EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY AND

INNOVATIONS
(Unit 1)

INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

There have been tremendous changes in the life style of human beings which may be attributed to
the contribution of science and technology. The contribution of science and technology has been
experienced in almost all the spheres of human life including education. The National Policy of
Education 1986 has observed “Education Technology will be employed in the spread of useful
information; training and re-training of teachers, to improve the quality, sharpens awareness of the
art and culture and the like, Sign, C.P. 2009.

MEANING AND DEFINITIONS

You can understand the meaning of educational technology by dividing it into two words
―education‖ and ―technology‖: Education is the process of acquiring and imparting cognitive,
affective, psychomotor development on the part of the learner with a suitable strategy. Education
is a discipline which is both science and art. It is a mixture of science of learning and art of
teaching. However technology refers to the systematic application of scientific principles in terms
of tools, machines and other expertise to achieve an objective which as a result of use can design
and create new devices that enriches human productivity as well solves the problems. Hence
technology is applied for human development and worked as a problem solving inventions.

Educational technology is a field of study that investigates the process of analyzing, designing,
developing, implementing, and evaluating the instructional environment and learning materials in
order to improve teaching and learning. It is important to keep in mind that the purpose of
educational technology (also referred to as instructional technology) is to improve education. We
must define the goals and needs of education first and then we use all our knowledge, including
technology, to design the most effective learning environment for students.

Educational technology is the application of scientific knowledge and learning and the condition
of learning to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of teaching and training (G.O. Leith)
CHARACTERISTICS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

- It is based on scientific and technological advancements

- It is a more practical discipline and less a theoretical
- It is a fast growing modern discipline
- It brings pupils, teachers and technical means together in an effective way
- It makes usage of the research findings of psychology, sociology, engineering, sciences
and social psychology etc , and applies the same to the field of education.`
- It is bound to improve the teacher, the learner and the teaching and learning process

SCOPE OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

Educational technology refers to the use of both physical hardware and educational theoretic. It
encompasses several domains, including learning theory, computer-based training, online
learning, and, where mobile technologies are used, m-learning. Accordingly, there are several
discrete aspects to describing the intellectual and technical development of educational
technology:

- educational technology as the theory and practice of educational approaches to learning

- educational technology as technological tools and media that assist in the communication
of knowledge, and its development and exchange
- educational technology for learning management systems (LMS), such as tools for student
and curriculum management, and education management information systems (EMIS)
- educational technology itself as an educational subject; such courses may be called
"Computer Studies" or "Information and Communication Technology (ICT)"
-

Hence educational technology helps to develop the teaching, learning, testing and training
activities in terms of achieving educational goals

Significance of Educational Technology

a. Access to variety of learning resources: In the era of technology. ET aids plenty of

resources to enhance the teaching skills and learning ability. With the help of ET now it is
easy to provide audio visual education. The learning resources are being widens and widen.
 Now with this vivid and vast technique as part of the ET curriculum, learners are
encouraged to regard computers as tools to be used in all aspects of their studies. In
particular, they need to make use of the new multimedia technologies to communicate
ideas, describe projects, and order information in their work.

b. Immediacy to information: ET has provided immediacy to education. Now in the year of

computers and web networks the pace of imparting knowledge is very fast and one can be
educated anywhere at any time. New IT has often been introduced into well-established
patterns of working and living without radically altering them. For example, the traditional
office, with secretaries working at keyboards and notes being written on paper and
manually exchanged, has remained remarkably stable, even if personal computers have
replaced typewriters.

c. Any time learning: Now in the year of computers and web networks the pace of imparting
knowledge is very fast and one can be educated .One can study whenever he wills
irrespective of whether it is day or night and irrespective of being in India or in US because
of the boom in ET.

d. Collaborative learning: Now ET has made it easy to study as well as teach in groups or in
clusters. With online we can be unite together to do the desired task. Efficient postal
systems, the telephone (fixed and mobile), and various recording and playback systems
based on computer technology all have a part to play in educational broadcasting in the
new millennium. The Internet and its Web sites are now familiar to many children in
developed countries and among educational elites elsewhere, but it remains of little
significance to very many more, who lack the most basic means for subsistence.

