North South University

Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology

Assignment on
Cellular Evolution

Submitted to
Dr. Ishtiaq Mahmud, Ph.D.
Professor
Department of Biochemistry & Microbiology (BMD)
North South University (NSU)

Submitted by
Rabita Bilkis
ID: 2425023670
Department of Biochemistry & Microbiology
North South University

Submission Date: April 17, 2025

The evolution of life on Earth is one of the most profound and complex scientific

inquiries. Understanding cellular evolution is essential to understand how life

originated from non-living matter, as well as evolution of primitive cells into the

diverse organisms seen today. Scientists have proposed various theories to explain

the origin of life, the formation of organic macromolecules, and the emergence of

eukaryotic cells. This essay explores the timeline of Earth’s formation and the first

cell’s emergence, different hypotheses regarding the origin of life, and the

evolutionary transition from simple prokaryotic cells to complex eukaryotic

organisms.

History of Earth

o Formation: The Earth formed approximately 4.55 billion years ago from cosmic

dust and gas. Initially, it was a hostile environment with extreme temperatures

(Average temperature was 2000 degree Celsius) and volcanic activity. It was

termed a ‘Naked Planet’ as there was no ocean and lacked a stable atmosphere.

o Atmosphere and Oceans: Volcanic outgassing created a primordial atmosphere

rich in methane, ammonia, and hydrogen but devoid of oxygen. Around 3.8

billion years ago, the planet cooled down. Condensation of water vapor, centuries

of rainfall and water accumulation led to the formation of the first oceans.

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o Origin of Life: The earliest known microfossils, dated to about 3.5 billion years

ago, suggest that life had already emerged. The first living cells were likely

anaerobic archaebacteria that thrived in an oxygen-free environment.

o The Great Oxygenation: Fossil evidence from stromatolites, layered rock

structures created by microbial activity, suggests that cyanobacteria played a

crucial role in shaping Earth's atmosphere through oxygenic photosynthesis,

leading to the Great Oxygenation Event (~2.4 billion years ago).

o The First Eukaryotes: The first eukaryotes likely evolved around 1.6 to 2.2

billion years ago. The first animal trait to evolve was multicellularity, allowing

for specialization of cells and increased complexity. Genetic analyses and

molecular evidence suggest that sea sponges may have been among the earliest

animals to inhabit the Earth, with some molecular fossils potentially dating back

to 640 million years ago.

o The Cambrian Explosion: The Cambrian explosion, a period of rapid

diversification of animal life, occurred around 540 million years ago, following

the emergence of early animals.

What is Life and What is Living?

Defining life is a challenging task. Scientists generally agree that living organisms

share certain characteristics:

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• Cellular Organization – All living things are made up of cells, the basic unit of

life.

• Metabolism – The ability to convert energy from the environment for growth

and maintenance.

• Reproduction – The ability to produce offspring and pass on genetic

information.

• Homeostasis – The ability to maintain a stable internal environment.

• Adaptation and Evolution – The capacity to change over generations through

natural selection.

Life exists in a wide variety of forms, from single-celled microbes to complex

multicellular organisms. While viruses exhibit some characteristics of life, such as

genetic material and evolution, they lack independent metabolism and cellular

structures, leading to debates about their classification as living entities.

The Origin of Life on Earth

Scientists have proposed several theories to explain how life first emerged from non-

living matter.

1. The Chemical Evolution Theory (Abiogenesis or Primordial Soup

Hypothesis): The Chemical Evolution Theory by Oparin and Haldane (1924)

suggests that life arose gradually from non-living chemical substances through a

series of complex chemical reactions over millions of years. This theory is based

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 on the idea that simple inorganic molecules combined to form complex organic

compounds, eventually leading to the formation of the first living cells. The

Miller-Urey experiment (1953) provided experimental support by demonstrating

that amino acids, the building blocks of proteins, could be formed under prebiotic

conditions.

Figure 1 Miller-Urey experiment

2. Hydrothermal Vent Hypothesis: Hydrothermal vents are fissures on the ocean

floor where geothermally heated water is released. They are typically found along

mid-ocean ridges, where tectonic plates are active. Hydrothermal vents create an

environment rich in hydrogen (H₂), methane (CH₄), ammonia (NH₃), and sulfur

compounds, which can drive the chemical reactions necessary for life. The

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 hypothesis suggests that life on Earth may have originated at deep-sea

hydrothermal vents, where mineral-rich water provided the necessary chemical

energy and conditions for life to emerge. This theory is an alternative to the

primordial soup and panspermia hypotheses, offering a scenario in which life

began in extreme environments, like modern extremophiles.

3. Panspermia Hypothesis: The Panspermia Theory suggests that life on Earth did

not originate here but was instead brought from space via comets, asteroids,

meteorites, or cosmic dust. This theory challenges traditional Earth-based origins,

proposing that microbial life or its building blocks could have survived harsh

space conditions and seeded life on our planet. While Panspermia does not

explain how life originally formed, it offers an alternative perspective on where

life may have started and how it might have spread across planets.

The Emergence of Organic Macromolecules

Before life could emerge, organic macromolecules such as proteins, nucleic acids,

and lipids needed to form. There are several theories explaining this process:

1. RNA World Hypothesis: Suggests that RNA molecules were the first self-

replicating entities, due to their ability to store genetic information and catalyze

reactions. Eventually, DNA and proteins took over these functions.

