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Careerwill IAS INDIAN SOIL: PRELIMS 2022

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Soil

2. Soil types in India (Types of Soil)

i. Alluvial Soils
ii. Black Soils
iii. Red Soil
iv. Laterite Soil
v. Forest Soil/ Mountain Soil
vi. Desert Soil
vii. Saline and Alkaline Soil
viii. Peaty, and Marshy Soil/Bog Soil

3. Characteristics of Indian Soils

4. Problems of Indian Soils

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Definition of Soil
Soil can be simply defined as a mixture of small rock particles/debris and organic
materials/ humus which develop on the earth surface and support growth of plants.
Soil Classification – Urvara vs Usara
In India, soil had been classified from the ancient period itself even though it was not
as detail as the modern classifications.
In the ancient period, the classification was based on only two things; whether the
soil is fertile or sterile. Thus the classification were:
1. Urvara [fertile]
2. Usara [sterile]
Factors that influence soil formation–
 Parent Material
 Relief/Topography
 Climate
 Natural Vegetation & Biological factors
 Time
Soil types in India (Types of Soil)
The first scientific classification of soil was done by Vasily Dokuchaev. In India,
the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has classified soils into 8
categories.
1. Alluvial Soil
2. Black Cotton Soil
3. Red Soil
4. Laterite Soil
5. Mountainous or Forest Soils
6. Arid or Desert Soil
7. Saline and Alkaline Soil
8. Peaty, and Marshy Soil/Bog Soil
This classification scheme is based on constitutional characteristics – colour and
the resource significance of the soils.
The ICAR has also classified the Indian soils on the basis of their nature and
character as per the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Soil
Taxonomy.
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1. Alluvial Soils

Alluvial soils are formed mainly due to silt deposited by Indo-Gangetic-

Brahmaputra rivers. In coastal regions, some alluvial deposits are formed due to
wave action.
Rocks of the Himalayas form the parent material. Thus the parent material of these
soils is of transported origin.
They are the largest soil group covering about 15 lakh sq km or about 46 percent of
the total area.
They support more than 40% of India’s population by providing the most
productive agricultural lands.
Characteristics of Alluvial Soils
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 They are immature and have weak profiles due to their recent origin.
 Most of the soil is sandy and clayey soils are not uncommon.
 They vary from loamy to sandy-loam in drier regions and clayey loam
towards the delta.
 Pebbly and gravelly soils are rare. Kankar (calcareous concretions) beds are
present in some regions along the river terraces.
 The soil is porous because of its loamy (equal proportion of sand and clay)
nature.
 Porosity and texture provide good drainage and other conditions favorable for
agriculture.
 These soils are constantly replenished by the recurrent floods.
Chemical properties of Alluvial Soils
 The proportion of nitrogen is generally low.
 The proportion of Potash, phosphoric acid, and alkalies are adequate
 The proportion of Iron oxide and lime vary within a wide range.
Distribution of Alluvial Soils in India
 They occur all along the Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra plains except in few
places where the top layer is covered by desert sand.
 They also occur in deltas of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna, and
the Cauvery, where they are called deltaic alluvium (coastal alluvium)
 Some alluvial soils are found in the Narmada, Tapi valleys, and Northern
parts of Gujarat.
Crops in Alluvial Soils
 They are mostly flat and regular soils and are best suited for agriculture.
 They are best suited to irrigation and respond well to the canal and well/tube-
well irrigation.
 They yield splendid crops of rice, wheat, sugarcane, tobacco, cotton, jute, maize,
oilseeds, vegetables, and fruits.
Geological divisions of alluvial soils
 Geologically, the alluvium of the Great plain of India is divided into newer or
younger khadar and older bhangar soils.
Bhabar
 The bhabar belt is about 8-16 km wide running along the Shiwalik foothills. It is
a porous, northern most stretch of Indo-Gangetic plain.

