NUTRITION - I

Nutrition may be defined as the science of food and its relationship to health.
Dietetics: Dietetics is the practical application of the principles of nutrition; it
includes the planning of meals for the well and the sick.
COMPONENTS OF FOOD:
a) Proximate principles: Carbohydrates, Proteins, fats.
b) Accessory Food Factors: Vitamins & minerals.
c) Additional Food Factors: Water & Fibre.
CLASSIFICATION OF FOODS
There are many ways of classifying foods:
1. Classification by origin:
- Animal
- Vegetable
2. Classification by predominant function

Body-building foods. Protective foods

Proteins Vitamins& Minerals
Energy-giving foods
Carbohydrates & Fats.
NUTRIENTS
These are organic and inorganic complexes contained in food. Divided into:
i) Macronutrients: - eg. proteins,
- Often called “proximate principles”
- Contribute to the total energy intake in the following proportions:
Proteins 7 to 15 %
Fats 10 to 30 %
Carbohydrates 65 to 80 %
ii) Micronutrients: eg. vitamins and minerals.
PROTEINS
- Constitute about 20 % of the body weight in an adult.
- Made up of smaller units --- amino acids.
- 9 of these are “essential” as the body cannot synthesize them in amounts
corresponding to its needs, and therefore, they must be obtained from dietary
proteins. They are: leucine, isoleucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine,
threonine, valine, tryptophan and histidine.
- Labile Proteins: The body contains some form of readily available protein
which is utilized in emergencies.
Functions:
a) Body building.
b) Repair and maintenance of body tissues.
c) Maintenance of osmotic pressure.
d) Synthesis of substances like antibodies, plasma proteins, haemoglobin,
enzymes, hormones and coagulation factors.
Energy supplied: 4 Kcal per one gram.

Sources:
a) Animal : eg. milk, meat, eggs, cheese, fish and fowl. These proteins
contain all the essential amino acids in adequate amounts. Egg proteins are
the best among food proteins because of their high biological value and
digestibility, and are called “reference protein”.
b) Vegetable : eg. pulses (legumes), cereals, beans, nuts, oil-seed cakes, etc.
Poor in EAA.
First Class Protein: Those which contain all essential amino acids eg. Meat,
Egg, Milk, Fish.
Second Class Protein: They do not contain all the essenjtial amino acids eg.
Pulses, vegetables, wheat, millets.
Protein requirements: It depends on :
1) Age: More during infancy & childhood. Recommended allowance for
adults 1gm /kg body wt.
2) Physiological conditions: Pregnancy: 15 gms additional allowance
/day.Lactation: 25 gms additional allowance /day.
3) Stress condition: More in conditions like burns.
4) Composition of Proteins: Food should have full quota of essential & non
essential amino acids for optimum results.
5) If calories supplied by carbohydrates & Fats is adequate then the protein
requirement is less.
Protein Deficiency:
1) Kwashiorkar.
2) Marasmus.
3) Marasmic - Kwashiorkar.

FATS
Fats and oils are concentrated sources of energy.
Saturated Fats: Carbon atoms are saturated with hydrogen atoms eg. Butter, Ghee.
Unsaturated Fats: Hydrogen atoms are removed & replaced by double bond eg.
Sunflower oil, soyabean oil, safflower oil, linseed oil.
Hydrogenation of Fats: Unsaturated fat becomes saturated if it combines with
hydrogen at the site of double bond.
Method: Unsaturated fat is exposed to hydrogen at high temperature in presence of
a catalyst eg. Nickel & cobalt.
Advantages:
1. Makes fats easily marketable as it changes liquid state to solid state.
2.It has attractive white colour.
3.Does not turn rancid soon.

Classification:
a. Simple lipids, e.g. triglycerides
b. Compound lipids, e.g. phospholipids
c. Derived lipids, e.g. cholesterol
Fatty acids:
Fats yield fatty acids and glycerol on hydrolysis.

