftheVtakatakswastheVindhyan
region, however, according to some historians, the dynasty rose in the northern parts of India.
● The town Kanchanaka,aplaceinthePannadistrictofMadhyaPradeshwasthecentreofpowerofthe
Vakatakas.
● Tosomehistorians,theoriginofthedynastyliesinthesouthofIndiaitself.InscriptionsinbothSanskrit
and Prakrit have been discovered. Their inscriptions resemble to those of the Pallavas.
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● TheVakatakaDynastywasasignificantrulingdynastyinancientIndia,primarilyactivebetweenthe3rd
and 6th centuries CE. ItplayedacrucialroleinthehistoryoftheDeccanregionandisnotableforits
contributions to art, culture, and politics.
● VindhyaShakti-I(250–270CE)wasthefounderofthedynasty,markingthebeginningofVakataka's
rule. Pravarsena (270-330 CE) was a prominent ruler who helped consolidate the dynasty'spowerand
territory. Post Pravarasena, the dynasty got bifurcated into two branches.
● Key Branches and Rulers:
○ Nandivardhana Branch:
➢ Rudra Sena-I (340-365 CE): Strengthened the dynasty’sinfluence.
➢ Prithvisena (365–390 CE): Continued the legacy ofexpansion.
➢ Rudrasena-II (390–395 CE): Known for his patronageof arts and culture.
➢ Pravarsena-II(PrabhavatiGupta)(395-440CE):Notableforhismarriagealliancewith
the Guptas, which enhanced political ties.
➢ Narendrasena (440–460 CE): Furthered the dynasty’sprosperity and stability.
➢ Prithvisena-II (460-480 CE): Continued the legacyof his predecessors.
○ Vatsagulma Branch:
➢ Sarvasena (330–355 CE)
➢ Vindhya Shakti-II (355–400 CE): Revived the powerof the dynasty during his reign.
➢ Harisena (475–500 CE): A key figure who reunified the Vakatakas by conquering
Prithvisena-II, solidifying the dynasty’s strength and influence and unifying the dynasty.
Kings of the Vakataka Dynasty:
● Vindhyashakti-I (250–270 CE):
○ Vindhyashakti-IisrecognizedasthefounderoftheVakatakaDynastyandplayedacrucialrole
in establishing its prominence in ancient India. His reign marked a significant revival of
Brahmanical traditions and Vedic culture.
○ He was named after Goddess Vindyavasini. Vindhyashakti-I is noted for his efforts to revive
Brahmanical rituals and practices,particularlythroughtheperformanceofVedicsacrifices.This
was essential for re-establishing the authority of the Brahmins in society.
○ InscriptionsfromtheAjantaCavesrefertohimas"Dwij",meaning"twice-born",whichsignifies
hishigh social status and adherence to Vedic principles.
○ Vindhyashakti-I was recognized for his military prowess. Statements like “When the army of
Vindhyashkati marched, even the sun got covered with dust”reflects such prowess.
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○ He is often associated with deities such as Purandara (Indra) and Upendra (Vishnu) in the
Puranas,highlightinghisdivinelegitimacyandthesupporthesoughtfromthesepowerfulsymbols
in the Hindu pantheon.
● Pravarsena (270–330 CE):
○ Pravarsena was a pivotal ruler of the Vakataka Dynasty, known for significantlyenhancingits
power and influence during his reign.
○ HesuccessfullyexpandedtheVakatakaterritory,effectivelycapturingtheDeccanregion,including
areas up to Vidarbha.
➢ The capital of the Vakataka Dynasty during his rule was Kanchana, which served as a
center of administration and culture.
○ Pravarsena strategically expanded his powerthroughmatrimonialalliances.Anotablealliancewas
the marriage of his son, Gautamiputra, to the daughter of theNaga king Bhavanga.
○ TheVakatakasmaintainedcordialrelationswiththeGuptaDynasty.Despitesomedivisionswithin
theVakatakakingdom,theGuptasrefrainedfromattackingthem,recognizingtheVakatakasasa
stable ally.