e. Multimedia approach to education: Audio-Visual Education, planning, preparation, and

use of devices and materials that involve sight, sound, or both, for educational purposes.
Among the devices used are still and motion pictures, filmstrips, television, transparencies,
audiotapes, records, teaching machines, computers, and videodiscs.
 f. Online library: We can get plenty of data on this online library. As part of the IT
curriculum, learners are encouraged to regard computers as tools to be used in all aspects
of their studies. In particular, they need to make use of the new multimedia technologies to
communicate ideas, describe projects, and order information in their work. This requires
them to select the medium best suited to conveying their message, to structure information
in a hierarchical manner, and to link together information to produce a multidimensional
document.

g. Distance learning: Distance Learning, method of learning at a distance rather than in a

classroom.

h. Better accesses to children with disabilities: Information technology has brought drastic
changes in the life of disabled children. ET provides various software and technique to
educate these poor peoples.

The integration of information technology in teaching is a central matter in ensuring quality in the
educational system. There are two equally important reasons for integrating information
technology in teaching. Pupils must become familiar with the use of information technology, since
all jobs in the society of the future will be dependent on it, and information technology must be
used in teaching in order to improve its quality and make it more effective.

LEARNING COMPONENTS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

The following 4M’s are the major components of Educational Technology

1. Methods
2. Materials
3. Media
4. Man power

Methods
- Concerned with the plans or strategies such as programmed learning, team teaching, micro
teaching, and personalized system of instructions in teaching learning situations.
Materials
- Refers to instructional materials such as programmed text books.
- The materials of this type may be handwritten or printed

Media
The media used here are audio, visual or audio-visual. A few examples are radio, tape recorder,
charts, films, educational broadcastings in TV, etc.
Man power: Man power controls educational technology in every way. Educational technology
without man is zero.
FORMS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

Educational Technology came with its various forms which are;

- Teaching technology
- Instructional Technology
- Behavioral Technology
- Instructional design Technology
i. Teaching technology:
Teaching is an art. Teaching technology makes this art easier, precise, practical and objective by
using scientific principles.
Contents of teaching technology is divided into four phases, that is; Planning, Organizing, Leading
and Controlling.

 Planning: Important Phase of teaching learning.

In this phase, the teacher analyzes the contents, determines and defines the learning – objectives,
and at the end, the teacher writes those objectives in clear terms.
Hence, in this phase, the teacher performs 3 activities; task analysis, Identification of objectives
and writing learning contents

 Organizing:
In this phase, the teacher creates such an effective environment by selecting teaching methods,
techniques, strategies and essential aids by which the pupils may achieve learning objectives.

 Leading:
The teacher motivates the pupils to such an extent that they may start taking interest in teaching
and learning objectives are achieved.
 Controlling:
The teacher is supposed to use various techniques of measurement and evaluation for the purpose.
(The teacher must have some knowledge about philosophy, sociology & psychology)

Instructional Technology

According to Seels and Richey (1994), Instructional technology is defined as, “The theory and
practice of design, development, utilization, management and evaluation of process and resources
for learning”.
It has five domains that is Design, Development, Utilization, Management and Evaluation
Key points:
In instructional technology, the presentation of the contents is described In or Out of the class. In
both, instruction and teaching technology, the pupils are motivated for learning, but still there is
some differences between these two things.

Teaching technology can be done by teacher. Instructional technology can be done by others also.
For example, various kinds of audio-visual aids can guide the students.

The correspondence course upon University may accomplish the task of instructions successfully
through press, television and conducting some on-line classes. Actually instructional technology
is based upon hardware approach.

Instruction is used in teaching and hence, teaching can be named as instruction but instruction
cannot be named as teaching because in instructions, interaction between a teacher and pupils is
not essential.
It is clear that the basis of instructional technology is the machine system. It provides assistance in
teaching and learning through machines which prepared with the help of science and technology.

Advantages:
 A Pupil can learn according to his needs & capacities.
 A pupil can learn even in the absence of the teacher.
 Learning objectives can be achieved through instructional objectives.
 This technology can meet the shortage of effective teachers.
Behavioral Technology

Behavioral technology is the important component of educational technology. It puts emphasis on

the use of psychological principles in learning and teaching. So that the behavior of the teachers
and pupils may be modified in accordance with the learning objectives.

We have to remember that our education is child-centered. Therefore, every teacher should possess
the precise knowledge of child psychology. [That is, the age, standard, mental capacity or
capability & Individual variations, etc.]