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 Rivers descending from the Himalayas deposit their load along the foothills in
the form of alluvial fans. These alluvial fans (often pebbly soils) have merged
together to build up the bhabar belt.
 The porosity of bhabar is the most unique feature. The porosity is due to
deposition of huge number of pebbles and rock debris across the alluvial fans.
 The streams disappear once they reach the bhabar region because of this
porosity. Therefore, the area is marked by dry river courses except in the rainy
season.
 The area is not suitable for agriculture and only big trees with large roots
thrive in this belt.
Terai
 Terai is an ill-drained, damp (marshy) and thickly forested narrow
tract (15-30 km wide) to the south of Bhabar running parallel to it.
 The underground streams of the Bhabar belt re-emerge in this belt. It is a
swampy lowland with silty soils.
 The terai soils are rich in nitrogen and organic matter but are deficient in
phosphate.
 These soils are generally covered by tall grasses and forests but are suitable for a
number of crops such as wheat, rice, sugarcane, jute, etc.
 This thickly forested region provides shelter to a variety of wildlife.
Bhangar
 The Bhangar is the older alluvium along the river beds forming terraces
higher than the flood plain (about 30 meters above the flood level).
 It is of a more clayey composition and is generally dark-colored.
 A few meters below the terrace of the bhangar are beds of lime nodules known
as “Kankar”.
Khadar
 The Khadar is composed of newer alluvium and forms the flood plains along
the river banks.
 The banks are flooded almost every year and a new layer of alluvium is
deposited with every flood. This makes them the most fertile soils of the
Ganges.
 They are sandy clays and loams, drier and leached, less calcareous and
carbonaceous (less kankary). A new layer of alluvium is deposited by river
floods almost every year.

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Alluvial regions with rainfall

 Above 100cm – Suitable for paddy
 B/w 50-100cm – Suitable for wheat, sugarcane, tobacco, and cotton
 Below 50cm– Course grains (millets)
2. Black Soils

 Formation –formed due to weathering of these basaltic rocks which emerged

during fissure eruption of the Cretaceous period.
 The parent material for most of the black soil are the volcanic rocks that
were formed in the Deccan Plateau (Deccan and the Rajmahal trap).
 In Tamil Nadu, gneisses and schists form the parent material. The former
are sufficiently deep while the later are generally shallow.
 These are the region of high temperature and low rainfall. It is, therefore, a soil
group typical to the dry and hot regions of the Peninsula.
 Extent – 15 % of the area
 Black colour is ordained by titani-ferrous magnetic compounds found in
basalt.
Characteristics of Black Soils
 A typical black soil is highly argillaceous [Geology (of rocks or sediment)
consisting of or containing clay] with a large clay factor, 62 percent or more.
 In general, black soils of uplands are of low fertility while those in the
valleys are very fertile.
 The black soil is highly retentive of moisture. It swells greatly on
accumulating moisture. Strenuous effort is required to work on such soil in rainy
season as it gets very sticky.

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 In summer, the moisture evaporates the soil shrinks and is seamed with broad
and deep cracks. The lower layers can still retain moisture. The cracks permits
oxygenation of the soil to sufficient depths and the soil has extraordinary
fertility.
 When dry, it develops cracks and has blocky structure. (Self Ploughing
Capacity)
Colour of Black Soils
 The black colour is due to the presence of a small proportion of titaniferous
magnetite or iron and black constituents of the parent rock.
 In Tamil Nadu and parts of Andhra Pradesh, the black colour is derived from
crystalline schists and basic gneisses.
 Various tints of the black colour such as deep black, medium black, shallow
black , a mixture of red and black may be found in this group of soils.
Chemical Composition of Black Soils
 10 percent of alumina,
 9-10 percent of iron oxide,
 6-8 percent of lime and magnesium carbonates,
 Potash is variable (less than 0.5 percent) and
 phosphates, nitrogen, and humus are low.
Rich in iron and lime but deficient in humus, nitrogenous and phosphorous
content.
Distribution of Black Soils
 It is found in the Deccan lava plateau region of India.
 Spread over 46 lakh sq km (16.6 percent of the total area)
across Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, parts of Karnataka, Telangana,
Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, and Tamil Nadu.
Crops in Black Soils
 These soils are best suited for cotton crops. Hence these soils are called
as regur and black cotton soils.
 Other major crops grown on the black soils include wheat, jowar, linseed,
virginia tobacco, castor, sunflower, and millets.
 Rice and sugarcane are equally important where irrigation facilities are
available.
 Large varieties of vegetables and fruits are also successfully grown on the black
soils.
 This soil has been used for growing a variety of crops for centuries without
adding fertilizers and manures, with little or no evidence of exhaustion.

