PRELIMS 2025

(CIVIL SERVICES EXAM)

STATIC NOTES
[Concise, Comprehensive and To the Point]

SUBJECT

MODERN INDIAN HISTORY

SUMMARY: FROM MULTIPLE SOURCES
 PRELIMS – 2025 | Modern Indian History
INDEX

CHAPTER – 1 SOURCES OF MODERN INDIAN HISTORY ........................................................................ 2

CHAPTER – 2 MAJOR APPROACHES TO HISTORY OF MODERN INDIA ............................................ 3
CHAPTER – 3 INDIA ON THE EVE OF BRITISH CONQUEST: MID-18TH CENTURY INDIA ............. 4
CHAPTER – 4 BRITISH EXPANSION AND CONSOLIDATION IN INDIA (1767-1818) .......................... 16
CHAPTER – 5 POPULAR UPRISINGS UP TO 1857 .................................................................................... 22
CHAPTER – 6 REVOLT OF 1857 .................................................................................................................. 39
CHAPTER – 7 DEVELOPMENT OF INDIAN PRESS .................................................................................. 42
CHAPTER – 8 POPULAR UPRISINGS AFTER 1857 (1857-1947) ............................................................... 46
CHAPTER – 9 SOCIO-RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENTS OF 19TH CENTURY .............................. 53
CHAPTER – 10 BEGINNING OF MODERN NATIONALISM IN INDIA ..................................................... 64
CHAPTER – 11 INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS: FOUNDATION & MODERATE PHASE ................... 66
CHAPTER – 12 RISE OF MILITANT NATIONALISM ................................................................................. 69
CHAPTER – 13 FIRST PHASE OF REVOLUTIONARY ACTIVITIES (1907-1917) ................................... 76
CHAPTER – 14 FIRST WORLD WAR AND NATIONALIST RESPONSE................................................... 80
CHAPTER – 15 MAHATMA GANDHI: EMERGENCE AND IDEOLOGY .................................................. 82
CHAPTER – 16 NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT AND KHILAFAT AANDOLAN ............................. 85
CHAPTER – 17 SWARAJISTS AND CONSTRUCTIVE WORK (1922-29) ................................................... 87
CHAPTER – 18 EMERGENCE OF NEW FORCES: SOCIALISTIC IDEAS AND TRADE UNIONS ........ 88
CHAPTER – 19 SIMON COMMISSION AND SIMON BOYCOTT MOVEMENT (1927-29) ...................... 91
CHAPTER – 20 CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT AND ROUND TABLE CONFERENCES ............. 94
CHAPTER – 21 DEBATES ON FUTURE STRATEGY AFTER CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT ... 99
CHAPTER – 22 NATIONALIST RESPONSE IN THE WAKE OF SECOND WORLD WAR ................... 101
CHAPTER – 23 QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT, DEMAND FOR PAKISTAN & THE INA .......................... 103
CHAPTER – 24 POST-WAR NATIONAL SCENARIO ................................................................................ 106
CHAPTER – 25 INDEPENDENCE WITH PARTITION ............................................................................... 109
CHAPTER – 26 CONSTITUTIONAL, ADMINISTRATIVE AND JUDICIAL DEVELOPMENTS ........... 110
CHAPTER – 27 EVOLUTION OF CIVIL SERVICES IN INDIA ................................................................. 114

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 PRELIMS – 2025 | Modern Indian History

CHAPTER - 1 SOURCES OF MODERN INDIAN HISTORY

1. Archives: It refers to a collection of historical records and documents which are usually primary source
documents.
• Archival material consists of public, private and foreign repositories.
• Public Archives of the Government of India, state government, presidencies, judicial records.
• Private archives papers and documents of individuals and notable families
• Foreign repositories Indian office records in London, Record Office (Lahore), etc.
• National Archives of India: Attached office under the Ministry of Culture; established in 1891 at
Calcutta as the Imperial Record Department + Following the transfer of the capital to Delhi in 1911,
the present building of the National Archives of India was constructed in 1926 which was designed
by Sir Edwin Lutyens + It is the nodal agency for the implementation of the Public Records Act, 1993
and Public Record Rules, 1997.
2. Biographies and Memoirs: Accounts of travelers, traders, missionaries and civil servants during the
18th-19th centuries as well as memoirs written by Indian leaders during independence Movement.
3. Newspapers and Journals: Both India and abroad.
4. Administrative records: Official Records of British are some important sources. British maintained
strict control over the administration and ensured that all administrative actions were well documented.
This practice created an administrative culture of memos, noting and reports.
5. Books and Newspapers: Raja Ram Mohan Roy started Mirat-ul-Akhbar, the first newspaper in Persian
language. Bal Gangadhar Tilak published Kesari in Marathi and Mahratta in English. All these
newspapers, through news, cartoons, letters and editorials, created awareness about intentions of British.
6. Creative literature: Examples INClude novels of Bankim Chandra Chatterji such as Anandmath (1882)
noted for its powerful lyric ‘Vande Mataram’ and depiction of Sanyasi revolt (1760s) + Icharam
Suryaram Desai novel ‘Hind Ane Britannia’ was one of the earliest Indian novels with political overtones.
7. Others Oral tradition, creative literature and paintings.

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CHAPTER - 2 MAJOR APPROACHES TO HISTORY OF

MODERN INDIA

• Colonial approach: Influenced by colonial ideology of domination. They focus on criticism of

indigenous Society and praising western culture. E.g. James Mill, VINCent Smith, etc.
• Nationalist Approach: As a response to and in confrontation with the colonial approach, historians such
as RG Pradhan, AC Mazumdar, Tara Chand etc. took nationalist approach
• Marxist Approach: Focuses on primary contradiction between the interests of the colonial masters and
the native subjects; notices inner contradictions between the different contradictions with the Indian
Society. Example: Rajni Palme Dutt and AR Desai.
• Subaltern Approach: Entire tradition has an elitist bias and thus says that the role of common masses
has been neglected. Example: Ranajit Guha.
• Communalist Approach: It is focused on Muslims and Hindu are fundamentally hostile groups with
antagonistic interests
• Cambridge School: It sees Indian nationalism as a product of conflicts among the Indian nationalists
themselves for getting benefits from colonial rulers and Indian nationalist leaders were inspired by the
greed of power and material benefits
• Liberal and Neo-liberal interpretations: It says that Economic exploitation of the colonies was not
beneficial to the Britishers as it delayed the development of the ‘new’ industries in Britain.
• Feminist Historiography: It focuses on areas that analyse colonial structures which affected women’s
lives; and on women’s vulnerability due to denial of ownership of productive resources.

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INDIA ON THE EVE OF BRITISH CONQUEST:

CHAPTER – 3 MID-18th CENTURY INDIA

1. Introduction: The mid-18th century is often depicted as a dark age or an age of chaos, sandwiched
between two empires i.e, the Mughals and the British.
2. Decline of Mughal Empire
• The reign of Aurangzeb (1558-1707) proved to signify the beginning of the end of Mughal rule in India.
• By 1739, Delhi had been invaded by Nadir Shah, by 1761 (when Abdali invaded) the Mughals had
been replaced by Marathas as defenders of India and by 1765 the Mughal Emperor had been reduced
to a pensioner of British.
• Challenges before Mughals
o External
1. 1738-39: Nadir Shah, Persian emperor invaded India (Lahore, Kabul, Karnal). Took away
Kohinoor diamond, Peacock throne and 70 crore rupees.
2. 1748-67: Ahmad Shah Abdali, the Durrani empire, invaded India. He took over the
Mughal kings, appointed their own officers and left in 1759.
3. 1761: Abdali came back and took revenge on the Marathas ->Third Battle of Panipat,
where Abdali defeated Marathas.
o Internal Challenge- Weak rulers after Aurangzeb
• Bahadur Shah I/Shah Alam/Muazzam (1707-1712): Pacifist policy with Marathas
(allowed prINCe Shahu to go back to Maharastra), Rajputs (peace with Rajput chiefs), Jats
and Bundelas (peace with Churaman and Bundela chief Chhatrasal) and Sikhs (gave Guru
Gobind singh a high mansab; however later defeated Banda Bahadur at Lohgarh when they
raised a revolt). He was called as Shah-i-Bekhabar by Khafi Khan.
• Jalandar Shah (1712-1713): With the help of Zulfikar khan introduced Ijarah system->
Government established contact with revenue farmers and middlemen who paid govt a fixed
amount while they were free to extract whatever they could from the peasants. He also abolished
Jaziya; various parties at Mughal court emerged (Turanis, Iranis, Afghans and Hindustanis).
Jahandar Shah’s favourite lady, Lal Kanwar (a dancing girl) dominated the court. Zulfiqar also tried
to improve the financial situation of the empire by checking reckless grants of jagirs and offices.
• Farrukhsiyar (1713-1719): He ascended the throne with the support of the Saiyyad brothers
(the kingmakers) – Saiyyad Abdullah Khan (Wazir) and Hussain Ali Khan (Mir Bakshi).
Policy of religious tolerance by abolishing Jaziya and pilgrimage tax; farmans to British
known as Farman of 1717-> Granted British EIC trading privileges INCluding exemption
from custom duties for its trade with Bengal. In c. 1719 CE, the Saiyyad brothers forged an
alliance with Balaji Vishwanath (Maratha ruler) and with the help of Maratha troops, they
killed Farrukh Siyar.
• Muhammad Shah/Roshan Akhtar (1719-48): Received the title of ‘Rangeela’ due to his
luxurious lifestyle. With the help of Nizam-ul-mulk, he killed Sayyid Brothers. Nizam-ul-
Mulk founded independent state of Hyderabad (1724), Murshid Quli khan in Bengal
(1717) and Saadat Khan in Awadh (1722). Marathas began their northern expansion and in
1737 Baji Rao raided Delhi. In 1739, Nadir shah defeated Mughals in Battle of Karnal.
• Battle of Karnal (1739): Nadir shah inflicted crushing defeat on Mughal army, took
possession of Royal treasury, peacock throne and Kohinoor diamond and annexed areas
west of Indus into Persian empire.
• Alamgir II (1754-1758): Abdali invaded India and Battle of Plassey was fought during his
reign. He was also murdered by his wazir, Imad-ul-Mulk.
• Shah Alam II (1759-1806): Third battle of Panipat (1761) and Battle of Buxar (1764)
were fought during his reign. Diwani rights were given to British; came to be known as