➢ This alliance proved advantageous, especially against thewestern Satrapes of Gujarat.
● Rudra Sena II (390–395 CE)
○ He was married toPrabhavati Gupta, the daughter ofChandragupta II,a prominent ruler of the
Gupta Dynasty.
○ This alliance strengthened the tiesbetween the Vakatakasand the Guptas, fostering political
stability and cultural exchange.
○ Rudra Sena II's reign was cut short by his untimely death just five years after his marriage,
creating a power vacuum within the dynasty.
○ Following his premature demise, Prabhavati Gupta assumed the role of regent till 410 AD.
➢ She played a crucial role in governing the kingdom and successfully enthroned her son,
Pravarsena II, as king.
➢ Her regency lasted until approximately 410 CE, during which she was instrumental in
maintaining the integrity of the Vakataka Dynasty.
● Harisena (475–500 CE)
○ His kingdom extended from Malwa to Maharashtra, encompassing a vast region that facilitated
trade and cultural exchange.
○ Harisena is mentioned in the 6th-century poem, where he is described as truthful, powerful, and
glorious, highlighting his esteemed reputation.
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○ Harisena is credited with reuniting the two branches of the Vakataka Dynasty, enhancing its
political cohesion and stability during his reign. This reunification was crucial for consolidating
power and influence in the region.
○ Following Harisena’s death, the Vakataka Dynasty began to decline.The political landscape
became fragmented, with several regional kingdoms, such as theNals, Kadambas, and the
Kalachuris, emerging as significant powers.Notably,Yashodharaman of Malwa captured territories
previously held by the Vakatakas.
The religion of the Vakatakas
● The Vakataka Dynasty primarily adhered to Brahmanical religion, emphasizing the performance of Vedic
sacrifices and rituals.
● ThiscommitmenttoBrahmanicalpracticesplayedasignificantroleinshapingtheirculturalidentityand
political legitimacy.
● DespitetheirstrongtiestoBrahmanicaltraditions,theVakatakasexhibitedanotabledegreeoftolerance
towards Buddhism and other sects.
● This openness facilitated a rich cultural exchange within their realm, allowing both Brahmanical and
Buddhist practices to coexist and flourish.
● TheVakatakas'supportofBuddhistart,particularlyseenintheAjantaCaves,isatestamenttotheir
inclusive approach to religion and culture.
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Ancient History
Lecture 28: Regional Configuartion
Age of Regional Configuration (600 to 750 CE):
● Forsimplicity,webroadlycategorizetheperiodfromaround600to1200CEintotwophases,eachdistinct
for North and South India.
○ In North India (600 to 750 CE), the dominance of the Pushyabhutis of Thaneswar and the
Maukharis of Rannauj was notable.
○ In South India (600 to 750 CE), three major states emerged: the Pallavas of Kanchi, the
Chalukyas of Badami, and the Pandyas of Madurai
● 750 to 1200- North India- Two phases:
○ PhaseI750to1000CE):Threesignificantempires-theGurjaraPratiharasinthenorth,thePalas
in the east, and the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan.
○ Phase II (1000to1200CE):InnorthernIndia,thedisintegrationofthePratiharaempireriseof
various Rajput states- Chahamanas (Chauhans), Chandellas, Paramaras of Malwa, and others.
● Turkish attacks led by Mahmud Ghazni and Mohammad Ghori in the 11th and 12th centuries.InSouth
India, from around 850 to 1200 CE, the Cholas held supremacy.
● DespitethepoliticaldivisionsinIndiaduringthisperiod,itcontributedsignificantlytotheenrichmentof
culture, with noteworthy developments in art, literature, and language. Some of the finest examples of
temple architecture and Indian literature belong to this era.
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Kanauj's Ascendancy as Political Center:
● Harsha strategically established Kanauj as the epicentre of his power, a significant shift, as Pataliputra.
● Increase in Importance of Strategic Locations: With the decline ofPataliputra,powershiftedtomilitary
camps and strategically important
locations.