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3. Red Soil

 This soil developed on Archean granite occupies the second largest area of
the country.
 The presence of ferric oxides makes the colour of soil red, ferric
oxides occurring as thin coatings on the soil particles.
 The top layer of the soil is red and the horizon below is yellowish.
 Extent – 18.5 % of the area
 Texture: Sandy to clay and loamy.
 This soil is also known as the omnibus group.
Characteristics of Red Soils
 Rainfall is highly variable. Thus, the soil has developed 3 subtypes
o Red & Yellow soil – rainfall is 200cm – NE India – Nagaland, Mizoram,
Manipur Hills, parts of Malabar coast, quick drainage is needed
o Red Sandy Soil – Drier plateaus like Karnataka, TN, Telangana,
Rayalseema – rainfall from 40-60cm
o RedAlluvial Soil – Along river valleys – has good fertility
 Well drained soil and structure is sandy
 Rich in iron and potash but deficient in other minerals.
Chemical Composition of Red Soils
Generally, these soils are deficient in phosphate, lime, magnesia, humus and
nitrogen.
Distribution of Red Soils

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They are mainly found in the Peninsula from Tamil Nadu in the south to
Bundelkhand in the north and Raj Mahal in the east to Kathiawad in the west.
Significance
 Once irrigated and added with humus, it gives a high yield because the
mineral base is rich.
 It supports rice, sugarcane, cotton cultivation
 Millets and pulses are grown in drier areas
 Kaveri and Vaigai basins are famous for red alluvium and if irrigated well,
are suitable for paddy
 Large regions of Karnataka and Kerala have developed Red soil regions for
rubber and coffee plantation farming.
4. Laterite Soil

Formation
 This soil has emerged in those regions where the following conditions are
fulfilled
o There must be laterite rock or structure (Laterites are rich in iron and
aluminium content)
o Alternating dry and wet periods are more suitable for the development of
laterite soils.
Characteristics
 Brown in colour
 composed essentially of a mixture of hydrated oxides of aluminium and iron.
 Iron oxides are found in nodules form

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 Its rich in iron and aluminium but poor in Nitrogen, Phosphorous, Potash, Lime,
and Magnesia
 Its humus and water-retaining capacities are moderate
 Bacterial activities have been very high and heavy precipitation develops
leaching of humus as a result humus content is moderate to low.
Distribution
 Regions of laterite soil in the country are :
o It is found in patches in Western Ghats ( Goa and Maharashtra).
o In Belgam district of Karnataka and in laterite plateau of Kerala
o In the state of Orissa, in the Eastern Ghats,
o Amarkantak plateau region of MP-
o Panchmahal district of Gujarat;
o Santhal Pangana divisions of Jharkhand
Significance
 It is famous for crops like groundnut, cashew nut, etc.
 Laterite soil of Karnataka is given to coffee, rubber, and spices farming.
5. Forest Soil/ Mountain Soil

Formation – It is principally found on mountains with steeper slopes, high relief,

shallow profiles.
Characteristics
 It is thin layered and the profiles and horizons are poorly developed
 Due to fast drainage, it has been vulnerable to soil erosion
 It is rich in organic content – humus content is also adequate but other nutrients
aredeficient
 It is a loamy soil when sand, silt, and clay are in mixed form