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‘fugitive Mughal Emperor’. He was the first Mughal ruler who became an East India
Company pensioner.
• Akbar II (1806-37): He gave title of Raja to Ram Mohan Roy. Stopped minting coins with
Mughal ruler name on it.
• Bahadur Shah II (1837-1857): Revolt of 1857 made futile attempt to declare him as
Emperor of India; He was captured by English and sent to Rangoon.
• Causes of Decline of Mughals
o Internal: Aurangzeb’s misguided policies (religious intolerance antagonized Rajputs, Sikhs,
Jats and Marathas; Deccan ulcer), weak successors, nature of Mughal state (police state-
confined to maintenance of law and order and collection of revenue), degeneration of Mughal
nobility (mansabdari system became hereditary, closed cooperation of nobles), Shifting
allegiance of the zamindars (trying to own and control land for themselves), jagirdari crisis,
Economic and administrative problem (Kingdom became too large to be administered
centrally) and Rise of regional aspirations [Chauth- ¼th of gross revenue to be paid to Maratha
by alien states Sardeshmukhi- additional 10% tax on 5onopo], Wars of Succession (The
Mughals did not follow any law of succession like the law of primogeniture)
o External: Rise of Marathas, Invasions of Irani and Durrani kingdoms and advent of European
powers.
3. Rise of Autonomous States
• Successor States: Broke away from the empire, did not challenge the sovereignty of the Mughals.
Examples INClude Bengal, Awadh, Hyderabad.
• Independent Kingdoms: Due to destabilization of Mughal control over the Provinces. Examples
INClude Mysore, Kerala, Rajput.
• New States: Rebelled against the Mughals. Examples INClude Marathas, Sikhs, Jats.
4. Survey of Regional Kingdoms
Kingdoms Nawabs Important Information
o In 1713, Chin Qilich Khan was made Viceroy of the
Deccan by Emperor Farrukhsiyar and given the
title of Nizam-ul-Mulk.
o In 1720, he assisted Mohammed Shah in killing the
Hyderabad Nizam Ul Mulk
Sayyid brothers.
(1724) (Kilich Khan)
o Kilich khan defeated and killed Mubariz khan in the
Battle of Shakr-Kheda (1724).
o In 1724, he founded independent state of Hyderabad
in the Deccan. He founded the Asaf Jah dynasty.
Carnatic o In 1740, Marathas invaded Carnatic and killed
Nawab Saadatullah
(Early 18 Nawab Dost Ali.
(1710-32)
century)
• In 1717, he became the first to hold the two offices
of Nizam and Diwan of Bengal simultaneously.
Murshid Quli Khan • He shifted capital from Dhaka to Murshidabad.
(1717-27) • He replaced Mughal jagirdari system with the system of
revenue farming or ijara or malzamini system.
• Rise of new elite classes (Eg: House of Jagat Seths).
Bengal (1717)
• He killed Sarfaraz Khan in the Battle of Gheria and
Alivardi Khan became the Nawab.
(1740-56) • Payment of annual tribute to emperor stopped.
• Paid 5onopo and ceded Orissa to the Marathas.
Siraj ud-daulah • Defeated by EIC in Battle of Plassey (1757).
(1756-57)
• Bengal rulers did not discriminate on religious

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grounds in making public appointments and Hindus
reached high positions in the Civil Service and
obtained lucrative zamindaris.
• The Nawabs were fiercely independent and
maintained strict control over the foreign companies
trading in their realm.
• Fortifications were rightly not allowed in the French
and English factories at Chandernagar and Calcutta,
nor did Nawab concede to their special privileges.
• He subdued the rebellious zamindars of Awadh and was
given the title of Burhan-ul-Mulk by emperor.
• He subdued zamindars and introduced a new land
settlement which provided protection to the peasants
from the zamindars.
Saadat Khan
• A “regional ruling group” emerged, consisting of
(1722-39)
Shaikhzadas, Afghans and Sections of the Hindus.
• He was taken prisoner by Nadir Shah in the Battle
Awadh (1722) of Karnal (1739).
• During the Battle of Bhopal, he attempted but failed
to rescue the trapped Mughal Army.
Safdar Jung (1739-54) • Popularly came to be known as Nawab Wazirs.
• He joined Abdali against Marathas in Third
Shuja-ud-Daula
Battle of Panipat (1761).
(1754-57)
• Defeated by EIC in Battle of Buxar (1764).
Asaf-ud-Daula • Shifted capital from Faizabad to Lucknow.
(1775-97) • Constructed Bara Imambara.
• Founded city of Jaipur; erected observatories at
Delhi, Jaipur, Ujjain, Varanasi and Mathura.
Raja Sawai • He drew up set of tables called Zij
Rajputs Jai Singh Muhammadshahi.
(1699-1743) • He tried to reduce lavish expenditure by Rajputs on
their daughter’s weddings which had given rise to
practice of female infanticide.
• In 18th century, it was ruled by Wodeyar king
Chikkakrishnaraja.
• Foundation of mysore power laid by Hyder Ali, later
consolidated by Tipu Sultan.
• In 1761, Hyder overthrew Nanjaraja and establish
his authority over Mysore state.
• Estd control over zamindars and conquered Bidnur,
Sunda, Sera, Canara and Malabar.
Hyder Ali • Faced Maratha raids in 1764, 1766 and 1771.
Mysore
(1761-82) • Inflicted defeat on the English near Madras in 1769.
• Successfully captured various regions such as Dod
Ballapur, Sera, Bednur, and Hoskote between 1761
and 1763.
• Haidar Ali also brought the troublesome Poligars of
South India under submission.
• Inducted French experts to set up an arsenal and
train the troops along western lines.
• Established modern arsenal at Dindigul.

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• Assumed title of Padshah in 1787 and issued coins
in his name without any reference to Mughal
emperor.
• Known as the tiger of Mysore
• Inserted his own name in Khutba (Friday sermons
at mosque).
• Sought a sanad (royal order) from Ottoman
Khalif to legitimize his rule.
• Even raised a French corps
• Made efforts made to build a modern navy after
Tipu Sultan 1796.
(1782-99) • Sent emissaries to France, Turkey, Iran to develop
foreign trade.
• Believed to have planted a ‘Tree of Liberty’ at
Seringapatnam and became member of Jacobin
club.
• He introduced a new mauludi lunisolar calendar and
a new land revenue system which initiated the
growth of Mysore silk industry
• Administration: Mir Asaf cutchehri (revenue
department), Mirancutchehri (military dept), Malik-
ut-Tujjarcutchehri (commerce dept).
• Martanda Varma established an independent state of
Kerala with Travancore as his capital; expanded
kingdom from Kanyakumari to Cochin. Organized his
army along western model.
Kerala • Rama Varma: Made Trivandrum the capital of
scholarship and art.
• The expansion of Mysore proved destructive for the
stability of Kerala. Haidar Ali invaded Kerala in
1766 and annexed Malabar and Calicut.
• Foundation for Jat state of Bharatpur in Rajasthan
was laid by Churaman and Badan singh.
• Under Suraj Mal, state INCluded territories from
Ganga to Chambal in the south and INCluded
Subahs of Agra, Mathura, Meerut and Aligarh.
Jats • Suraj Mal known as ‘Plato of Jat tribe’ and as ‘Jat
Ulysses’ for his intellect and clear vision.
• The Jat state remained feudal, with Zamindars
holding both administrative and revenue powers and
revenue demands under Suraj Mal were higher than
under the Mughals.
• Guru Gobind Singh: Transformed Sikhs into
military force by establishing Khalsa in 1699.
• Banda Bahadur- leader, killed in 1708.
Sikhs • Later, the kingdom was divided into 12 misls or
confederacies.
• Ranjit Singh- most efficient. He signed the Treaty
of Amritsar.
Marathas • Under the Peshwas. Regions under their rule
INCluded Gujarat and Malwa. Lost the Third Battle
of Panipat to Ahmad Shah Abdali.

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• Supported Shahu against Tara Bai in Maratha civil war.
• Peshwa domination→Maratha state transformed
into an empire.
• In 1719, he helped Sayyid Brothers remove
Farrukhsiyar from Mughal throne.
• Mughal sanad of 1719/Magna carta of Maratha
dominion- Marathas allowed to collect 8onopo and
Peshwa Balaji sardeshmukhi from the entire Deccan and
Vishwanath Karnataka.
(1713-20) • In return, Marathas to place at Emperor’s disposal a
contingent of 15,000 troops and pay annual tribute
of 10 lakhs to emperor -> Maratha king became
sardeshmukh of entire Deccan and Karnataka.
• Laid foundation of Maratha confederacy- System of
watans and saranjams (grants of land).
• He is also known as the second founder of the
Maratha State.
• He preached the ideal of ‘Hindu pad-padshahi’.
Peshwa Baji Rao I
• Known as Fighting Peshwa.
(1720-40)
• In 1733, he defeated the Sidis of Janjira Island.
• Raja Ram executed Sangola Agreement during his
regin→ transferred the supreme power from the
Chhatrapati to the Peshwa.
Peshwa Balaji
• Marathas were defeated by Abdali in the Third
Bajirao/Nana Sahib
Battle of Panipat (1761).
(1740-61)
• Maratha army had a contingent of European style
infantry and artillery commanded by Ibrahim Khan
Gardi.
• Resurrected Maratha empire with the help of his
Peshwa Madhav Rao I able minister Nana Phadnavis.
(1761-72) • In 1771, the Marathas re-installed Emperor Shah
Alam II to Delhi.
Peshwa Raghunath Rao • He was deposed by Nana Phadnis and 11 other
(1773-74) administrators→ ‘the Baarbhai Conspiracy’.
• Taking advantage of weakening of central authority,
Peshwa Sawai
the big Maratha sardars carved out semi-
Madhav Rao or Madhav
independent states: Holkar (Indore), ScIndia
Rao 2
(Gwalior), Gaekwad (Baroda) and Bhonsle
(1774-95)
(Nagpur).
• British divided the warring sardars and defeated them in
separate battles in the Second Maratha War (1803-05)
Peshwa and Third Maratha War (1817-18).
Balaji Rao 2 • Seat of Peshwa was extinguished, while Maratha
(1796-18) stateswere allowed to exist as subsidiary states.
• In 1818 Peshwa was dethroned by the EIC and
pensioned off.
• The states of Rohilkhand and the kingdom of the
Bangash Pathans were a fall-out of the Afghan
Afghans at Farrukhabad
migration from the 17th century.
and Rohilkhand
• Muhammad Khan Bangash established his control
over Farrukhabad during reign of Farrukh siyar.

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• Daud and his son Ali Muhammad Khan carved
out an independent principality for themselves.
• Both Rohillas and the Bangash helped Ahmed Shah
Abdali during third battle of 9onopol and
accentuated decline of Mughals.
• The Afghani use of artillery, especially the flint gun,
ended the domination of cavalry since the early
medieval ages discovered the stirrup.
5. Socio-Economic conditions
1. Self-sufficient and self-governing village community
2. Agriculture: Stagnant and technologically backward, compensated by very hard labor by the peasants.
3. Condition of Indian Industry: India was self-sufficient in iron, ship building was developing
industry; important manufacturing centres INCluded Patna, Chanderi, Burhanpur etc.
4. Trade
o Favorable balance of trade- self-sufficient in food grain production and handicrafts; 17th century
saw Indian cotton textiles emerge as most important Asian importto west, displacing spices.
o Exports were more than imports; trade was balanced by import of silver and gold.
o Items of Import
• Persian Gulf- pearls, silk, wool, dates, dry fruits and rose water.
• Arabia- coffee, gold, drugs and honey.
• China- tea, sugar, porcelain and silk
• Tibet- gold, musk and woolen cloth
• Indonesia- Spices, perfume, sugar
• Africa-ivory and drugs
• Europe- woolen cloth, metals, paper
o Items of Export: Cotton textiles, raw silk, silk fabrics, hardware, indigo, saltpeter, opium, rice,
wheat, sugar, pepper, spices, precious stones and drugs.
5. Education: Elementary education imparted through pathshalas and maktabs. Elementary education
among Hindus and Muslims was quite widespread. Chatuspathis or Tols among Hindus, and
madarsahs among Muslims were institutes of higher learning. Absence of the study of science,
technology and geography was a general feature.
6. Women: Upper class lived in homes, while the ones of lower class worked on the fields. Purdah, sati,
polygamy, child marriage existed. Dowry was widespread in Bengal and Rajputanas. Slave trade
spread across India after the advent of the Europeans.
7. Art and Architecture:
o Asaf-ud-Daula, in 1784, built Bada Imambara at Lucknow.
o Sawai Jai Singh built the Pink City of Jaipur and five astronomical observatories (Delhi, Jaipur,
Mathura, Benares, Ujjain).
o Painting schools of Kangra and Rajputana came into existence.
o Prominent Urdu poets were Mir, Sauda, Nazir and Mirza Ghalib.
o Regional languages developed. Tamil language was enriched by sitar poetry.
o In Sindhi literature, Shah Abdul Latif composed Risalo, a collection of poems.
6. Arrival of Europeans in India (15th century onwards)
• Portuguese in India
o First ones to arrive on India; reasons for arrival are both economic (for spices; destroy monopoly
of Arabs and Italians over trade with East) and religious.
o PrINCe Henry the Navigator keen to circumvent Muslim-dominated route for Red sea;
however, died before his dream fulfilled.
o Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)->Portugal and Spain divided non-Christian world by an imaginary
line in Atlantic. Portugal could claim and occupy everything to east of the line while Spain could
claim everything to the west.