○ The feudal age in North India
saw prominence in areas that
could be easily fortified and
dominated long stretches of
land.
● Kanauj's elevation and strategic
positioning made it easily fortifiable, a
stark contrast to the challenges faced
by plains-based fortifications.
○ Itscentrallocationfacilitatedcontroloverbotheasternandwesternwings,allowingthemovement
of soldiers by land and water routes.
● Kannauj remained under Rashtrakuta rule for the rest of Dharavarsa's reign, ending in 793 CE. The
Rashtrakutas then collapsed into civil war.
Period From 600 CE- 750 CE Northern India:
Pushyabhutis of Thanesar:
● Present-day Uttar Pradesh and
Bihar, for approximately 160
years until the mid-6th century
CE. However, the decline of the
Gupta Empire led to the
fragmentation of northern India
into multiple kingdoms.
● From the 5th century CE
onwards Kashmir, Punjab, and
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northwest India fell under the control of the white Hunas.
○ Following the Gupta Empire's decline, the Pushyabhuti dynasty emerged as a significant ruling
family, establishing its capital at Thanesar, near Kurukshetra in Haryana.
● A devotee of Shiva, Pushyabhuti became involved in a tantric ritual at a cremation ground, under the
influence of Bhairavacharya, a teacher from "the South".
○ Attheendofthisritual,agoddess(identifiedwithLakshmi)anointedhimthekingandblessed
him as the founder of a great dynasty.
Sources of the Dynasty:
● The Harshacharita by Banabhatta.
● Travelogues of the Chinese pilgrim Hsuan Tsang/Xuanzang
Pushyabhuti Kings:
The Tussle between Rajyavardhana, Devgupta, Shasanka and Harshavardhana:
● ThePushyabhutidynasty,originallyfeudatoriesoftheGuptas,reachedprominenceundertheleadershipof
Prabhakar Vardhana in the mid-6th century CE.
○ The dynasty gained prominence accession of Prabhakar Vardhana, who successfully defeated the
Hunas and
consolidated his
influence in the
Punjab and Haryana
regions.
○ Prabhakar Vardhana,
the fourth king of
the dynasty, played
a pivotal role in
establishing its foundations. Renowned as a skilled military general, he achieved numerous
victories on the battlefield.
➢ PrabhakarVardhanisconsideredtobeoneofthemostpowerfulrulersbelonging
to this dynasty. He is remembered to have defeated theAlchon Hun invasions.
➢ One of Prabhakar Vardhana's strategic moves involved forming a crucial marital alliance.
➢ He married his daughter, Rajyashri to Grahavarman, the ruler of the Maukharis of
Kanyakubja (Kannauj).
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❖ This alliance strengthened the ties between the PushyabhutisandtheMaukharis,
creating a significant power bloc in the region.
○ Hehadtwosons,RajyavardhanaandHarshavardhana.AfterPrabhakaraVardhanadied,his
elder sonRajyavardhana ascendedto thethrone ofThanesar.
● HarshaandRajyavardhana’ssisterRajyashriwasmarriedtotheMaukhariKing,Grahavarmanof
Kannauj.
○ Because of the matrimonial alliance, both the Maukharis and the Pushyabhutiscame
together which raised tensions for theking of Gauda.
○ Devagupta,thekingofMalwa,andShashankaofGaudacametogetherandestablished
an alliance to jointlydefeattheMaukharisand thePushyabhutis.
➢ ShashankawastheonewhocutofftheBodhitreeandkilledseveralBuddhists
ashewasagainstthebeliefofBuddhismimmediatelyaftergainingcontrolover
Bihar.
➢ Shashanka was the first independent king of a unified polity in the Bengal
region, called theGauda Kingdom, and is a major figurein Bengali history.
○ TheMalwadynastythenattackedtheMaukharieskilledGrahavarmanandkeptRajyashri
as a prisoner.
➢ This is how Malwa took control over Kannauj. This prompted Rajyavardhana to
launch anattack on KannaujasDevguptacaptured thethrone of the Maukharies.