For successful teaching, a frequent interaction between the teacher and the pupils is must. At the
time of presenting the contents before the pupils, the teacher should provide complete freedom to
the pupils for expression of their ideas in order to bring out the changes in the behavior of the
pupils on the other side.

The communication of the contents or the behavior of the pupil and the teacher may be of 2 types.
1. Verbal communication
2. Non – verbal communication
Instructional design Technology

Focuses on identifying problems that can be solved with an instruction solution e.g. consider a
company that is implementing new software and they need to train employees on how to use the
new software. An instructional designer will help to design and develop this training.

EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY AS A SYSTEM USAGE IN LEARNING

Technology can broaden the horizons of student’s right inside of your classroom.

Technology in the classroom: Nowadays, students entering into schools are already familiar with
technologies. This makes it very important for teachers to stay ahead of the learning curve when
it comes to technology and it uses in the classroom. Hence, Education with technology in learning,
add extra energy and excitement to any lesson.

Computers: Computers are used to view, store, send and receive information. Computers not only
help in presenting lessons but also with management and organization. Teachers can use the
computers to prepare lesson plans, to prepare presentations using PowerPoint and also can use to
play educational videos. The computers are also serves as the main connector to connect all other
technological components.

Multimedia Projectors: Multimedia projectors are the compact devices that project images in
high resolution, are common place in many of today’s classrooms. They can project images,
presentations or videos from a computer onto a screen or wall. The projector will be the gateway
to all technology used in your classroom because it helps to create a visual connection for your
students from a variety of devices.

Document Camera: A document camera displays real-time visuals on a larger scale. The camera
is connected to a multimedia projector. When an item such as a book, worksheet or science
experiment is placed under the camera, it projects onto the screen live and in action. It also can be
used to take still pictures or videos to use in future.

Interactive whiteboard: Interactive whiteboard is basically a screen that interacts with the images
you project by touching the screen or using special electronic pen.

EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY & AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS

Audio-visual aids are instructional devices which are used in the classroom to encourage learning
and make it easier and interesting.
The material like charts, maps, models, film strip, projectors, radio, television, etc. are called
instructional aids. Audio-visual aids provide the learners with realistic experience which capture
pupil’s attention and help in understanding the concepts e.g. watching the video about functions
of human heart. Audio-visual aids are stimulated thinking and understanding the concepts in easy
ways.
LIMITATIONS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

i. Technology sometimes fails thereby inconveniencing learning

ii. Making cheating easier as it is difficult to detect that students are cheating and
even proving it becomes even more difficult
iii. Makes people lazy as students can find any information they need in a click of
few buttons. In addition, the fact that students can go and get information from
various websites means that they don’t need to attend classes frequently
iv. Reduces face to face communication

End of unit 1

UNIT 2: CLASSROOM INTERACTION AND SELF INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS

Introduction
Classroom communication is a vital ingredient in the instructional and learning process in the
school environment. It is as necessary as food is a prerequisite for healthy growth. The quality and
quantity of teacher-student interaction is a critical dimension of effective classroom teaching. The
term ‘interaction’ implies an action – reaction or a mutual or reciprocal influence which may be
between individuals, e.g. pupil – pupil; teacher-pupil in classroom setting or between materials
and individuals or groups. An interaction is usually inferred from the behaviour of persons in the
environment being studied. This behaviour maybe verbal or non-verbal and can be classified as
being predominantly cognitive, affective or controlling in nature.

Interaction Analysis (IA) is an analytical observation scheme that gives an insight into what a
teacher does while teaching. It is a systematic observation that represents a useful means of
identifying, studying, classifying and measuring specific variables as the teacher and his/her
students interact within instructional learning situation. It uses a system of categories to encode
and quantify classroom behaviour of teacher and students. The purpose of developing the
observational system is that a teacher can be trained to use it for analyzing classroom behaviour;
for planning, and studying his/her teaching activities in order to create more effective classroom
learning. Interaction Analysis as an observational system captures the verbal behaviour of teachers
and pupils that is directly related to the social-emotional climate of the classroom.