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Distribution
 These are generally found over 900m altitude
 Himalayas, Himalayan foothills, mountain slopes of Western Ghats, Nilgiri,
Annamalai, and Cardamom hills
 Significance – It is very helpful to those crops which need favourable air and
water drainage which is provided by this soil by virtue of being on slopes
 Generally used for rubber plantation, bamboo plantation and also tea, coffee,
and fruits farming
 Large area also given to shifting agriculture where the soil fertility deteriorates
after 2-3 years
 Due to less scope of agriculture, silvi pastoral farming (forest+grasses) can be
sustained.
6. Desert Soil

 This soil is deposited by wind action and mainly found in the arid and semi-
arid areas like Rajasthan, West of the Aravallis, Northern Gujarat, Saurashtra,
Kachchh, Western parts of Haryana, and southern part of Punjab.
 It lacks in moisture content. Humus content is less, and Nitrogen is
originally low but some of it is available in the form of nitrates.
 They are sandy with low organic matter. Living microorganisms are low in
content
 It is rich in iron contents. Phosphorous content is nearly adequate, rich in
lime and bases.
 It has low soluble salts and moisture with very low retaining capacity.
 If irrigated this soil gives a high agricultural return.
 These are suitable for less water-intensive crops like Bajra, pulses, fodder, and
guar.
Distribution –western Rajasthan, Rann of Kachchh, in patches in south Haryana and
south Punjab.

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7. Saline and Alkaline Soil

 Alkali soil contains a large content of NaCl
 The soil is infertile
 These are also called Reh, Usar, Kallar, Rakar, Thur, and Chopan.
 These are mainly found in Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
and Maharashtra.
 Sodium chloride and sodium sulphate are present in this soil. It is suitable for
leguminous crops.
 Formation and distribution – It is both natural and anthropogenic
o Natural – Includes dried up lakes of Rajasthan and Rann of Kuchchh
 It has emerged in the Palaya basin ( a clay basin in the midst of the
desert)
o Anthropogenic –It is developed in western UP and Punjab due to faulty
agriculture.
 Characteristics – Lack of moisture, humus, and living microorganisms, as a
result, humus formation is almost absent
8. Peaty, and Marshy Soil/Bog Soil

This soil originates from the areas where adequate drainage is not possible. It
is rich in organic matter and has high salinity. They are deficient in potash and
phosphate.

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 Characteristics – Dominance of clay and mud which make it heavy

o Rich in moisture content but at the same time, greater content of salt and
every day inundation by high tide has made it infertile soil
o No organic activity due to excessive moisture content
 Distribution – It is characteristic of the delta region of India
o Besides the delta region, it is also found in
 Alleppey(Kerala) (known as Karri along the backwaters or Kayals of
Kerala)
 Almora (Uttaranchal)
 Significance – Over Bengal delta, it is suitable for jute and rice, and
over Malabar, it is suitable for spices, rubber, big sized rice
 It has to some extent been favorable to the Mangrove forests of India.
Characteristics of Indian Soils
 Most soils are old and mature. Soils of the peninsular plateau are much older
than the soils of the great northern plain.
 Indian soils are largely deficient in nitrogen, mineral salts, humus and other
organic materials.
 Plains and valleys have thick layers of soils while hilly and plateau areas depict
thin soil cover.
 Some soils like alluvial and black soils are fertile while some other soils such as
laterite, desert and alkaline soils lack in fertility and do not yield good harvest.
 Indian soils have been used for cultivation for hundreds of years and have lost
much of their fertility.
Problems of Indian Soils
 Soil erosion (Himalayan region, Chambal Ravines, etc.), deficiency in fertility
(Red, lateritic, and other soils), desertification (around Thar desert, rain-shadow
regions like parts of Karnataka, Telangana, etc.), waterlogging (Punjab-Haryana
plain) salinity, and alkalinity (excessively irrigated regions of Punjab, Haryana,
Karnataka, etc.), wasteland, overexploitation of soils due to increase in
population and rise in living standards and encroachment of agricultural land
due to urban and transport development.
Soil Erosion
 Soil erosion is the loosening and displacement of topsoil from the land due to
the action of agents like wind and water.
 Soil erosion in nature may be a slow process (geological erosion) or a fast
process promoted by human activities like overgrazing, deforestation.