○ He was successful in killing Devgupta, freeing his sister, and taking control of Malwa.
After this event,Shashankaof the Gauda dynastykilledRajyavardhana.
○ Finally, 16-year-oldHarshavardhana ascendedthe throneofThanesarin606 AD.
○ Harsha vowed to avenge his brother’s and brother-in-law’s murder. Thus, he
vehemently defeated Shashanka and took control over the entire Kannauj but
Shashanka was not killed as he eloped. After Shashanka’s natural death, Harsha took
control of theGauda dynasty.
● Harsha made Kanaujtheseatofhispower.ThecitywassituatedintheFarrukabaddistrict
of Uttar Pradeshand shot up to political prominencein thesecond half of the sixth century.
○ It was located right in the middle of the doab and was well-fortified in the seventh
century.
Harsha Vardhana (c. 606-647 CE)
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● HarshaVardhana,reigningfromapproximately606to647CE,iscelebratedasthefinalgreatHinduking
of India. This influential monarch, originally a follower of Shivism, demonstrated a notable affinity for
Buddhism.
● Harsha’sreignwascharacterizedbyhisextensivesupportforBuddhism,markedbygenerousendowments
to Buddhist communities.
○ PopularlyknownasMarsha,heearnedtheepithet‘LordoftheNorth'(SakalaUttarapathanatha)
for his dominance in the northern regions of India.
● Harsha ascended to the throne at the tender age ofsixteen.Hequicklydemonstratedhisprowessasa
formidable warrior and an adept administrator.
○ Harsha’sfirstsignificantactionwasmarchingtowardsKannauj,rescuinghissisterRajyashrifroma
perilous situation, preventing her from committing Sati—an act of self-immolation.
Consolidation of Power:
● Harsha'sswiftactionsledtotheconsolidationofpower,withKannaujcomingunderthesovereigntyofthe
Pushyabhuti dynasty.
○ Subsequently,heconfrontedanddefeatedShashanka,extendinghiscontroloverpartsofKongoda
in Orissa.
➢ This marked the beginning of Harshas efforts to expand and stabilize his kingdom,
showcasing his military acumen and political astuteness.
● Harsha's Military Campaigns:
○ Duringhisinitialexpedition,HarshaexpelledShashankafromKanaujanddesignateditashisnew
capital thereby becoming the predominant ruler of northern India.
○ Harsha engaged in battles against Phuruvasena II of Valabhi, emerging victorious and reducing
Dhuruvasena II to a vassal.
● Defeated by Pulakesin II:
○ OneofHarsha'spivotalmilitaryendevourswasdirectedagainstPulakesinII,theWesternChalukya
ruler.BothHiuenTsang'saccountsandinscriptionsfromPulakesinIIelucidatethespecificsofthis
campaign.
○ DespiteHarsha'sambitiontoexpandhisrealmsouthoftheNarmadaRiver,theAiholeinscription
of Pulakesin II narrates Harsha’s defeat, leading Pulakesin to assume the title Paramesvara, a
triumph confirmed by Hiuen Tsang.
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● Nepal and Assam: Nepal acknowledged Jlarsha's overlordship, and he secured control over Kashmir,
receiving tributes from its ruler. Maintaining friendly relations, Harsha interacted diplomatically with
Bhaskaravarman, the ruler of Assam.
● Emperor of the North: Harsha's final military conquest targeted the kingdom of Kalinga in Orissa,
culminating in success.
● Extent of the Empire: Harsha's empire encompassed key regions such as Thaneswar, Kannauj,
Ahichchhatna (Bareilly), Shravasti, and Prayag and extended into Magadha and Orissa.
○ While the capitalwasinitiallyatThaneswar,HarshalatermovedittoKannauj,andthesouthern
boundary of his empire was defined by the Narmada River.
○ Consequently, Harsha established his dominance over all of northern India, directly governing
regions such as Rajasthan, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Orissa.