Interaction Analysis is a process of encoding and decoding the study pattern of teaching and
learning. In the coding process, categories of classifying statements are established, a code symbol
is assigned to each category and a trained analyst interprets the display of coded data and
reconstructs the original events on the basis of the encoded data even though he may not have been
present when data were collected. Interaction Analysis is used as a technique capturing qualitative
and quantitative dimensions of teacher’s verbal behavior in the classroom.1

Classroom Interaction: the interaction between the teacher and learners, and amongst the
learners in the classroom.
Aim of the classroom interaction:
It aims at meaningful communication in the classroom between the teacher and learners..
Importance of Classroom interaction:
 Interaction is essential in the classroom environment.
 It helps teaching and learning process run smoothly
 It can increase learner’s communication skills.
 Pupils can develop their social skills and language skills also.
 It helps to reduce the amount of teacher-talk in order to increase learner talking time.
 It increases number of participants that they can share their ideas.
 It develops and improves the skills of team work.

CLASSROOM INTERACTION ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES

1
International Journal of Secondary Education
Volume 3, Issue 5, October 2015, Pages: 43-49
 1. Flander’s Interactional Analysis Technique
Ned A. Flander developed a system for analyzing the classroom interaction, which is known as
Flander’s Interaction Analysis Category System (FIACS) in 1959 at University of Minesota. It is
widely accepted, easily handled and commonly utilized category system for the analysis of
classroom interaction.
In Flander’s Interacction analysis category system, the entire classroom interaction is put into
three main sections:
a. Teacher Talk
b. Student Talk
c. Silence of confusion
Categories of FIACS are as follows:
Table 1. Flanders Interaction Analysis Categories (FIAC).

1. Accepts Feeling: Accepts and clarifies an attitude or feeling tone of a pupil

in a non-threatening manner. Feeling may be positive or negative.
Predicting and recalling feelings are included. E.g. teacher – why are you
sad John?
John: Sir, I lost my pocket money
Teacher: Well, that is enough to make one sad, but cheer
up, a replacement will come up.
Indirect
Teacher talk influence
2. Praises or encourages: Praises or encourages action or behavior. Jokes that
(Response)
release tension, but not at the expense of another individual; nodding head
saying um, hmm or go on are included.
e.g. Teacher: How many districts are in Malawi?
Jane: 28 Districts Sir!
Teacher: Very good. Put your hand together for Jane
 3. Accepts or uses ideas of pupils. Clarifying, building or developing ideas
suggested by a pupil. Teachers’ extensions of pupil ideas are included but
as teacher brings more of his own ideas into play, shift to category five.
Example –
Tokoni: Sir I think a major reason for massive failure among students is ill -
preparedness of students towards assessments.

Fortress: I will like to say that the lack of preparation is as a result of poor
reading habit among students.

Teacher: Tokoni and Fortress had suggested interesting points of view.

Fortress buttressed Tokoni’s ill-preparedness of students by linking it to our
societal disregard for a reading culture

4. Asks questions: Asking a question about content or procedures; based on

teacher ideas, with the intent that the pupil will answer.
Example, Teacher: What is the difference between dramatization and
simulation methods of teaching?

5. Lecturing: Giving facts of opinions about content or procedures;

expressing his own ideas, giving his own explanation or citing an authority
other than a pupil.

Example: Teacher: Social studies education is centered round the desire

to proffer solutions to perceived and anticipated problems that arises
from man’s interaction with the environment. It is a school discipline….

6. Giving direction: Directions, commands or orders to which a student is

expected to comply.
 Direct Example: Teacher: Sele, I want you to tell me what you have done with
Influence your textbook
(Initiation)
7. Criticizing or justifying authority: statements intended to change pupil
behaviour from non-acceptable to acceptable pattern; bawling someone
out; stating why the teacher is doing what he is doing; extreme self-
references.
Example: Teacher: What do you think you are doing out of your seat
Femi?

8. Pupil-talk - response: Talk by pupils in response to teacher. Teacher

initiates the contact or solicits pupil statement or structures the situation.
Freedom to express own ideas is limited.

Response Example; Teacher: Do you understand?

• Students: Yes (chorus)

9. Pupils-talk – initiation: Talk by pupils that they initiate. Expressing own

Pupil Talk ideas; initiating a new topic; freedom to develop opinions and a line of
thought, like asking thought, like asking thoughtful questions; going
beyond the existing structure.
Example; Teacher had just taught on air pollution
Initiation
A student, not asked for her opinion but stood up to give her experience of
inhaling smoke emitted from a running generator and that made her sneezed and
coughed for a while to explain effect of air pollution.