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 Weathering and erosion lead to the simultaneous process of ‘degradation’ and

‘aggradation’.
 Erosion is a mobile process while weathering is a static process (there is no
motion of disintegrated material except the falling down under the force of
gravity).
Water Erosion
 Running water is one of the main agents, which carries away soil particles.
 Soil erosion by water occurs by means of raindrops, waves or ice.
 Erosion by water is termed differently according to the intensity and nature of
erosion: raindrop erosion, sheet erosion, rill and gully erosion, stream bank
erosion, landslides, coastal erosion, glacial erosion.
Raindrop erosion or splash erosion
 A raindrop is approximately 5 mm in diameter and hits the soil at a velocity of
32 km/hr. Larger raindrops and gusts of wind hit the soil surface even at higher
velocities.
 Raindrops behave like tiny bombs when falling on exposed soil, displace soil
particles and destroy soil structure.
 Presence of vegetation on land prevents raindrops from falling directly on the
soil thus erosion of soil in areas covered by vegetation is prevented.
Sheet erosion
 With continued rainfall the displaced soil particles fill in the spaces between soil
particles and prevent water from seeping into the soil. This results in surface
runoff and even more erosion.
 The detachment and transportation of soil particles by flowing rainwater is called
sheet or wash off erosion.

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 Weathering and erosion tend to level down the irregularities of landforms and
create a peneplane.
Rill and gully erosion

 In rill erosion finger like rills appear on the cultivated land after it has undergone
sheet erosion.
 These rills are usually smoothened out every year while forming.
 Each year the rills slowly increase in number become wider and deeper.
 Gully erosion is the removal of soil along drainage lines by surface water runoff.
 When rills increase in size, they become gullies. Once started, gullies will
continue to move by headward erosion or by slumping of the side walls.
 Gullies formed over a large area gives rise to badland topography (Chambal
Ravines).
 When a gully bed is eroded further due to headward erosion, the bed gradually
deepens and flattens out, and a ravine is formed. The depth of a ravine may
extend to 30 metres or more.
 Further erosion of ravine beds gives rise to canyons. Canyons are few hundred
meters deep and wide. (Grand Canyon on Colorado River).
Streambank erosion
 The erosion of soil from the banks (shores) of the streams or rivers due to the
flowing water is called bank erosion.
 In certain areas where the river changes its course, the river banks get eroded at a
rapid rate.
 Streambank erosion damages the adjoining agricultural lands, highways and
bridges.

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Landslide
 The sudden mass movement of soil is called a landslide.
 Landslides occur due to instability or loss of balance of land mass with respect to
gravity.
 The loss in balance occurred mainly due to excessive water or moisture in the
earth mass.
 Gravity acts on such an unstable landmass and causes the large chunks of surface
materials such as soil and rocks to slide down rapidly.
Coastal erosion
 In the coastal areas, waves dash along the coast and cause heavy damage to the soil.
 During the landfall of cyclones, storm surges destroy beaches and wash away the
top layer.
 In estuaries, tidal bores cause extensive damage to the surrounding banks.
Glacial erosion
 In the polar regions and high mountainous regions like the Himalayas, soil erosion
is caused by sowing moving glaciers. This is called glacial erosion.
Wind Erosion
 Wind erosion or aeolian erosion is quite significant in arid and semi-arid regions.
 Winds usually blow at high speeds in deserts due to the absence of physical
obstruction.
 These winds remove the fertile, arable, loose soils leaving behind a depression
devoid of topsoil.
 The depression formation in deserts is the first step in Oasis formation. Oasis forms
in depressions when there is underground water that gets accumulated above rocks.
 Very fine and medium sands are moved by wind in a succession of bounds and
leaps, known as saltation.

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 Small sand and dust particles are transported over long distances through the air by
a process known as suspension.
 Coarse sand is not usually airborne but rather is rolled along the soil surface. This
type of erosion is called surface creep.
 Very coarse sand and gravels are too large to be rolled by wind, so wind-eroded
soils have surfaces covered with coarse fragments. This kind of arid soil surface is
known as desert pavement.

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