Fatty Acids
Saturated

P
Unsaturated

Monounsaturated Polyunsaturated
(MUFA) (PUFA)

Fatty acids

Saturated Unsaturated

Lauric monounsaturated polyunsaturated

Palmitic (MUFA) (PUFA)
stearic acids oleic acid linoleic acid &
 α- linolenic acid

Essential Fatty Acids: Cannot be synthesized in body so are to be supplied in

diet.eg. Linoleic, Linoleinic & Arachidonic acid.

Sources:
Animal : ghee, butter, milk, cheese, eggs and fat of meat and fish.
Vegetable : groundnut, mustard, sesame, coconut, etc.
Others: Small quantities (invisible fat) through foods as cereals, pulses, nuts and
vegetables.
Functions:
- To supply calories
- To make diet palatable
- To help in absorption of fat soluble vitamins
- To supply essential fatty acids
- Support viscera such as heart, kidney and intestine
- Beneath the skin it provides insulation against cold
- Concerned with production of steroidal hormones
Energy supplied: 9 Kcal per gm.
Fats and disease
1. Due to high fat in diet:
- Obesity
- Coronary Heart Disease
- Cancer
2. Due to deficiency of essential fatty acids
- Phrenoderma
Fat requirement: 1 gm/kg/day
CARBOHYDRATES
A major component of food and is the main source of energy
Sources:
Three main sources -
Starch – Abundant in cereals like rice, wheat,
bajra and roots and tubers
Sugars – comprise monosaccharides (glucose, fructose and
galactose) and disaccharides (sucrose, lactose and
maltose)
Cellulose – indigestible component of carbohydrate with scarcely
any nutritive value, contributes to dietary fibre.
Energy Supplied: 4 kcals per gram.
Functions:
- To supply immediate calories
- To prevent hepatic damage
Requirement:
200 – 300 gms/day (About 60 to 70% of the total calories)

DIETARY FIBRE
Mainly non-starch polysaccharides and is a physiologically important component
of the diet. It is found in vegetables, fruits and grains.
Functions:
- Reduces the tendency to constipation
- Has cholesterol lowering effect
- Helps in weight reduction

Protective Foods.
( Vitamins & Minerals)

Vitamins:
Class of organic compounds categorized as essential nutrients.
Required by the body in very small amounts.
Act as catalyst in various body processes.
Divided into 2 groups:
A) Fat soluble : A, D, E, K.
B) Water soluble: B Complex & C.

Vitamin A.
Covers both a pre formed vitamin , retinol and a pro vitamin , beta carotene, some
of which is converted to retinol in the intestinal mucosa.
Source
A) Animal foods: liver, eggs, butter, cheese, whole milk, fish , meat, fish liver oil.
B) Plant foods: Green leafy vegetables like spinach & amaranth, yellow fruits
like papaya, mango, pumpkin, some roots like carrots.
C) Fortified foods: Foods fortified with vitamin A like vanaspati, margarine,
milk.

Functions:
 1) Required for normal vision. Needed for vision in dim light.
2) Necessary in maintaining integrity/function of glandular/epithelial tissue.
3) Needed for development.
4) Has anti-infective properties.
5) Has some protective action against some epithelial cancer

Recommended allowances:
Adult Male 5000IU / day.
Adult Female 4000IU / day.
In pregnancy + 200 IU / day.
In lactation + 400 IU / day

Deficiency:
Ocular manifestations:
A) Nightblindness.
B) Conjunctival xerosis.
C) Bitot’s spot.
D) Corneal xerosis.
E) Keratomalacia.
Extra Ocular manifestations:
a) Follicular hyperkeratosis.
b) Anorexia.
c) Growth retardation.