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o Bartholomew Diaz (1487)->reached southernmost tip of Africa; first known European to reach
Indian ocean from the Atlantic.
o Vascodagama (First Portuguese India Armada, 1498): Piloted by Gujarati named Abdul
Majid; sailed from Cape of Good Hope, reached Calicut; first European to reach India by sea;
Hindu ruler of Calicut Zamorin had no apprehensions to Europeans intentions.
o Vascodagama (Fourth Portuguese Armada, 1502): In 1503, the 1st Portuguese factory was set up at
Cochin; In 1505, 2nd factory was set up at Cannanore. Portuguese trading points on land are called
Feitorias- unfortified trading outposts which also served as bases for naval fleet called armadas.
o Gradually, under the pretext of protecting factories and their trading activities, Portuguese got
permission to fortify these centres.
o Portuguese Governors
▪ Francisco De Almeida (1505-09): 1st Portuguese viceroy of India; appointed as the
Governor of India, with the mission to consolidate Portuguese influence and destroy Muslim
trade + Faced opposition from the Zamorin and a threat from the Mamluk Sultan of Egypt +
adopted ‘Blue water policy’ aimed at establishing naval supremacy of Portuguese in Indian
ocean; constructed Fort Anjediva; In 1508, he defeated joint Muslim naval force (Gujarat
Sultanate and Mameluk Egyptian fleet) in Battle of Diu.
▪ Blue water poliy/Cartaze system-> captains of all ships sailing to a destination not reserved
by Portuguese were obliged to buy passes from Viceroy of Goa. In absence, ships could be
seized by Portuguese.
▪ Alfonso De Albuqerque (1509-1515): Real founder of Portuguese power in India; set up his
headquarter at Cochin; abolished sati in regions under his control; bolstered Portuguese stranglehold
by introducing permit system for other ships; acquired Goa from the Sultan of Bijapur in 1510;
introduced new crops like tobacco and cashew nut or better plantation varieties of coconut;
Encouraged Portuguese men to wed Indian women + Albuquerque’s rule also saw Portuguese men
settling in India, establishing themselves as landlords, artisans, craftsmen, and traders.
▪ Nino de Cunha (1529-1538): In 1530 he transferred the government head office from
Cochin to Goa; Bahadur Shah of Gujarat during conflict with Humayun secured help from
Portuguese by ceding them to them in 1534 the island of Bassein with its dependencies and
revenues + attempted to INCrease Portuguese influence in Bengal by settling many
Portuguese nationals there with Hooghly as their headquarters.
o 1534: Portuguese gained possession of Bombay, after the Treaty of Bassein was signed between
them and Bahadur Shah of the Gujarat Sultanate.
o 1612: A battle was fought between the British and the Portuguese at Surat for the possession of
Bombay, which ended the Portuguese monopoly over trade in India.
o 1661: Under the Treaty of Whitehall, Bombay changed hands as it was presented to King
Charles II as part of the dowry, when he married PrINCess Catherine de Braganza of Portugal.
o The Treaty INCluded a secret provision that it would be used to protect the Portuguese
settlements in India. It involved a mutual defence pact against the aggressive and expanding
Dutch East India Company.
o Administration: Viceroy is Head (term 3 years) with his secretary (later, council). 2ndVedor da
Fazenda (responsible for revenue+ cargoes+ dispatching fleets). The fortress from Africa to
China were under captains assisted by ‘factors’.
o West: 60 miles of Goa coast, 4 ports: Mumbai, Daman, Diu, parts of GJ.
o South: forts and trading posts- Mangalore, Cannanore, Cochin, Calicut.
o Established military posts and settlements on east coast of San Thome (in Chennai) and
Nagapatnam (in Andhra).
o Religious Policy: Intolerant towards Muslims. Initially, tolerant towards Hindus (later intolerant
after Inquisition of Goa). Good impression in Akbar’s court. Akbar asked for 2 priests.1st
mission= Rodolfo Aquaviva and Antonio Monserrate; 2nd mission; 3rd= Jerome Xavier and
Emanuel Pinheiro.

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o Loss of Favour with the Mughals:
▪ 1608: Captain Hawkins reached Surat and brought King James I letter to Jahangir requesting
to do business in India. Despite Portuguese resistance, Hawkins reached Mughal court and got
appointed as mansabadar of 400 at Rs 30k salary.
▪ 1611: Portuguese were angry. Mughals + Portuguese truce happened. Portugueses topped
English ships fromentering Surat. A baffled Hawkins left Mughal court.
▪ 1613: Portuguese captured Mughalship, imprisoned Muslims, plundered cargoes. Jahangir
ordered Muqarrab Khan to get compensation
▪ During Shah Jahan, Portuguese lost all favours: Capture of Hooghly
o Context: Based on 1579 imperial Farman, Portugese settled on Hooghly bank near Satgaon in
Bengal. Over the years, the trade migrated from Satgaon to Hooghly. They 11onopolized
manufacturing of salt, built custom house, etc.
• Decline of Portuguese by the 18th century
▪ Emergence of powerful dynasties in Egypt, Persia and India; The rise of the Marathas as
immediate neighbours – captured Salsette + Basseinin1739
▪ Religious policies-> Activities of Jesuits gave rise to political fears; policy of conversion to
Christianity made Hindus also resentful.
▪ Discovery of Brazil diverted colonizing activities of Portugal to West.
▪ Union of two kingdoms of Spain and Portugal in 1580-81, dragging smaller kingdom into
Spain’s wars with England and Holland→ affected Portuguese monopoly of trade in India.
o Significance of Portuguese
▪ Marked emergence of naval power; Portuguese ships carried cannon.
▪ Propagated Christianity in Malabar and Konkan coast.
▪ Missionaries undertook research on Indian history and culture. Fa Heras has made deep
study on Indus valley civilization.
▪ Printing press came to India; Bible printed in Kannada and Malayalam.
▪ Military innovation: Body armour, matchlock men, guns/ cannons in ships; system of
drilling groups of infantries on the Spanish model to counter Dutch pressure; heavy multi-
decked ships, use of castled prow, stern to repel/ launch boarding parties, skill at
organization- creation of royal arsenals and dockyards and maintenance of regular system
of pilots and mapping and pitting state forces against private merchant shipping.
▪ Introduced New crops: Potato, sweet potato, tobacco, corn, ladyfinger, chilly, pineapple, papaya,
sapota, leechi, orange, black pepper, groundnuts, cashews, almonds etc.
• Dutch: The Dutch came to India for trade. They were innovative people in business and shipping techniques.
They had designed fluitship which was lighter and required a smaller crew, thus reducing its operating costs.
o Cornelius de Houtman (1596): First Dutch traveler to reach India.
o 1602: Many trading companies merged into East India Company of the Netherlands-empowered
to carry on war, conclude treaties, possess territories and fortify.
o Dutch East India Company (1602): Dutch parliament gave it a charter empowering it to make
war and peace with other states, acquire territories and build fortresses. Credit of first making
‘Indian cloth’ as an item of export goes to Dutch.
o Dutch Factories
▪ In 1605, first Dutch factory was established at Masulipatnam in Andhra.
▪ In 1606, second factory at Petapuli (Nizampatnam).
▪ In 1610, Dutch signed a treaty with king of Chandragiri and established their HQ at Pulicat.
They minted their gold coins called pagodas.
▪ They soon established trading depots at Surat, Broach, Cambay and Ahmedabad in Gujarat,
Cochin in kerala, Nagapatam in Madras, Masulipatnam in Andhra, Chinsura and Peepli in
Bengal, Mahe on Malabar coast, Agra in Uttar Pradesh and Patna in Bihar.
▪ Dutch factories also established at Kasimbazaar, Karaikal, Balasore, Baranagore and
Golconda.
▪ In 1690, Dutch headquarters were transferred from Pulicat to Nagapattinam.
▪ Head of Dutch factories were called factors who were classified as traders and Dutch model
of trade was based on Cartel or cooperative system.
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▪ Indigo manufacturing in Yamuna valley and Central India, textile and silk from Bengal,
Gujarat, Coromandel, saltpeter from Bihar, and opium and rice from Ganga valley.
o Anglo-Dutch rivalry
▪ 1623- Amboyna Massacre in Indonesia->Dutch killed ten Englishmen and nine Japanese
→ Dutch began to restrict themselves to Malayan archipelago and English to India.
▪ 1667- Compromise- Dutch got Indonesia and English got India
▪ 1759- Dutch were defeated by English in Battle of Bedara (Bengal).
• The English
o 1600- Royal charter by Queen Elizabeth to company, giving it exclusive privilege of trading east of
Cape of Good Hope for 15 years.
o 1608- Captain Hawkins was sent as a representative of the English Company to the Court of Jahangir
to obtain permission to open a factory at Surat; came in a ship named ‘Hector’ andobtained
permission to open factories on the west coast.
o 1611- The English opened their 1st factory at Masulipatnam. They defeated the Portuguese in the
Battle of Swally Hole near Surat.
o 1612- Captain Thomas Best defeated the Portuguese in Surat.
o 1615- Sir Thomas Roe was sent by King James I as ambassador to court of Jahangir; he obtained
royal farman permitting British to trade and establish factories in all parts of the Mughal Empire.
o 1632- Company’s position was improved by Golden Farman issued by Sultan of Golconda- permitted
trading freely from ports of Golconda on annual payments of 500 pagodas.
o 1639- Francis Day obtained Madras on lease from the Raja of Chandragiri. English set up a
factory and built a small fort around it called Fort StGeorge.
o 1651- First English factory in Bengal was set up at Hugli upon receiving permission from Sultan
Shuja, the Subahdar of Bengal.
o 1658- All establishments of the English Company in Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and Coromandel Coast
were brought under the control of Fort St. George.
o 1690- Job Charnock established a factory at Sutanuti which was fortified in 1696 – called Fort William.
o 1696- Sutanuti factory was fortified and called Fort William.
o 1698- The English Company obtained from Subahdar of Bengal Azim-Us-Shan, zamindari of the
villages of Sutanuti, Kalikata and Gobindapur.
o 1717- Farrukhsiyar granted the English Company valuable trading privileges under the Farman of
1717 described as the Magna Carta of the Company.
▪ In Bengal, company’s imports and exports are exempted from additional custom duties excepting
annual payments of 3,000 rupees.
▪ Exception from payment of all dues at Surat in lieu of one-time settlement of Rs.10,000.
▪ Company allowed to rent more territory around Calcutta.
▪ Company allowed to use their own currency (minted at Bombay) throughout India.
▪ Company permitted to issue dastaks for transportation of goods.
▪ In Hyderabad, company retained its existing privilege of freedom from duties in trade and had to
pay prevailing rent only for Madras.
▪ Company’s servants were also permitted to trade but were not covered under this farman and were
required to pay same taxes as Indian merchants.
• The Danes (From Denmark)
• Danish East India company was established in 1616.
• They had set up trading outposts in 1620 at Tranquebar near Tanjore, Tamil Nadu.
• 1755- Founded a colony called Frederick nagore near Serampore in Bengal.
• 1777- Danish company went bankrupt and Serampore was transferred to the Danish crown.
• 1845- Denmark ceded Serampore to Britain, ending nearly 150 years of Danish presence in
Bengal.
• The Danish factories, which were not important at any time, were sold to the British government in
1845.
• The Danes are better known for their missionary activities than for commerce.