10. Silence or confusion: Pauses, short periods of silence and periods of

Silence
confusion in which communication cannot be understood by the observer.
 Example; Teacher: Bring out your English textbook and open to page 20
• Students: Period of silence and confusion as the students try to find the page

In this system, all teachers’ statements are either indirect or direct. This classification gives
central attention to the amount of freedom the teacher grants to the student. In a given situation
therefore, a teacher has a choice. He can be direct, that is minimizing the freedom of the student
to respond. His choice, consciously or unconsciously depends upon many factors among which
are his perceptions of the situations and the goals of the particular learning situation. In order
to make the total behaviour or total interaction in the classroom meaningful, the Flanders system
also provides for the categorizing of students talk. A third major section, that of silence or
confusion is included in order to account for the time spend in behaviour other than that which
can be classified as neither teacher nor student talk. A summary of these categories with b rief
definitions is given in table 1.

Reviewing FIAC, a simplified example of a classroom interaction analysis in a

teaching/learning process was explored.

The concept of Direct and Indirect Influence

- Indirect influence: action taken by a teacher which encourages and support student
participation.
- Direct influence – actions taken by the teacher which restrict student participation. This
increases the control of the teacher and stimulates conformity and compliance.

Limitations of Flanders Interaction Analysis

• The system does not describe the totality of the classroom activity. Some behaviour is always
overlooked and who is to say that the unrecorded aspects of the teaching act are more important
than those recorded.
• Efforts to describe teaching are often interpreted as evaluation of the teaching act and of the
teacher. While descriptions may be used as a basis of evaluation, judgment can be made only
after additional value assumptions are identified and applied to data
• The system of interaction analysis is content-free. It is concerned primarily, with social skills
of classroom management as expressed through verbal communication.
• It is costly and cumbersome and requires some form of automation in collecting and analyzing
the raw data. It is not a finished research tool.
• Much of the inferential power of this system of interaction analysis comes from tabulating the
data as sequence of pairs in a 10 x 10 matrix. This is a time consuming process.
• Once the high cost of tedious tabulation (electric computers) is under control but the problem
of training reliable observers and maintaining their reliability will still remain.
• Its potential as a research tool for a wide application to problems is to be explored.

2. Social Network Analysis Technique (SNA)

SNA is defined as the mapping and measuring of relationship and flows between people; group
organizations, computers and other connected information / knowledge entities.
PERSONALISED SYSTEM OF INSTRUCTION (PSI)
Personalized system of instruction (PSI) is the one of the recent innovation which has been
successfully introduced in higher education to individualize instruction. This system of instruction
which is person oriented. It puts more emphasis on the individualization of instruction than other
methods in higher education. The instruction is trailed to the need and ability of the individual
learner. PSI get its name from the fact that each student is served as an individual by another person
face to face and one to one in spite of fact that the class may contain number of students. It is
suitable for courses for the student is expected to acquire a well-defined body of knowledge or
skill. The majority of college course the PSI teacher expects almost all of his students to learn his
materials well and is prepared to award high grades to those, who do, regardless of their relative
in the standing in the class. The teacher accepts the responsibility meeting the goal within the
normal limits of manpower, space and equipment.

OBJECTIVES OF PSI:The PSI has been to evolve to fulfill certain specific instructional
objectives which may be enumerated has follows:
To establish better personal – social relationship in the educational process .
To provide frequent reinforcements for learning.
To provide increased frequency and quantity of feed back to the instructors which the
consequent benefit of a basis for meaningful revision in programme, content, and instructional
procedures.
To decrease reliance on the lecture for presentation or critical information utilizes different
techniques for instructional purposes.
To evaluate on the basis of fixed standard are mastery in a variable time period at the
acceptable level of performances of the students.