○ His influence extended even further, with peripheral states like Kashmir, Sind, Valabhi, and
Kamarupa acknowledging his sovereignty.
● Diplomacy and Subordinate Rulers:
○ Subordinaterulers,holdingtitleslikesamantaandraja,markedtheHarshaerafrom606CE,the
year of Harsha Vardhanas' accession.
○ Harsha's diplomatic prowess is evident through his friendship with the Chinese pilgrim Hsuan
Tsang, who visited India during 629-644 CE.
○ HsuanTsangprovidedadetailedaccountofagrandassemblyatKannaujin643CE,attendedby
representatives of Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism, as well as subordinate kings from Vallabhi
and Assam.
Cultural Patronage and Festival:
● Harsha was a great patron of the arts and learning. Hecontributedtoliterature,havingauthoredthree
dramas—Priyadarshika, Ratnavali (both romantic comedies), and Nagananda (based on Bodhisattva
Jimutavahana).
● He alsowroteongrammarandtwoSutraworks.Banabhatta,Mayura,Bhartrihari,andMatangaDivakara
were prominent writers at his court. Harsha established a significant monastery at Nalanda.
Diplomatic Relations and Legacy:
○ Harsha maintained diplomatic relations with China. as evidenced by three embassies sent by the
contemporary T'ang Emperor.
○ The last embassy, led by Wang-hiuen-tse, arrived in India in 647 CE, after Harsha's passing.
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○ Following Harsha's death, a period of political confusion persisted until the 8th century.
○ When the Gurjara Pratiharas and Rajput rulers emerged as influential forces in northern India. Harsha's
reign left an indelible mark on the cultural and political landscape of ancient India.
Administration under Harsha:
● Harsha's governance of his empire closely resembled the administrative framework of the Guptas albeit
with certain distinctive features, including a more feudal and decentralized structure.
● The leadingfeudatoriesunderHarshaplayedcrucialrolesintheadministration,withnotablefiguressuch
as Bhaskaravarmana of Kamarupa, D
hruvabhatta of Vallabhi, Purnavarman of Magadha, and Udita of
Jalandhara.
● Military Organization:
○ Harsha maintained a substantial military force, consisting of infantry, cavalry, chariots, and
elephants.
○ Military power was concentrated in skandhavaras or military camps. Feudatories provided
contributory forces when required.
○ Land grants continued as a means of compensating priests for their services, and it isbelieved
that chartersgrantinglandtoofficersinsteadofsalarylikelybeganduringMarsha'srule,evident
in the reduced issuance of coins.
● Revenue Distribution:
○ Hsuan Tsang's records indicate that taxation was light, with revenues divided into four parts:
➢ Allocated for the king's use
➢ Reserved for scholars
➢ Designated for the endowments of officials and public servants
➢ Allocated for religious purposes
○ In the post-Harsha period, “Hundi” generally referred to A bill of exchange.
● Law and Order:
○ While Harsha's administration implemented severe laws, particularly in cases of robbery, later
influences from Buddhism led to a mitigation of punishments.
○ Criminals were often sentenced to lifelong punishments rather than more severe measures.
○ Hsuan Tsang's travel statements, mentioning incidents of robbery,highlightcertainchallengesin
maintaining law and order during Harsha's reign.
Society and Economy under Harsha:
● Social Hierarchy during Harsha's Era:
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○ BanaandHiuenTsang'saccountsrevealthepersistenceofthetraditionalfourfoldsocialhierarchy
- Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra.
○ Brahminsenjoyedprivilegedstatusandreceivedlandgrants,whileKshatriyasconstitutedtheruling
class.
○ Vaishyas were primarily engaged in trade andShurfraswereinvolvedinagriculture,encompassing
various sub-castes.
Challenges to Women's Status:
● Despite the social hierarchy, women's status faced challenges during Harsha's reign. Practices like
Swyamvara diminished/and widow remarriage, especially among higher castes, was prohibited.
● The prevalence of the dowry system and thepersistenceofthepracticeofsatifurtherunderscoredthe
unsatisfactory state of women.