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• The French
o French were the last of the European colonial powers to set foot in India.
o French Trading Company (1664): Colbert formed the Companie des Indes Orientales.
o Compagnie des Indes Orientales was granted 50-year monopoly on French trade in Indian and Pacific
Oceans; concession in perpetuity for Madagascar and any other territory it could conquer.
o The French trading company (under the governorship of Colbert) was granted a license by King Louis
IV to trade with India and the East Indies.
o Factories of French
▪ In 1667, the first French factory was set up at Surat with Francis Caron as its Director General
▪ In 1669, a factory was set up at Masulipatnam.
▪ In 1673, received a village as grant from the King of Bijapur Sher Khan Lodhi and founded it as
Pondicherry.
▪ In 1674, the French received a site near Calcutta from the ruler of Bengal where they built the
town of Chandernagore (1690-92).
▪ In 1693, the Dutch snatched Pondicherry but it was restored to the French under the Treaty of
Reswick (1697).
▪ The French also acquired control over Islands of Mauritius and Reunion in the Indian Ocean.
▪ Between 1697 and 1739, the French further consolidated their position by adding several bases
INCluding Mahe, Karaikal, Balasore and Kasimbazar.
o French-Dutchwar: Dutch captured Pondicherry in 1693 + 1697: Treaty of Ryswick restored
Pondicherry to French but held onto it for 2 more years + Pondicherry again prospered but then War of
Spanish Succession broke out in Europe and they had to abandon Surat, Masulipatnam, Bantam.
o Re-organization of the French Company: In 1720, the French company was reorganized as
‘Perpetual Company of the Indies’–strengthened.
o 1720-1742: Able governors Lenoir and Dumas.
o Carnatic Wars
▪ First Carnatic War (1740-48)
➢ Immediate context: War of Austrian Succession in Europe in which England and France had
joined opposite camps.
➢ Main battles: Battle of St. Thomas, The Battle of Adyar in 1746 was between the French East India
Company men and Nawab of Arcot forces over the St. George Fort, which was held by the French
➢ Extension of Anglo-French rivalry in Europe; English seized French ships, French seized Madras.
➢ The war has ended with the Treaty of Aix-La-Chapelle.
▪ Second Carnatic War (1749-54)
➢ Immediate context: Succession disputes at Carnatic and Hyderabad.
➢ Main battles: Battle of Ambur and Arcot.
➢ French suffered heavy financial losses.
➢ Treaty of Pondicherry: No future interference in states’ disputes. It undermined French
power in South India vis-à-vis English.
▪ Third Carnatic War (1758-63)
➢ Immediate context: Reason was the Seven Years war in Europe (1756-63).
➢ Battle of Wandiwash in 1760 was the final blow to the French.
➢ Ended by Treaty of Paris (1763), French were allowed to use Indian settlements for
commercial purposes only and fortification of settlements were banned.
➢ General Eyre Coot totally routed the French army under Lally.
• Why the English Succeeded Against Other European Powers? Structure and Nature of the Trading
Companies + Naval Superiority + Industrial Revolution + Military Skill and Discipline + Stable
Government + Lesser zeal for religion + Use of Debt market.
• Reasons for defeat of French against British: Continental ambitions of France + Difference in organization of
two companies + Responsibility of Dupleix + Impact of British success in Bengal + Absence of permanent naval
presence.
7. Expansion and Consolidation of British Power in India
• Bengal on the eve of British Conquest

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o Bengal was the most fertile and the richest province of the Mughal Empire and INCluded present day
Bangladesh and states of Bihar and Odisha.
o Exports from Bengal to Europe consisted of saltpeter, rice, indigo, pepper, sugar, silk, cotton textile,
handicrafts.
o 60%of British imports fromAsia consisted of goods from Bengal
o EIC Factories at Balasore, Hooghly, Kasimbazar, Patna, Dacca
o 1690s:FoundationofCalcuttabyEIC
• Battle of Plassey: It was fought in 1757 in the Plassey (or Palashi) region of West Bengal, on the east of
Bhagirathi river.
o Causes :
▪ The British victory in the Carnatic had already made Siraj apprehensive of the growing power of
the East India Company.
▪ Moreover, the officials of the Company made rampant misuse of its trade privileges that adversely
affected the nawab’s finances.
▪ The British also fortified Calcutta without the nawab’s permission which the nawab took as
ignorance to his sovereign power.
▪ The infuriated Nawab marched to Calcutta and occupied Fort William in June 1756.
o British led by Robert Clive, came up against the forces of Siraj-ud-Daulah, the last independent
Nawab of Bengal, and his French allies.
o After Fort William’s surrender, on June 20, 175, Siraj confined 146 British prisoners in a small
dungeon in Calcutta – ‘Black Hole Tragedy’.
o A strong force under Robert Clive was sent from Madras to overthrow nawab and strengthen the
British position in Bengal.
o Treaty of Alinagar (1757): As per treaty, Nawab had to restore to the English their former privileges of
trade, grant permission to fortify Calcutta and even pay compensation amount for losses suffered by the
English.
o Course of War
▪ Clive’s army was confronted by the nawab’s army at Plassey (Palashi) along with the French
soldiers on their side.
▪ Secret alliance of the British with the conspirators strengthened the British foothold in the battle.
▪ Moreover, Mir Jafar, with around one-third of the Bengali army, did not join the battle and
contributed to Nawab’s defeat.
▪ Under compelling circumstances, the Nawab tried to escape with his army but was killed by
Miran, the son of Mir Jafar.
▪ After the Battle of Plassey, Clive proclaimed Mir Jafar as the Nawab of Bengal and placed him on
the throne of Murshidabad.
o Consequences
▪ Mir Jafar was proclaimed as Nawab of Bengal.
▪ Robert Clive was confirmed as Governor of Bengal.
▪ Company was granted undisputed right to free trade in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
▪ Company received the zamindari of 24 paraganas near Calcutta.
▪ Mir Jafar paid out a sum of Rs. 50 lakhs as gift or bribe to company’s officials.
▪ All the French settlements in Bengal were surrendered to the English.
o Mir Jafar (1757- Oct 1760): He soon began to repent the deal he had struck and in order to shed
off the British yoke, Jafar began intriguing with the Dutch against the British. Clive thwarted this
design by defeating Dutch in Battle of Bedra (1759).
o Mir Kasim (1760-63)
o He shifted the capital from Murshidabad to Monghyr in Bihar.
o He sought to modernize his army along European lines and preparations were made for the
manufacture of guns at Monghyr.
o The misuse of Company’s dastaks for private trade was a perpetual cause of tension between
English company and the Nawab.
o MirKasim and the Treaty of 1760

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➢ Irritated Mir Jafar did not pay English and conspires with Dutch at Chinsura but
Dutch were defeated by English in 1759→English annoyed.
➢ Mir Kasim to cede Burdwan, Midnapore, Chittagong to Company.
➢ Company to get half share of chuman trade in Sylhet.
➢ Mir Kasim gave 5 lakhs to finance companies war efforts in South India.
➢ It was agreed that Mir Kasims enemies were companies enemies and his friends, are
Company’s friends.
• Battle of Buxar (1764)
o It was fought between the forces under the command of the British East India Company, led by
Hector Munro, and the combined armies of Mir Qasim, Nawab of Bengal till 1763; Shuja-ud-
Daulah, the Nawab of Awadh; and the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II.
o Course of War: In October 1764, in a final attempt to oust the British from Bengal, the
combined armies of Mir Kasim, the Nawab of Awadh and Shah Alam II came together to fight
against the former. The armies of Nawabs and the Mughal emperor were decisively defeated by
the British forces under Major Hector Munro at Buxar.
o Result: The battle resulted in the Treaty of Allahabad, 1765 in which the Mughal Emperor
surrendered sovereignty of Bengal to the British.
o Significance: Not only the Nawab of Bengal but also the Mughal Emperor of India was defeated
by the British; made the British contenders for supremacy over the whole country.
o Post war: Mir Jafar was reinstated as the Nawab of Bengal in 1763 + He agreed to hand over the
districts of Midnapore, Burdwan and Chittagong to the British for the maintenance of their army
+ The British were also permitted duty-free trade in Bengal, except for a duty of 2% on salt.
o Treaty of Allahabad, 1765: In 1765, two Treaties were concluded by Robert Clive at Allahabad
with Nawab Shuja-ud-Daulah and Emperor Shah Alam II.
▪ First treaty with the Nawab of Awadh:
➢ Allahabad and Kara were surrendered by the Nawab to Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II.
➢ A sum of Rs 50 lakh was paid to the Company as war indemnity.
➢ Balwant Singh, the Zamindar of Banaras, was given full possession of his estate.
▪ Under the second treaty with Shah Alam II:
➢ Emperor was asked to reside at Allahabad under the Company’s protection.
➢ The Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa were granted to the East India Company in lieu
of an annual payment of Rs 26 lakh
➢ Rs 53 lakh was given by Mughal Emperor to Company in return for nizamat
functions(military defence, police, and administration of justice) of said Provinces.
Dual System of Government 1765-72
Company Nawab
Diwani Nizamat Responsible for
Meaning Collecting revenue Police and Judicial functions peace/ order but
Source Mughal Emperor’s farmans From Bengal subedar dependent for
funds/ forces
from company
Exercise by Diwan Company nominated deputy
subedar
• Analysis of dual government in Bengal: Company appointed two deputy diwans for exercising diwani
functions-Mohammad Reza Khan for Bengal and Raja Sitah Roy for Bihar. Mohammad Reza Khan also
functioned as deputy nizam. It failed miserably. It destroyed trade, industry, and agriculture of Bengal. This
dual system of governance was finally abolished by Warren Hastings in 1772.