Toxicity:
Nausea ,Vomiting, Anorexia, Sleep disorders, Skin desquamation, Enlarged liver,
Papillar oedema.
Vitamin D.
The nutritionally important forms of Vitamin D in man are Calceferol ( Vitamin
D2) and Cholecalciferol ( Vitamin D3).
Daily requirements:
Daily requirements of vitamin D are:
Adults 100 IU
Infants and children 200 IU
Pregnancy & lactation 400 IU.
Sources:
Sunlight
Foods: Liver, egg yolk, butter & cheese, fish, fish liver oils, human milk.
Fortified foods: like milk, margarine, vanaspati and infant foods.
Functions:
1. Promotes intestinal absorption of calcium & phosphorus.
2. Stimulates normal mineralization of bone, enhances bone resorption, affects
collagen maturation.
3. Increases tubular reabsorption of phosphate in kidney, variable effect on
reabsorption of calcium.
4. Permits normal growth.
Deficiency:
1. Rickets
2. Osteomalacia.
3. Tetany.
Toxicity: Anorexia, Nausea, vomiting, constipation, retention of urine &
impaired renal functions tests. High level of serum calcium & phosphorus.

Vitamin E.
It is a group of closely related & naturally occurring fat soluble compounds, the
tocopherols.
Sources: Vegetable oils, cotton seeds, sunflower seed, egg yolk, butter.
Daily Requirement: 0.8 mg/ g of essential fatty acids.
Deficiency: Monocytic Megaloblastic anemia. & Pre mature infants malabsorption
syndrome.

Vitamin K
It occurs in at least 2 major forms – Vitamin K1 & Vitamin K2.
Sources:
Green vegetables like spinach & cabbage, egg yolk, tomatoes, vitaminK1
synthesized by bacteria in intestine.
Daily requirement: 0.03 mg/ kg for an adult.
Functions: To stimulate production & release of certain coagulation factors.
Deficiency: Hemorrhagic diathesis like petechiae, purpura, Echymosis.

Thiamine ( Vitamin B1)

It is a water soluble vitamin & is essential for the utilization of carbohydrates.
Sources:
Whole grain cereals, wheat, gram, yeast, pulses, oilseeds & nuts, meat, fish, eggs,
vegetables & fruits, milk.
Recommended Allowances:
Daily requirement is 0.5 mg per 1000 k cals of energy.
Deficiency:
1. Dry Beriberi – peripheral neuropathy, Wernicke encephalopathy,
Korsakoff psychosis, muscle tenderness, weakness, hyporeflexia.
2. Wet Beriberi – Tachycardia, cardiomegaly, congestive heart failure.
3. Infantile Beriberi.

Riboflavin (B2).
It is a member of the B – group vitamins, which plays a fundamental role in
cellular oxidation & is a co- factor in a number of enzymes involved with energy
metabolism.
Sources:
Milk, eggs, liver, kidney and green leafy vegetables, meat, fish, cereals and pulses.
Daily requirement:
0.6 mg per 1000 kcal of energy intake.
Deficiency:
Angular cheilosis, stomatitis, glossitis, nasolabial dyssebacia, corneal
vascularisation, scrotal dermatitis, angular blepharitis.

Niacin.
It is essential for the metabolism of carbohydrate, fat & protein. It is also essential
for the normal functioning of the skin, intestinal and nervous systems.
Sources:
Liver, kidney, meat, poultry, fish, legumes, groundnut, milk.
Daily requirement:
6.6 mg / 1000 kcal of energy intake.
Deficiency:
Pellagra – Diarrhoea, dermatitis and dementia
Glossitis & stomatitis.
Mental changes which include depression, irritability, and delirium.

Vitamin B6 ( Pyridoxine)
It plays an important role in the metabolism of amino acids & carbohydrates.
Source:
Milk, liver, meat, egg yolk, fish, whole grain cereals, legumes and vegetables
Daily requirement: Adults need 2mg / day.
In pregnancy & lactation 2.5 mg / day.
Deficiency: Peripheral neuropathy.