● Funerary Practices:
○ Hiuen Tsang documented three methods of disposing of the dead: cremation, water burial, and
exposure in the woods.
○ His observations provide insights into cultural and societal norms during Harsha's era.
Economic Decline and its Impact:
● Harsha's reign witnessed an economic downturn marked by a decline in trade and commerce. This is
evident in the contraction of trade centers, reduced coin circulation, and decreased activity within
merchant guilds.
● The cascading effect on the handicrafts industry andagricultureledtoashifttowardsaself-sufficient
village economy, contributing to an overall economic decline compared to the prosperous Gupta period.
Other aspects of Hrasha’s Reign:
● Cultural and Religious Landscape:
○ Artistic and Architectural Contributions: Harsha's period exhibited limited artistic and
architectural innovations, largely adhering to the Gupta style. Hiuen Tsang provides insightsinto
notable structures such as the grand monastery in Nalanda.
○ Patronage of Learning andIntellectualEnvironment:Harshaemergedasasignificantpatronof
learning, fostering a vibrant intellectual environment in his court.
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➢ LiteraryluminariessuchasBanabhatta,MatangaDivakara,andBarthrihariwereprominent
figures. Harsha himself demonstrated literary prowess byauthoringthreeplays:Ratnavali,
Priyadarsika, and Nagananda.
○ Support for Nalanda University: Harsha played a crucial role in supporting Nalanda University
through generous endowments, elevating it to international acclaim.
➢ HiuenTsang,whovisitedNalanda,enrolledasastudentthere,highlightingtheuniversity's
significance as a distinguished center of learning during Harsha's reign.
➢ Ancient C
hinese travelers who explored India made mention of several educational
institutions, with the most renowned being the Hinayana University of Valabhi and the
Mahayana University of Nalanda.
➢ Hiuen Tsang,inparticular,providedavaluableaccountofNalandaUniversity,whosename
translates to "giver of knowledge.
➢ EstablishedduringtheGuptaperiodbyKumaraguptaI,itreceivedpatronagenotonlyfrom
his successors but also from the later ruler Harsha.
❖ The educators at Nalanda, referred to as panditas, included illustrious figures like
Dingnaga, Dharmapala, Sthiramati, and Silabadhra.
❖ Dharmapala, originally from Kanchipuram, eventually rose to head the prestigious
institution.Nalandawasaresidentialuniversity,offeringfreeeducationinclusiveof
boarding and lodging.
★ Its maintenance relied on revenue from 100 to 200 villages endowed by
various rulers.
❖ While primarily a Mahayana University, Nalanda covered d iverse religious subjects
such as the Vedas, Hinayana doctrine, Sankhya, and Yoga
★ The curriculum also encompassed general subjects like logic, grammar,
astronomy, medicine, and art.
★ TheuniversityattractedstudentsnotonlyfromvariousregionsofIndiabut
also from Eastern countries.
❖ Admission wasthroughachallengingentranceexamination,withasuccessrateof
no more than thirty percent.
❖ The institution upheld strict discipline, emphasizing discussions over lectures, and
employed Sanskrit as the medium of instruction.
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Did you Know?
Recent archaeological excavations have revealed the ruins of NalandaUniversity,validatingtheaccounts
given by Chinese pilgrims.
● The site showcased the grandeur of this center of learning, featuring numerous classrooms and an
attached hostel.
● According to the Chinese pilgrim Itsing, over 2000 students were enrolled. Nalanda boasted an
observatory and an extensive library housed in three buildings.
● Its global renown stemmed from its ability to attract scholars from various corners of the world,
establishing itself as a center for advanced learning and research.
Hiuen Tsang's Account:
● HiuenTsang'sJourneyandPurpose:HiuenTsang,theChinesepilgrim,embarkedonajourneyfromChina
in 629 AD, reaching India and returning in 645 AD.
○ HisprimarypurposewastostudyattheBuddhistUniversityofNalandainBihar,collectingvarious
texts during his extended stay and engaging in academic pursuits.
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