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BRITISH EXPANSION AND CONSOLIDATION IN INDIA

CHAPTER – 4
(1767-1818)

1. Introduction: After the conquest of Bengal, the process of British expansion and consolidation ensued
through conquests and elimination of rivals in various parts of the subcontinent.
2. Expansion under various Governor Generals
• Expansion under Warren Hastings: First Anglo-Maratha war (1775-82) and Second Mysore war
(1780-84).
• Expansion under Cornwallis: Third Mysore war (1790-92)
• Expansion under Lord Wellesley: Fourth Mysore war (1799) and Second Anglo-Maratha war
(1803-05).
• Expansion under Lord Hastings: Third Anglo Maratha war (1817-18).
3. Mysore’s resistance to the company
• Wodeyar/Mysore dynasty
o After Battle of Talikota (1565), many small kingdoms emerged from remnants of Vijayanagara
Empire.
o In 1612, Wodeyars emerged in region of Mysore. Chikka Krishnaraja Wodeyar II ruled from
1734 to 1766.
o In second half of 18th century, Mysore emerged as formidable power under leadership of Haidar
Ali and Tipu sultan.
o Hyder and Tipu’s control over rich trade of Malabar Coast was seen as threat to English
company’s trade.
o Haidar Ali took help of French to set up an arms factory at Dindigul and introduced western
methods of training for his army.
• Anglo-Mysore wars (1767-99): The rise of Mysore under Hyder Ali was viewed as a threat by
neighbouring states – Marathas, Nawab of Carnatic and Nizam of Hyderabad.
• First Anglo-Mysore war (1767-69)
• Immediate context: Provided by the rivalry over Northern Circars. It led to a tripartite treaty
between Marathas, the Nizam and the English against Hyder Ali.
• Began with the attack on Mysore by the allies in 1766. Soon, Hyder persuaded the Nizam and the
Marathas to join hands with him against the English and finally forced the Madras Council to sign
peace on his terms.
• It ended with Treaty of Madras in 1769→ provided for exchange of prisoners and mutual
restitution of conquests.
• Haider Ali was promised the help of English in case he was attacked by any other power.
• Second Anglo Mysore war (1780-84)
o Immediate context: Capture of Mahe by the English.
o In this war, the Marathas and the Nizam sided with the English.
o Main battle fought -Battle of Port-Novo (1781) in which Hyder suffered defeat.
o Ended with Treaty of Mangalore-> each party gave back territories it had taken from the other.
• Third Anglo Mysore war (1790-92)
o Immediate context-provided by Tipu's attack on Travancore.
o In this war too, the Marathas and the Nizam sided with the English.
o It ended with the Treaty of Seringapatam (1792).
▪ Tipu Sultan lost. He surrendered half of his territory to Company and its allies. The Company
acquired Baramahal, Dindigul and Malabar. While the Marathas got the regions surrounding
Tungabhadra and its tributaries and Nizam acquired the areas from Krishna to beyond the
Pennar. War damage of Rs. 3 crores were taken from Tipu.

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• Fourth Anglo Mysore war (1799)
o Immediate context: Provided by Napoleon's plans to invade India and Tipu's consequent
negotiations with the French.
o Main battle fought- Battle of Seringapatam
o Result: Tipu was killed during the defence of the city. Mysore lost its independence.
4. Rise of Marathas
• After their defeat in the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761, the Marathas re-grouped and regained their
strength.
• Bajirao I started a confederacy of prominent Maratha chiefs to manage the rapidly expanding Maratha
power and, to some extent, appease Kshatriya Section of Marathas led by the Senapati Dabodi.
• Maratha Families: (i) the Gaekwad of Baroda, (ii) the Bhonsle of Nagpur, (iii) the Holkars of Indore,
(iv) the Sindhias of Gwalior, and (v) the Peshwa of Poona.
5. Anglo-Maratha wars (1775-1818)
• First Anglo-Maratha war (1775-82)
o Causes: Treaty of Surat 1775 was signed between Raghunath Rao and the British East India
Company (EIC). British EIC agreed to support the claim of Raghunathrao over Peshwaship.In
return, Raghunathrao conceded Salsette and Bassein to the English.
o Immediate context: Sawai Madhav Rao succeeded as Peshwa, which gravely frustrated
Raghunath Rao and he now tried to capture power with British help.
o Began with the Treaty of Surat (Raghunathrao ceded the territories of Salsette and Bassein to
English along with a portion of revenues from Surat and Bharuch districts) and ended with the
Treaty of Salbai.
o Main battles fought -Battles of Adas, Talegaon and Sipri.
o Treaty of Salbai: It ended the First Anglo-Maratha War, restored the status, and established
peace between the two parties for 20 years.
▪ The East India Company preserved Salsette and Broach.
▪ It also took a promise from the Marathas that they will retake their possessions in the Deccan
from Hyder Ali.
▪ The whole of the territory conquered since the Treaty of Purandar (1776), INCluding Bassein,
should be restored to the Marathas.
▪ In Gujarat, Fateh Singh Gaekwad should remain in possession of the territory which he had
before the war and should serve the Peshwa as before.
▪ The English should enjoy the privileges of trade as before.
▪ The Peshwa should not support any other European nation.
▪ Marathas also promised that they will not give any territories to the French.
▪ Raghunathrao was to receive a pension every year.
▪ All territories taken by the British after the Treaty of Purandhar were surrendered back to the
Marathas.
▪ The English accepted Madhavrao II as the Peshwa.
• Second Anglo Maratha war (1803-05)
o Immediate context: In 1801, Peshwa Baji Rao II killed Holkar's brother Vithoji Rao Holkar.
When Holkar launched a counter attack, Peshwa fled, took refuge in Bassein and approached
Wellesley for help.
o Began with the Treaty of Bassein and ended with the Treaty of Rajpur ghat.
o Main battles fought- Battles of Assaye, Argaon, Delhi, Laswari and Ding.
o Result-the English had an edge over the Marathas. Separate treaties weresigned with ScIndia,
Bhonsle and Holkar by the Company which tore apartthe Maratha confederacy.
o Treaty of Bassein (1802): Under the treaty, the Peshwa agreed:
▪ To cede to the company territories yielding an INCome of Rs.26 lakh
▪ To surrender the city of Surat
▪ To give up all claims for Chauth on the Nizam’s dominions
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▪ To accept company’s arbitration in all differences between him and Nizam or the Gaekwad
▪ Not to keep in his employment Europeans of any nation at war with the English
▪ To subject his relations with other states to the control of the English.
• Third Anglo-Maratha war (1817-19)
o Immediate Context -War began as a campaign against Pindaris, the irregular Maratha forces.
o Began with the Treaty of Poona with Peshwa; Treaty of Gwalior with Sindhia and ended with
the Treaty of Mandsaur with Holkar.
o Main battles fought-Battles of Khadki, Sitabaldi, Mehidpur, Koregaon and Ashti.
o Result-Maratha forces were decisively defeated. Peshwa's territories were annexed by the British.
The House of the Peshwa was extinguished.
6. Anglo-Nepal war (1814-16)
• In 1768, Gorkhas wrested the control of Kathmandu from successors of Ranjit Malla of Bhatgaon.
• In their attempt to expand beyond the mountains, they were checked by Chinese in the north. They
pushed towards frontiers of Bengal and Awadh, coming in contact and clash with the English in
India.
• 1801: EIC annexed Gorakhpur- EIC and Nepal sharing boundary together; conflict started due to
Gorkha’s capture of Butwal and Sheoraj.
• The war ended with Treaty of Sagauli in 1816->British gained the districts of Garhwal and Kumaon
and a resident was placed at Kathmandu + north-west frontier of company was pushed up to
mountains as English gained entire area of Sutlej hills comprising hill stations of Simla, Mussorie,
Ranikhet, Landour and Nainital + Nepal also withdrew from Sikkim.
• Nepal maintained neutrality during the revolt of 1857- British enlisted a large number of Gorkhas as
mercenaries in their army.
7. First Burma war (Lord Amherst; 1824-26)
• Burma occupied Arakan and Manipur-> threat to Assam+ Brahmaputra Valley-> friction along ill-
defined border between Bengal and Burma
• War: British occupied Rangoon.
• Ended with the Treaty of Yandabo (1826).
• Result-The English regained control over Assam, Manipur and and occupied Arakan and Tenasserim
region (Tavoy and Mergui).
• Treaty of Yandabo provided that Government of Burma:
• Pay rupees 1 crore as war compensation;
• Cede its coastal Provinces of Arakan and Tenasserim;
• Abandon claims on Assam, Cachar and Jaintia;
• Recognize Manipur as an independent state;
• Negotiate a commercial treaty with Britain;
• Accept a British resident at Ava and posting Burmese envoy at Calcutta.
8. Second Burma war (Lord Dalhousie; 1852-53)
• It was the result of British commercial need and imperialist policy of Lord Dalhousie.
• Immediate Context-Two British captains were heavily fined by the Burmese government. Dalhousie
decided to attack Burma on the pretext of restoring the dignity of the English.
• Result-The English annexed Rangoon and Pegu (or Lower Burma).
9. Third Burma war (Lord Dufferin; 1885)
• It took place when the English attacked Burma on the pretext that king Thibaw Min was intriguing
with the French in Vietnam to weaken English control over Asia.
• The British has annexed Upper Burma. Burma lost its independence.
10. First Afghan war (Lord Auckland; 1839-42)
• The apprehension of Russia invasion on India and the attempt of the British to check it on the border
of Afghanistan was the primary cause of the first Anglo-Afghan War.

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 PRELIMS – 2025 | Modern Indian History
• Immediate context: Failure of Burnes Mission.
• A tripartite treaty was signed between the English, Shah Shuja and Ranjit singh. Following the treaty,
combined forces of three parties known as ‘army of Indus’ launched an attack on Kabul.
• Result: Afghan invasion was a failure. The English who were forced to retreat, Shah Shuja was killed
and Dost Mohammad re-establish his authority in Kabul.
11. Second Afghan war (Lord Lytton; 1878-80)
• Result of war: Amir Yakub Khan agreed to station a permanent British resident at Kabul and
conduct his foreign policy with advice of Government of India.
• Afghanistan was created as a buffer state between British Indian and Russian Empire.
• Ended with the Treaty of Gandamak (1879): It provided that the Amir conduct his foreign policy
with advice of GOI; permanent British resident stationed at Kabul and GOI give Amir all support
against foreign aggression and an annual subsidy.
12. Conquest of Sindh (Lord Ellenborough; 1843)
• Causes: To counter Russian threat, Sindh was seen as a necessary prelude to annexation of
Afghanistan + regain English prestige which had suffered during First Afghan war.
• Finally annexed in 1843 after Battles of Miani and Dabo led by Sir Charles Napier.
• Result: English emerged victorious. Sindh was annexed and was later made part of British India’s
Bombay presidency in 1847.
13. Conquest of Punjab (1849)
• Maharaja Ranjit Singh had failed to establish a stable Sikh state in Punjab and his death was followed
by political instability.
• War of succession ensued amongst many sons of Ranjit Singh; Dalip Singh was proclaimed king
under guardianship of Rani Jindan.
• Treaty of Amritsar: It checked ambitions of Ranjit Singh to extend his rule over entire Sikh nation
by accepting river Sutlej as the boundary line for his dominions and the company’s.
• 1838- Ranjit Singh was compelled by political compulsions to sign Tripartite treaty with the English.
Ranjit Singh's administration
• He divided his kingdom into Provinces. All the Provinces were not of uniform size.
• Nazims or Subedars were appointed to administer these Provinces.
• Each province was divided into Parganas, and each Pargana was divided into Taulqas and
each Taulqa into 50 to 100 Mauzas or villages.
o Each Pargana was under an official known as Kardar. He was a revenue collector, a
magistrate and a representative of the central authority all rolled in one.
14. First Anglo-Sikh war (Lord Hardinge; 1845-46)
• Main battles: Battles of Mudki, Ferozeshah, Baddoval, Aliwal and the Battle of Sabbraon.
• After the defeat of Sikhs, British occupied Lahore and forced Sikhs to sign Treaty of Lahore.
• Ended with the Treaty of Lahore->Maharaja gave up all territories lying to the south of River Satluj + Sikhs
had to pay Rs1.5 crores as war indemnity + Sir Henry Lawrence became the British resident at Lahore.
• Result-Sikh lost territories to the south of the River Satluj.
• Sir Henry Lawrence became the British Resident at Lahore.
• Treaty of Bhairowal (1846): Rani Jindan was removed as regent and a council of regency for Punjab
was set up. The council consisted of 8 Sikh sardars presided over by English resident Henry
Lawrence.
15. Second Sikh war (Lord Dalhousie; 1848-49)
• The defeat in first Anglo-Sikh war and provisions of treaties of Lahore and Bhairowal were
humiliating for Sikhs. Inhuman treatment meted out to Rani Jindan and reduced pension to mere Rs.
48,000 per annum added to resentment of Sikhs.
• Immediate context: Revolt of Multan by Governor Mulraj.
• Main battles: Battles of Ramnagar, Chillianwala andGujrat.