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2. Protein World Hypothesis: Proposes that peptides and proteins were the first

biological molecules due to their catalytic abilities, which later led to the

formation of nucleic acids.

3. Lipid World Hypothesis: Suggests that primitive lipid membranes formed

spontaneously, creating protocells that could encapsulate biomolecules and

facilitate early metabolic reactions.

The Origin of Eukaryotes

The transition from simple prokaryotic cells to complex eukaryotic cells is a major

event in cellular evolution. Several theories explain this process:

1. Endosymbiotic Theory: Proposed by Lynn Margulis (1970), this theory suggests

that mitochondria and chloroplasts originated as free-living bacteria that were

engulfed by a larger host cell. Over time, these symbiotic relationships evolved

into permanent organelles, giving rise to modern eukaryotic cells.

2. The Universal Gene Pool Hypothesis: First proposed by Carl Woese in the late

1990s, suggests that early life on Earth shared a common pool of genes through

extensive horizontal gene transfer. Instead of evolving in isolated lineages,

primitive organisms exchanged genetic material freely, allowing the rapid spread

of useful traits. This communal evolution created a network-like model rather

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 than a strict tree of life. As life became more complex, lineages stabilized, leading

to the distinct domains of life we recognize today.

3. The Ring of Life Hypothesis: Proposed by James Lake in 2009, suggests that

eukaryotic cells (cells with a nucleus) evolved from a fusion between a bacterium

and an archaeon. Instead of branching off from a single ancestor like in a

traditional "tree of life," this hypothesis presents a ring-shaped evolutionary

model to represent the merging of two different prokaryotic lineages. This fusion

brought together:

• Genetic information-processing systems from Archaea (e.g., DNA replication,

transcription)

• Metabolic capabilities from Bacteria (e.g., energy production)

Figure 2 Schematic representation of the supposed events that lead to mitochondria and chloroplasts. Two independent
primary endosymbiotic processes would have occurred.

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The result was the complex eukaryotic cell, with features inherited from both

ancestral domains.

4. The Chronocyte Hypothesis: Proposed by Hyman Hartman and Alexei

Fedorov in 2002, suggests that eukaryotic cells evolved from a hypothetical

ancestral lineage called “chronocytes.” These were distinct from both Bacteria

and Archaea and possessed advanced cytoskeletal and membrane systems,

allowing them to engulf other cells via phagocytosis. According to the

hypothesis:

• A chronocyte engulfed an archaeon, which later became nucleus.

• It also engulfed a bacterium, which evolved into mitochondrion.

• This dual endosymbiosis gave rise to the complex structure of modern

eukaryotic cells.

5. The Three Viruses, Three Domains Hypothesis: Proposed by Patrick Forterre

in the early 2000s, suggests that the three domains of life (Bacteria, Archaea, and

Eukarya) originated from separate infections of ancient RNA-based cells by

different DNA viruses. These viral infections introduced DNA replication

systems, helping early cells transition from RNA to DNA genomes. This explains

why each domain has a unique set of DNA replication machinery and highlights

the role of viruses as key drivers in the evolution of life.

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Organisms and Their Evolution

Over billions of years, life has diversified through evolution. The earliest life forms

were unicellular prokaryotes, which later evolved into more complex eukaryotic

cells. Multicellular organisms emerged around 600 million years ago, leading to the

development of plants, animals, and fungi.

Key evolutionary milestones include:

• The Cambrian Explosion (~540 million years ago): A rapid diversification

of life occured, especially among marine animals. Most major animal body

plans (phyla) appeared during this period. Fossils from this time include

trilobites, brachiopods, and early arthropods.

• Colonization of Land (~500–400 million years ago): Plants were among the

first organisms to move onto land, followed by arthropods and later,

vertebrates. Adaptations like roots, vascular tissue, and the development of

limbs enabled survival outside aquatic environments.

• The evolution of mammals, birds, and eventually humans (~200 million to 2

million years ago).

Conclusion

The study of cellular evolution provides valuable insights into the origins and

complexity of life. From the formation of simple prokaryotic cells to the emergence

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of eukaryotic organisms, life has undergone remarkable transformations. While

many questions remain unanswered, continued research in genetics, molecular

biology, and paleontology helps unravel the mysteries of life’s beginnings.

Understanding cellular evolution not only deepens our knowledge of the past but

also informs fields such as medicine, biotechnology, and astrobiology, shaping our

exploration of life beyond Earth.

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Reference

• Alberts, B., Johnson, A., Lewis, J., Raff, M., Roberts, K., & Walter, P. (2014).

Molecular Biology of the Cell (6th ed.). Garland Science.

• Lane, N. (2015). The Vital Question: Energy, Evolution, and the Origins of

Complex Life. W.W. Norton & Company.

• Margulis, L. (1970). Origin of Eukaryotic Cells. Yale University Press.

• Max Planck Society. (2019). Earliest animals evolved in a world without oxygen.

Retrieved from https://www.mpg.de/12791167/animal-evolution

• Miller, S. L. (1953). A Production of Amino Acids Under Possible Primitive Earth

Conditions. Science, 117(3046), 528-529.

• NASA. (2020). Astrobiology: The Origin of Life on Earth. Retrieved from

https://astrobiology.nasa.gov

• National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI). (2022). What is RNA

World Hypothesis? Retrieved from https://www.genome.gov

• Woese, C. R., Kandler, O., & Wheelis, M. L. (1990). Towards a Natural System

of Organisms: Proposal for the Domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya.

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 87(12), 4576-4579.

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