Vitamin B 12. ( Cyanocobalamine)

It is complex organo metallic compound with a cobalt atom. ‘Intrinsic factor’
needed for its absorption.
Sources:
Liver, kidney, meat, fish, eggs, milk & cheese, synthesized by bacteria in colon.
Deficiency: Megaloblastic anemia, Macrocytic Anemia, RBC survival time
reduced to 60 days from 120 days.
Vitamin C
It is a water soluble vitamin.
Functions:
1. Important role to play in tissue oxidation.
2. Needed for formation of collagen, which provides a supporting matrix for
the blood vessels & connective tissue & for bones & cartilage.
Sources: Fresh fruits like amla, guava, lime, orange & tomato, green leafy
vegetables, roots & tubers.
Daily requirement: 40 mg / day.
Deficiency: Scurvy – swollen & bleeding gums, subcutaneous bruising, bleeding
into skin or joints, delayed wound healing, anemia and weakness.

Minerals
Minerals are required for growth, repair and regulation of vital body functions.
Divided into 3 major groups:
a) Major minerals – calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium, magnesium.
b) Trace elements – Iron, iodine, fluorine, zinc, copper, cobalt, chromium,
manganese, molybdenum, selenium, nickel, tin, silicon, vanadium.
c) Trace contaminants with no known function – lead, mercury, barium,
boron, aluminium.

Calcium:It constitutes 1.5 - 2 % of the body weight of an adult human. 98% of

all the calcium present in the body is found in bones.
Functions: Helps in
- Formation of bones & teeth.
- Coagulation of blood.
 - Contraction of muscles.
- Cardiac action.
- Milk production.
- Relay of electrical & chemical messages that arrive at the cellular level.
- Keeping the membrane of cells intact.
- Metabolism of enzymes & hormones.
- In transformation of light to electrical impulses in the retina.
Sources: Milk, milk products, ( e.g. cheese, curd, skimmed milk & butter milk, )
eggs & fish, crabs, green leafy vegetables, cereals & millets, Ragi, custard apple.
Daily requirement: A daily intake of 400 to 500 mg of calcium.
Deficiency: Tetany, Rickets
Osteoporosis.

Iron
It is of great importance in human nutrition . The adult human body contains 3- 4
g of iron, of which about 60 -70 % is present in the blood as circulating iron
Functions:
Helps in
- Formation of haemoglobin.
- Brain development & function.
- Regulation of body temperature, muscle activity.
- Production of antibodies.
- Oxygen transport & cell respiration.

Source:
Two forms of iron:
Haem- iron: liver, meat, poultry, fish, milk.
Non – haem iron: cereals, green leafy vegetables, legumes, nuts, oilseeds,
jaggery, dried fruits

Daily Requirement
Adult Male 25 mg / day.
Adult Female 35 mg/ day.

Deficiency:
- Nutritional anemia.
- Impaired cell mediated immunity.
- Reduced resistance to infection.
- Increased morbidity & mortality.
- Diminished work performance.

Iodine
An essential micronutrient. Required for the synthesis of the thyroid hormones.
Sources:
Sea foods ( eg: sea fish , sea salt), cod liver oil, milk, meat, vegetables, cereals
Requirement
150 micrograms per day.
Deficiency:
- Hypothyroidism
- Retarded physical development & impaired mental function.
- Increased rate of spontaneous abortion & still birth.
- Neurological cretinism, including deaf – mutism.
- Myxedematous cretinism.,
Fluorine.
Most abundant element in nature.
Never found in its elemental gaseous form but only in combined forms.
Sources:
- Major source - Drinking water.
- Foods: sea fish, cheese, tea.
Deficiency/ Excess.
Fluorine is often called a two edged sword. Prolonged ingestion of fluorides
through drinking water in excess of the daily requirement is associated with dental
and skeletal fluorosis, and inadequate intake with dental caries.
Daily requirement:
0.5 to 0.8 mg per litre.