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 PRELIMS – 2025 | Modern Indian History
• Battle of Gujrat was decisive. Sikh army was defeated and it surrendered before the English led by
Charles Napier.
• Result: Dalhousie annexed Punjab. Maharaja Dalip Singh was pensioned and sent to England for education.
16. Annexation of Awadh (Lord Dalhousie; 1856)
• Although Wajid Ali Shah was a capable ruler, the British residents gave exaggerated reports about his
INCompetence to the company authorities.
• This gave the East India Company a Casus Belli (cause for war in Latin) to conquer Awadh.
• On 7th February 1856, Lord Dalhousie ordered to depose Wajid Ali Shah on the account of alleged
internal misrule.
• Awadh was annexed in 1856 on the pretext of maladministration based onOutram's report.
17. Anglo-Tibetan relations
• Treaty of Lhasa (1904)
• Tibet would pay an indemnity of Rs. 75 lakh at the rate of one lakh rupees per annum.
• As a security of payment, Indian govt would occupy Chumbi valley for 75 years.
• Tibet would respect frontier of Sikkim.
• Trade marts would be opened at Yatung, Gyantse and Gartok.
• Tibet would not grant any concession for railways, roads etc. to any foreign state but give Great
Britain some control over foreign affairs of Tibet.
18. Extension of British paramountcy through administrative policy
• Policy of Ring Fence
o Warren Hastings established it which entailed protecting their neighbors' frontiers in order to
protect their own lands.
o East India Company's struggle against the Marathas and the Kingdom of Mysore mirrored this.
o The main threat came from Marathas and Afghan invaders (the Company agreed to organise
Awadh's defence in order to ensure Bengal's security).
o Wellesley's subsidiary alliance policy was an extension of the ring fence policy, which sought to
reduce states' reliance on the British government in India.
• Subsidiary Alliance
• It was used by Lord Wellesley from 1798-1805 to build an empire in India [French Governor-
General Marquis Dupleix was the first person to utilize it].
• Aim: Prevent French revival (Context: Napoleon threat) + expand EIC influence.
• Features
• Under the system, ruler of the Allied Indian State was required to approve the permanent
stationing of a British force within his territory and to pay a subsidy for its maintenance
under the subsidiary alliance plan.
• Indian king had to disband his own military forces and accept British forces in his area.
• If he did not pay, a Section of his land would be taken away from him and given to the
British.
• In exchange, the British promised to defend the Indian state from any foreign attack or
internal uprising.
• Any other foreign country could not form an alliance with the Indian state.
• Without British sanction, there were no political ties within Indian states.
• A British resident was also stationed at the court.
o Various stages
• 1st stage: English pledged to provide a fixed army to the native rulers in exchange for a
fixed sum of money.
• 2nd stage: English committed to keeping permanent military force to assist their ally in
exchange for a set annual sum of money.

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 PRELIMS – 2025 | Modern Indian History
• 3rd stage: English pledged to maintain not only a fixed subsidiary force to assist their
partner in exchange for a certain annual sum of money, but also to keep the force within the
ally's borders.
• 4th stage: English promised to keep a permanent and fixed subsidiary force within the territory of
their ally in its fourth and final form, which was instituted by Lord Wellesley. However, instead
of receiving money, they were granted permanent access to a portion of the ally's territory.
o States which accepted Alliance: Nizam of Hyderabad (1789, 1800), Mysore (1799), Tanjore
(1799), Awadh (1801), Peshwa (1801), Bhonsle (1803), Sindhia (1804), Jodhpur, Jaipur,
Macheri, Bundi, Bharatpur (1818), Holkars (1818- last)
• Doctrine of Lapse
o It was an annexation policy followed widely by Lord Dalhousie from 1848 to 1856.
o Any prINCely state under the direct or indirect control of EIC where the ruler did not have a legal
male heir would be annexed by the company.
o No adopted heir would be eligible for acquiring the throne, but would only be eligible to inherit
the prINCe’s personal assets and properties.
o In 1824, the prINCely state of Kittur was seized by the British East India Company under the
implementation of the Doctrine of Lapse well before the Governance of the Lord Dalhousie.
o Annexed states: Satara (1848), Jhansi and Nagpur (1854), Jaitpur (Bundelkhand), Smabalpur,
Baghat (MP); Awadh annexed in 1856 on ground of mis-governance
• John Lawrence and Policy of Masterly Inactivity: Do not interfere till peace not disturbed and
other powers not involved. Sher Ali won the successorship fight without interference.
• Lytton and the Policy of Proud reserve: It was aimed at having scientific frontiers and safeguarding
‘spheres of influence’.

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 PRELIMS – 2025 | Modern Indian History

CHAPTER – 5 POPULAR UPRISINGS UP TO 1857

1. Introduction:
• The establishment of British rule had a far more devastating impact on the lives of various Sections of
people, forcing them to rise in revolt against colonial rule. As per Bipan Chandra, people’s resistance
came in form of civil rebellions, tribal uprisings and peasant Movements.
2. Causes of Pre-1857 uprisings
• Exploitative policies: Colonial land revenue settlements, heavy burden of new taxes, eviction of peasants
from their lands, encroachments on tribal lands and exploitation in rural Society.
• Growth of Intermediary revenue collectors, tenants and money-lenders.
• De-Industrialization: Promotion of British manufactured goods, heavy duties on Indian industries,
especially export duties leading to devastation of Indian handloom.
• Impact on rulers and zamindars: Several Rajas and Nawabs lost their principalities owing to the
Company’s policy of expansion. Their rights are taken over by colonial state and they were forced to
sell their rights due to inability to pay higher revenues.
• Impact on tribals: Colonial administration ended the relative isolation of tribals and brought them
within ambit of colonial economy and exploitation.
• Character of British: The foreign character of the British rulers, who always remained alien to this
land and their contemptuous treatment of native people, hurt their pride.
3. Major Civil Uprisings and Peasant Movements
Name of Time Place of the Context and Significance Important
the Revolt Period Revolt of the Revolt Leaders
• Plunder by EIC and 1770
famine.
• 1770 famine→ sanyasis
started the revolt, joined by
small zamindars, rural poor,
disbanded soldiers.
• Significance: Equal
participation by Hindus and Manju Shah,
Muslims. Musa Shah,
• Bankim Chandra Bhawani
Chhaterjee’s Anandmath is Pathak,
based on this revolt. Debi
• Their target of attack was the Chaudhurani
Sanyasi/ 1763- Northern grain stocks of the rich and
Fakir rebellion 1800 Bengal at later stage, government
officials.
• They looted local government
treasuries. Sometimes the
wealth looted was distributed
among the poor.
• They established an
independent government in
Bogra and Mymensingh.
• Encounter between the
Sanyasis-Fakirs and the
British forces became a
regular feature all over
Bengal and Bihar till 1800.
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 PRELIMS – 2025 | Modern Indian History
• Subdued by Warren Hastings.
• The Sanyasi Rebellion was
India's first anti-British
uprising.
• EIC got Midnapore in1760.
This led to introduction of
new revenue system in
1772→zamindars
dispossessed in 1800s.
• By the 1800s, the zamindars
of Dhalbhum, Manbhum,
Raipur, Panchet, Jhatibuni,
Rebellionin
Karnagarh, and Bagri, who
Midnapore Damodar Singh,
1766-67 Bengal lived in Jungle Mahals of the
and Jagannath Dhal
west and north-west
Dhalbhum
Midnapore, had lost their
zamindaries.
• In cases of dispute between
the ryots and the English
revenue collecting
authorities, the zamindars of
Midnapore sided with the
ryots.
• Moamarias are low-caste
peasant who follow the
teachings of Aniruddhadeva.
• Their revolts weakened
Ahoms- Ruler shad to seek
British help from external
aggressions.
• Moamarias made Bhatipur
Assam and their HQs.
Revolt of
1769-99 parts of • Rangpur and Jorhat were Krishna-narayan
Moamarias
Bangladesh most affected region.
• King Gaurinath Sinha went
to neighbouring territories in
search of safety.
• Although Ahom kingdom
survived the uprising, it was
devastated by Burmese
invasion and eventually fell
under British authority.
• In order to pay for the war
against the Marathas and
Mysore, Warren Hastings
devised a scheme to employ
In Gorakhpur,
English officers as ijaradars
Basti and 1781
(revenue farmers) in Awadh.
Bahraich
• In 1781, the zamindars and
farmers revolted against the
oppressive taxes, and within
weeks, all of Hannay's

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 PRELIMS – 2025 | Modern Indian History
subordinates were either slain
or besieged by zamindari
guerrilla troops.
• In order to pay for the war
against the Marathas and
Mysore, Warren Hastings
devised a scheme to employ
English officers as izaradars
(revenue farmers) in Awadh.
• In 1778, he enlisted Major
Alexander Hannay, who was
well-versed in the area, as an
izaradar.
• Hannay was able to obtain
the izara of Gorakhpur and
Bahraich for a year for the
sum of 22 lakh rupees.
• Hannay was dismissed and
his izara forcibly removed.
• In 1865, territories of
Gorakhpur were divided into
Basti, a new district.
• Rangpur and Dinajpur were
two of the districts of Bengal
which faced very high illegal
demands by EIC and its
revenue contractors.
• The revenue contractor Debi
Singh and his agents created
a reign of terror in the two
districts of northern Bengal.
• Taxes on the Zamindars were
Increased which actually
were passed on from
Zamindars to cultivators or
ryots.
Peasant • Debi Singh and his men used
Uprising of 1783 Bengal to beat and flog the peasants, Dirjinarain
Rangpur burn their houses and destroy
their crops and not even
women were spared.
• By beat of drum rebel
peasants gathered large
number of peasants, armed
with swords, shields, bows
and arrows.
• They attacked local
cutcheries and store houses
of crops of local agents of the
contractors and government
officials. In many cases they
snatched away the prisoners
from the government guards.