IV. CHARACTERISTICS OF PSI:

The personalized system of instruction (PSI) lays more emphasis on the importance of written
works. The teacher gives practice to the learners on carefully prepared assignments consisting of
section from standards text books. Articles are given to the students along with study question and
other instructions as to what to read in what order and for what information. When the students
thinks that he has mastered the materials he comes to the class room to take a brief quiz. This is
immediately corrected by proctor. If there are errors the proctor indicates what part of the
assignments needs further study the students goes of to do some more work and then come back
to try again. That is are not examination in the normal sense. Students are not penalized for
securing lower grade for an error. The specific distinctive characteristic of PSI is as follows.
Self – pacing.
Use of multimedia.
Use of proctors.
Mastery learning.
Importance of written work.

The Personalized System of Instruction is a mastery learning model which seeks to promote
mastery of a pre-specified set of objectives from each learner in a course. Students work through
a series of self-paced modules
o Also known as the “Keller Plan”

o 1960s, Fred Keller, built on earlier models of personalized instruction geared toward K-12

o Keller Plan designed more for higher ed. at University of Brasilia

o Many large university courses follow the model today

PSI Outcomes
1. Some evidence that tutored students learn “more” than lectured students
2. Students favor individual pacing and appreciate individual attention from proctors
3. Individualized attention for gifted/special Ed.
4. Most common, traditionally viewed as too expensive for average classes

PROGRAMMED LEARNING
Programmed learning is based on the principles of small steps, self-pacing and immediate
feedback.
Teaching technique in which a learner is presented with a small chunk of information, and is asked
to answer some questions after understanding it. If is the answer is correct, the learner may proceed
to the next chunk, otherwise go back to a previous piece of information and proceed from there.
Programmed learning outcomes:
Expected student behavior

Student – centered

Specific Conditions

Specific standards of performance

ROLES OF A TEACHER
The following are some of the roles of a teacher in a classroom situation:
a. Facilitate the process of teaching

Teachers are given curriculum that they must follow that meets state guidelines.

To do this, the teacher is supposed to select suitable and necessary techniques and strategies
that will help to improve the process of human learning.

Proper use of the strategies and techniques will enable teachers to follow the curriculum so
that all pertinent knowledge is dispensed to students. [http//www.ehow.com/]

b. Creating conducive learning environment for all learners

A learning environment is conducive if it is free from learning disturbances

Students often mimic a teacher’s action.

If a teacher prepares a warm, happy environment, students are more likely to be happy.
 Proper usage of a variety of teaching aids promotes the conducive environment for learning as
learners are entertained in the course thereby being attracted to attend the class.

An environment set by a teacher can be either positive or negative.

Dress code of the teacher also plays a role here.

If learners sense that the teacher is angry, students may react negatively to that and therefore
learning can be impaired. [http//www.ehow.com/]

c. Controlling the students

This is more important than the learning that goes on the classroom.

Many learners do not know how to manage their behavior in classroom.

It is a common theme for parents and teachers to be frustrated by teenagers’ lack of ability to
manage their own behavior.

At this point, the teacher is more responsible to adopt suitable practice of management in
classrooms. [Wingo, 2003]

d. Keeping correct and exact record of learners

This helps to provide effective treatment to the learners in classroom.

Recording classroom data is vital in Education Technology as a course.

It is very much important for the teacher to keep a record of individual learners as this
promote effective interaction among the teachers and students, parents and other stakeholders

e. Organizing proper seating arrangement

Arrangement of space and structure that bunch students together or obstruct the teachers view,
make it more difficult for the teacher to detect behavior task initiations early. [Duke and Rehage,
1979]
 Therefore, seating arrangement must depend on types of lesson to be taught and the type of
classroom furniture.

It is the role of the teacher to establish who sit where.

Proper seating plan helps the teacher to learn names more rapidly. [Laslett and Smith, 1984]

f. Role modeling

Students spend a great deal of time with their teacher and therefore, the teacher becomes a role
model to them.

This can be a positive or negative effect depending on the acts of the teacher.

Positive role modeling may result in improved performance of learners.

Teachers are not only there to teach the learners, but also to love and care for them.
[http//www.ehow.com/]

g. Mentoring

It is a natural role taken on by teachers, whether it is intentionally or not.

Mentoring is a way a teacher encourages students to enjoy learning.

Part of mentoring consists of listening to students.

By listening to what students say, teachers impart to students a sense of ownership in the
classroom.

h. Establishing classroom rules and regulations

This can be done together with the students or before the school year begins.

Rules are best if they are few in numbers, simple and easy to understand.