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• The rebels formed a
government of their own,
stopped payments of revenue
to existing government and
levied 'insurrection charges'
to meet the expenses of the
rebellion.
• Both Hindus and Muslims
fought side by side in the
insurrection.
• Ultimately government's
armed forces took control of
the situation and suppressed
the revolt.
• Cause: Annexation of
Raja’s estate by British.
• Governor-General: John
Shore
• The Raja of Vizianagaram
(modern-day of Andhra
Pradesh) openly declared
war on the British.
• British asked for help from
the Raja of Vizianagaram,
Ananda Gajapatiraju, to oust
the French from Northern
Circars.
• After their victory, the
Revolt of Raja British went back on their Vizieram Rauze
Northern words, demanded a tribute
of Vizia- 1794 (Chinna
Circars from the Raja and asked him
nagaram Vijayaramaraju)
to disband his troops. Raja
Vizayaramaraju, the son of
Late Ananda Gajapatiraju
rose up in revolt. He was
later killed in a battle.
• 1758 treaty between English
and Gajapatiraju of
Vizianagaram to oust French
from Northern Circars → they
succeeded but EIC went back
on its promise and demanded
Rs.3 lakhs and asked to
disband troops → rebellion
• Raja died in Battle of
Padmanabham.
• With fall of Seringapatnam,
Dhundiawagh got released and
Revolt of organized forces consisting of
1799-
Dhundia in Karnataka anti-British elements and Dhundia Wagh
1800
Bednur carved out a small territory for
himself.
• Dhundia was a Maratha leader

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who rose up in revolt against
the British. He was defeated by
Wellesley in 1800.
• Defeat by English in 1799→
refuge in Maratha region→
instigated disappointed
prINCes to fight against
English.
• Wellesley subdued.
• The British had adopted a
revenue policy that adversely
affected the interests of the
peasants.
• Pazhassi Raja was a prINCe
of the Kottayam Kingdom
who led an active resistance
against the Kingdom of
Mysore and later the British
East India Company in the
late 18th century.
• He is popularly known as
1797- Kerala Simham (Lion of
1805 Kerala) on account of his
martial exploits
Revolt of
• Pazhassi revolted against the Kerala Varmaaka
Kerala Varma
Kerala mistaken revenue policy of Kerala
Pazhassi
the British. He stopped all Simham/Pycheraja
Raja
collection of revenue in
Kottayam.
• The British tried to subjugate
him→ Raja took refuge in the
jungles of Wayanad
• His supporters assembled in
small groups, erected barriers
and cut off British
communications→ British
forced to have truce.
• By the agreement, the
Company agreed to withdraw
all troops from Wayanad and
to cancel the agreement with
Kurumbanadu Raja.
o Nawab Wazir Ali Khan, with
EIC help, ascended throne
but then relations became
sour→replaced by uncle
Saadat Ali Khan II and Wazir
Civil Rebellion
1799 Khanon pension. Wazir Ali Khan
of Awadh
o In Jan 1799, Wazir Khan
assassinated George
Frederick Cherry; Wazir Ali's
soldiers also killed two other
Europeans and assaulted the

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 PRELIMS – 2025 | Modern Indian History
Benares Magistrate.
o The entire episode became
known as “Massacre of
Benares”.
o Wazir Ali was able to raise a
force of many thousand
soldiers, but General Erskine
was able to beat them.
o Arthur Wellesley demanded
Wazir Ali's extradition from
the Raja of Jaipur.
o East India Company signed a
treaty with Saadat Ali Khan,
presumably on very
unfavorable terms.
o Over revenue payment →
Uprisings in Odisha Strikara Bhanj refused to pay Strikara Bhanj;
1800,
Ganjam and (Northern revenues in 1797→ joined by Dhanajaya Bhanj;
1935-37
Gumsur Circars) Jlani Deo of Vijayanagar and Doora Bisayi
Jagannath Deo of Pratapgiri
o Complex agrarian land
Uprising in lordism and exploitative
1800-02 Jharkhand Bhukhan Singh
Palamau feudal system → Bhukan
Singh rose in rebellion
o Main centres: Tinneveli,
Ramanathapuram, Sivaganga,
Sivagiri, Madurai, North Arcot
o 1781: Nawab of Arcot gave
control of Tinnevelli and
Carnatic to EIC→ which
resulted into Poligars revolt.
Revolt of o 1st Revolt (1795-9): Over
Kattabomman
Poligars/ 1795- taxation; Kattabomman
Tamil Nadu Nayakan;
Palayak- 1805 Nayakan led the insurrection →
Oomathurai
karargal defeated→fled but betrayed by
Ettapan (Raja of Pudukottai).
o 2nd Revolt (1801-5):More
violent; imprisoned poligars
escaped; joined ‘Marudus’
rebellion of Marathu Pandian
suppressed in 1801; also known
as “South Indian Rebellion”
• Jats fortified themselves in
Bhiwani and made a strong
Uprising in resistance.
1809 Haryana
Bhiwani • A brigade of all arms was
required to suppress the
revolt.
• Thampi Chempakaraman
Revolt of Velayudhan, popularly
Diwan of state, Velu
Diwan Velu 1808-09 Travancore known as Velu Thampi, was
Thampi
Thampi Dalawa (equivalent of Prime
Minister in modern times) of

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the Kingdom of Travancore
• Heavy demand for subsidy,
high handed attitude of
British resident.
• Consequences: Velu Thampi
was hanged publicly after
death to instill fear among the
people.
• 2nd Anglo-Mysore War:
Bundelkhand captured by
EIC→ multiple resistance
from Bundela chiefs→ Lakshman Dawa
Disturbances Madhya suppressed. (Killadar of Ajaygarh
in 1808-12 Pradesh and • The British had to adopt a Fort), Darya Singh
Bundelkhand Uttar Pradesh policy of binding down the (killadar of Kalanjar),
hereditary chieftains of Gopal Singh
Bundel khand by series of
contractual obligations-
Ikarnamahs.
• West Ganjam district Narayan Deo,
Parlakimendi 1813-34 Odisha
Gajapathi
1. British meddled in Kutch's
internal feuds→ prompted Raja
Bharmal II to gather Arab and
African forces in 1819 with the
goal of driving the British out
of his realm.
2. Captain MacMurdo was
Kutch appointed as the British
1816-32 Gujarat Rao Bharmal
Rebellion Resident at Bhuj and Collector
of Anjar in 1816, when Rao
Bharmal II accepted British
suzerainty.
3. British forces stormed Bhuj in
1819, with help of several
Jadeja lords, and defeated Rao
Bharmal II.
• Immediate cause of upsurge
was imposition of police tax.
• Issue became religious when
Mufti Muhammad Aiwaz
Rising in gave petition to magistrate in Mufti Mohd.
1816 Uttar Pradesh
Bareilly 1816. Aiwaz;
• In April 1816, terrorists
assassinated Leycester's son
(judge of Bareilly Provincial
court).
• The Paiks were the
traditional landed militia who Bakshi Jagabandhu
Paika had hereditary land tenures in Bidyadhar, Mukunda
1817 Odisha
Rebellion exchange for their military Devaand Binabandhu
duty and policing tasks. Santra
• Bakshi Jagabandhu

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Bidyadhar was the military
commander of the Raja of
Khurda's army.
• Company took away
Jagabandhu's ancestral estate
of Killa Rorang in 1814,
leaving him destitute.
• The entry of a group of
Khonds from Gumsur into
Khurda territory in March
1817 lit the fuse.
• It was successful in obtaining
huge remissions of arrears,
reductions in assessments, a
moratorium on sale of
defaulters' properties at will,
new settlement on permanent
tenures, and other liberal
governance adjuncts.
• Dayaram, an Aligarh
talukdar had one of the
strongest forts in India-a
‘second Bharatpur’
• EIC had concluded
settlement of Hathras estate
with Dayaram → Dayaram
Uprisings in Aligarh and Dayaram, Bhagwant
1817 could not pay arrears British
Hathras Agra Singh
attacked and won.
• Fearing that his fort would
be dismantled, another
notable rebel, Bhagwant
Singh, Raja of Mursan,
surrendered to the
authorities.
• Causes: Imposition of
company’s rule and
Waghera Waghera chiefs of
1818-20 Baroda (GJ) company’s support to
Rising Okha Mandal
exactions by the Gaekwad of
Baroda.
• The British backtracked from
their pledge to withdraw
from Assam after the 1st
Anglo-Burma war. Instead,
they attempted to Gomdhar Konwar,
INCorporate Ahom’s Maharaja Purandhar
territories into the company’s Singh, Dhanjay
Ahom Revolt 1828 Assam
territories. Borgohain, and
• This development instigated Jairam Khargharia
a rebellion in 1828 under the Phukan
leadership of Gomdhar
Konwar, an Ahom prINCe.
• Ahom tribesmen opposed
continued occupation of

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 PRELIMS – 2025 | Modern Indian History
Assam by the British.
• Consequences: Part of
kingdom was restored to
Assamese king.
• Pagal Panthis were a mixture
of the Hinduism, Sufism and
Animism, which became
prominent in Bengal in initial
years of 19th century.
• To fight against oppressive
practices of zamindars;
refused to pay rent above a
1830- Karam Shah; Tipu
Pagal Panthis Bengal certain limit
40s Shah
• From 1825 till 1835 they also
attacked the houses of
zamindars.
• Though the Movement was
violently suppressed,
government did introduce
some measures to protect the
peasants.
• Faraizi Sect founded by Haji
Shariatullah of Faridpur.
• Faraizi Movement was
fuelled by the grievances of
rack-rented and evicted
peasants against landlords
and British rulers.
• The Faraizis set up parallel
administration in some parts
of Eastern Bengal and
established village courts to
Faraizi 1838- settle the peasants disputes.
Bengal Dudu Miyan
Disturbances 1851 • They protected cultivators
from Zamindar's excesses
and asked the peasants not to
pay taxes to the Zamindars.
• They raided the Zamindars'
houses and cutcheries and
burnt indigo factory at
Panch-char.
• Later, government and
Zamindar’s forces crushed
the Movement and Dudu
Miyan was imprisoned.
• Mappilas -> descendants of
the Arab settlers and
converted Hindus.
Mappila • They were cultivating
1836-54 Malabar
Uprisings tenants, landless labourers,
petty traders and fishermen.
• Changes by British in land
administration: Transfer of
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'Janmi' from that of
traditional, partnership with
Mappila to that of an
independent owner of land
and right of eviction of
Mappila tenants which did
not exist earlier.
• Over-assessment, illegal
taxes, eviction from land,
hostile attitude of
government officials were the
reasons for revolt.
• The targets of the rebels were
generally the British officials,
Janmis and their dependents.
• Religion forged a bond
between the poorer and more
affluent Sections of the
peasantry to create grounds
for a fight against landlord
oppression.
• The British armed forces
swung into action to suppress
the rebels but failed to
subdue them for many years.
• In 1838, the British deposed
the ruler of Sawantwadi for
his failure to maintain law
and order in state, and Phond Savant,
Revolt of North Konkan appointed a European Subana Nikam, Daji
1844-59
Savanta-vadi Coast Political superintendent to Lakshman, Har
administer the state. Savant Dingnekar
• The discontented rulers fled
to Goa and planned revolt
against the British.
• Islamic revivalist Movement
founded by Syed Ahmed of
Rai Bareilly who was
inspired by teachings of
Abdul Wahab of Saudi
Arabia and Shah Waliullah of
Wahabi BR, Bengal, Syed Ahmed of Rai
1830-61 Delhi.
Movement NWFP, Punjab Bareilly
• Syed Ahmed denounced
Western influence on Islam
and called for a restoration to
genuine Islam and Society as
it was in the Arabia of the
Prophet's day.
• Initially a religious
purification Movement Bhagat Jawahar Mal;
Kuka
1840-72 Punjab (abolish caste system, no Ram Singh (Found
Movement
discrimination within Sikhs, Namdhari Sect)
discourage alcohol, meat,