Rules must be posted in classroom for all to see and the teacher should go over the rules on the
first day of the school.
i. Noting signs of trouble

Teachers are taught to look for signs of trouble in students.

When students’ behaviour change or physical signs of abuse are noticed, teachers are required
to look into the problem.

Teachers must follow faculty procedure when it comes to following up on all signs of trouble.
[http//www.ehow.com/]

j. Monitoring learners’ progress

It is the duty of the teacher to monitor the progress of the learners in his/her class and take
necessary steps to assist those with challenges in academic work.
In conclusion, teachers play a vital role in the lives of learners in their classrooms. They set the
tone of their classroom atmosphere for effective teaching and learning processes. It should be noted
that the list of roles of teachers in a classroom above is endless

INSTRUCTIONAL APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTERS

Computer: an electronic data processing machine which can be used to store, retrieve the data.
It is also used to performing calculations in accurate manner.
Hardware: Computer hardware includes the physical components of a computer such as CPU
(Central Processing Unit), Monitor, Keyboard, Speakers and Motherboard.
Software: Set of instructions / programs.

Software is a general term for the various kinds of programs used to operate computers and
related devices.
COMPUTER AIDED TEACHING TECHNIQUES
 CAI – Computer Assisted Instruction
 CAL – Computer Aided Learning
 CALL – Computer Assisted Language Learning
 CML – Computer Managed Learning
  CBL – Computer Based Learning
Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI):
A self-learning technique, usually offline/online, involving interaction of the student with
programmed instructional materials. Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) is an interactive
instructional technique whereby a computer is used to present the instructional material and
monitor the learning that takes place. CAI uses a combination of text, graphics, sound and video
in enhancing the learning process. The computer has many purposes in the classroom, and it can
be utilized to help a student in all areas of the curriculum.
CAI refers to the use of the computer as a tool to facilitate and improve instruction. CAI
programs use tutorials, drill and practice, simulation, and problem solving approaches to present
topics, and they test student’s understanding.

CAI can also be defined as a method of instruction in which there is a purposeful interaction
between the learner and computer device for helping the individual learner to achieve the desired
instructional objectives in his own pace and abilities at his command.
Typical CAI provides;
a. Text or multimedia content
b. Multi-choice questions
c. Problems
d. Immediate feedback
e. Notes on corrected responses
f. Summarizes students responses
g. Exercises for practice
h. Worksheets and tests
Types of CAI

1. Drill-and-practice Drill and practice provide opportunities or students to repeatedly practice

the skills that have previously been presented and that further practice is necessary for mastery.
2. Tutorial Tutorial activity includes both the presentation of information and its extension into
different forms of work, including drill and practice, games and simulation.
3. Games Game software often creates a contest to achieve the highest score and either beat
others or beat the computer.
4. Simulation Simulation software can provide an approximation of reality that does not require
the expense of real life or its risks.
5. Discovery Discovery approach provides a large database of information specific to a course or
content area and challenges the learner to analyze, compare, infer and evaluate based on their
explorations of the data.
6. Problem Solving This approach helps children develop specific problem solving skills and
strategies
Advantages of CAI:
a. Each student receives instruction at his own pace
b. Each student receives rapid feedback for his response
c. All units of learning are broken down into sub units and small elements of learning
d. Students can test their own learning at any time of progress

Limitations of CAI:
1. The computer fails to appreciate the emotions of the students

2. CAI is a sort of mechanical approach to education

3. Students may feel overwhelmed by the information and resources available
4. over use of multimedia may divert the attention from the content

CALL – Computer Assisted Language Learning: The term defined as the use of computers in
language proficiency assessment and in the presentation of new language learning material.
CALL has come to encompass issues of materials design, technologies, pedagogical theories and
modes of instruction. Materials for CALL can include those which are purpose made for
language learning and those which adapt existing computer based materials, video and other
materials (Beatty, 2003, pp. 7-8).

Types of CALL programs:

 CALL-Specific software
 Generic software
 Web-based learning programs
 Computer- mediated communication (CMC) programs

Types of CALL Activities:

  Multiple-Choice & True/false quizzes
 Gap-filling exercises
 Matching
 Re-ordering / Sequencing
 Crossword Puzzles
 Games
 Simulations

Computer-Aided Learning CAL

The use of computer technologies (hardware, software and / or networking tools) to support /
enhance the learning experience.