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 PRELIMS – 2025 | Modern Indian History
drugs; permit intermarriage,
widow remarriage, women
out of seclusion).
• After British took Punjab, the
Movement got transformed
from a religious purification
campaign to a political
campaign.
• Kukas wanted to remove
British and restore Sikh rule
over Punjab.
• Concepts of Swadeshi and
non-cooperation was
propagated by the Kukas.
• In 1872, Ram Singh was
deported to Rangoon.
• Cause: British deposition of
Chhatrapati Pratap Singh in
1839 when he attempted to
assert his sovereignty and
Dhar Rao Pawar and
territorial rights and exiled
Satara revolt 1840 Maharashtra Narasingh Dattatreya
him to Varanasi.
Petkar.
• British reaction: British
retaliated promptly with a
strong-armed force and
captured the fort quickly.
• Salt duty was raised from
fifty paise to one rupee by
British government.
• The residents of the city
gathered and went to Adawat
Surat Salt Gujarat
1844-48 to express to the court the
Agitation
pain and difficulty imposed
on themselves
• Consequences: Government
was compelled to roll back
raise in salt duty.
• Causes: Administrative
reorganization in Kolhapur
and disbanding of the
Kolhapur and Gadkaris, a hereditary
Savantvadi military class which
revolts 1844 garrisoned Maratha forts.
• Facing the spectre of
unemployment, the Gadkaris
rose in revolt and occupied
the Samangarh and
Bhudargarh forts.

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4. Tribal Revolts
• British expansion of
lands.
Pahariyas 1778 Rajmahal Hills • British were forced to Raja Jagannath
usher in peace by
declaring their territory as
damni-kol area.
• It erupted in response to
the jungle zamindars
Increased earnings.
• The East India Company's
tax and administrative
policies and police
1766-72; restrictions rendered the
Sham Ganjan,
Chuar 1795- Midnapore practise of employing
Durjan Singh
1816 local paiks obsolete, since
they were eventually
replaced by professional
police.
• In 1799, the British
violently repressed the
insurrection
• The Kols are indigenous
people from the Chota
Nagpur area, which was part
of the Bengal presidency
during British control in
India. These tribes INClude
the Kols, Bhils, Hoes,
Mundas, and Oraons.
• Large-scale transfers of
land from Kol headmen to
outsiders like Hindu, Sikh
and Muslim farmers.
Ranchi,
• The Kols were especially
Singhbhu,
irritated by British judicial
Kol Mutiny 1831-32 Hazirabagh, Budhho Bhagat
policies.
Palamau,
Manbhum • These tribes had no rulers,
and their territory was
split into families that
were joined together by
"parhas," or conferences.
• The target of attack was
the settlers from other
regions whose houses
were burnt, and property
looted.
• The insurrection was
ruthlessly suppressed by
the British militia.

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• Raja of Parahat organized
Ho tribes to revolt against
the occupation of
Singhbhum. The revolt
continued till 1827 when
Ho tribals were forced to
Hoand
1820-37 succumb in 1827.
Munda Jharkhand BirsaMunda
• In 1899-1900, Mundas in
uprising
the region south of
Ranchi rose under Birsa
Munda.
• Ulgulan was one of the
significant tribal
uprisings.
• Landlords exploited the
Santhals ruthlessly, charging
excessive interest rates; they
were stripped of their land
and forced to work as
bonded labourers.
• Some moneylenders from,
completely controlling the
existence of Santhals
through interests on loans,
with rates ranging from
50% to 500%.
• These exploitative people
used two types of
measures, a big one (Bara
Ban) to receive things and
a small measure (Chota
Sindhu and Kanhu
Santhal Raj Mahal Hills Ban) to give things to the
1855-56
uprising (Bihar) Santhals. They also
Tikka Majhi
grabbed lands of Santhals.
• Against zamindars and
money lenders; later anti-
British.
• The Santhals declared that
their new God had
directed them to collect
and pay their revenue to
the state at the rate of two
annas on every buffalo
plough and half anna on
each cow-plough.
• They also fixed interest
rates on loans which were
to be on the lower side.
• British quashed
insurrection.

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 PRELIMS – 2025 | Modern Indian History
• British East India
Company established
Damin-i-koh area in
modern-day Jharkhand in
1832 and welcomed
Santhals to reside
• Santhals used Guerrilla
warfare. This was a first in
Bihar's history.
• Large numbers of low
caste non-Santhals also
came out in support of the
Santhals.
• Chakra Bisnoi, a youthful
raja, led Khonds, who
were supported by the
Ghumsar, Kalahandi, and
other tribes, in their
opposition to the abolition
of human sacrifice known
as the practice of 'Mariah,
Khond Increased taxes, and the
1837-56 Andhra Pradesh Chakra Bisnoi
uprising arrival of zamindars into
their territories.
• Savaras and other militia
clans commanded by
Radhakrishna Dandasena
joined it later
• Insurrection came to an
end with Chakra Bisnoi’s
disappearance.
• Naikada Revolt took place
Madhya under Roop Singh and
Naikada 1860s Pradesh and Joria Bhagat.
Gujarat • Against British and caste
Hindus
• By Kharwas against the
Kharwar 1870s Bihar revenue settlement
activities.
• Khond is a native clan of
India dominatingly living in
Orissa and Srikakulam and
Visakhapatnam regions of
Andhra Pradesh.
Khonda Dabur region of
Doras
1900
Vishaka-patnam • The clan extended from Korra Mallaya
Bengal to Tamil Nadu
covering focal regions.
They are the biggest
ancestral gatherings of
Orissa.

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• Their grievances
INCluded police and
moneylender persecution,
new restrictions, and
1803, East Godavari
Koya rejection of their Tomma Dora,
1840-62, in Andhra
Revolts traditional rights to forest Raja Anantayyar
1879-80 Pradesh
regions.
• Tomma Dora was hailed
by the Koyas as 'King' of
Malkangiri.
• British occupation of
Khandesh in 1818 enraged
Bhils because they were
suspicious of outsiders'
INCursion into their
territory.
• They rose against
Khandesh,
company control due to
Dhar,
Bhil 1817- starvation, economic
Malwa, Western Govind Guru
Revolts 19,1913 suffering, and
Ghats, South
misgovernment.
Rajasthan.
• To quell the insurrection,
the British utilised both
force and conciliatory
measures.
• But the British measures
failed to bring the Bhils to
their side.
• They opposed the
imposition of Company's
1829, control, which resulted in
Koli risings 1839, Western Ghats widespread
1844-48 unemployment and the
removal of their
fortifications.
• They had not accepted
British control or the
British system of Chittur Singh
Ramosi 1822-9, administration. Umaji Naik
Western Ghats
Risings 1839-41 • They emerged in 1822 Bapu Trimbakji
under Chittur Singh and Sawant
devastated the land around
Satara.
• After having occupied the
hilly region between the
Garo and Jaintia Hills, the Khasis, Garos,
Garoto Jaintai,
Khasi 1829-33 East India Company desired Khamptis,
Sylhet
to construct a road Singhphos
connecting the Brahmaputra
Valley with Sylhet.

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• Considerable number of
outsiders, INCluding
English, Bengalis, and
plains labourers, were
imported to these regions
for this purpose.
• The Movement grew into
a widespread revolution
against British
administration in region.
• The British political agent
was killed in an
insurrection in 1839.
1830-31, Assam- • In 1843, Chief Nirang
Singhphos Phidu organized rebellion Nirang Phidu
1843 Burmaborder
that resulted in attack on
the British garrison and
deaths of numerous
troops.
Bastar • Against new feudal and
1910 Jagdalpur
Revolt forest levies
• It was a tribal Movement
started by Jatra Bhagat
and Turia Bhagat in
Chota Nagpur Plateau.
• Tana Bhagats opposed
the taxes imposed on
them by the British.
• They opposed the
Tana zamindars, Banias and
Jatra Bhagat, Balram
Bhagat 1914 Jharkhand also the missionaries.
Bhagat
Movement • Jatra Bhagat, after getting
the order from
'Dharmesh' diety, gave up
the work of ghosts and
became immortal.
• Tana Bhagats are
followers of Mahatma
Gandhi, and believe in
Ahimsa (Non-violence).
• The tribal Movement was
fought against British as a
protest to the 1882 Madras
Forest Act in
Rampa 1916,192 Ramparegion, Visakhapatnam.
Alluri Sitarama Raju
Revolt 2-24 Andhra Pradesh • As per the Act, tribal
people were restricted on
the free Movement in the
forest areas and prevented
them from engaging in

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 PRELIMS – 2025 | Modern Indian History
their traditional Podu
(shifting) cultivation and
use of the forest for
firewood and toddy.
• Simultaneously, there was
discontent among the
muttadars, who had been
hereditary tax collectors
and de facto rulers in the
hills prior to arrival of
British.
• Led by Radhakrishna
Dandasena.
Savara • The colonial Radhakrishna
Rebellion 1856-57 Odisha administration saw links Dandasena
between this Movement
and Chakra Bisoi, who
could never be arrested.
5. Important Sepoy Mutinies
• The Bengal Sepoy Mutiny of 1764.
• The Vellore Mutiny of 1806; when the sepoys revolted against interference in their social and
religious traditions and raised a banner of revolt, unfurling the flag of the monarch of Mysore.
• The sepoys of the 47th Native Infantry Unit rebelled in 1824.
• The insurrection of the Grenadier Company in Assam in 1825.
• The mutiny of an Indian regiment at Sholapur in 1838.
• Mutinies in the 34th Native Infantry (N.I), 22nd Native Infantry (N.I), 66th Native Infantry (N.I), and
37th Native Infantry (N.I) in 1844, 1849, 1850, and 1852, respectively.
6. Nature of Pre-1857 Uprisings
o Aimed to overthrow immediate oppressors: Zamindars, money lenders and the colonial British.
o Popular character: Rebellions drew their legitimacy from the people, allowing public meetings,
planning and attack.
o Socio-political consciousness: Rebels targets were the political sources of their oppression such as
landlords, revenue contractors or even the British rule itself.
o Local leadership: These Movements threw up leaders who themselves belonged to the immediate
context of the Movements.
7. Limitations of Pre-1857 Uprisings:
• Localised and isolated; traditional outlook; failed to achieve their goal of overthrowing foreign rule;
semi-feudal leadership; rebellions are centuries old in form and ideological content.

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CHAPTER - 6 REVOLT OF 1857

1. Introduction:
• The revolt was not a sudden occurrence but the culmination of a century long tradition of popular
resistance to company’s rule. The simmering discontent burst in the form of violent storm in 1857
which shook British empire in India to its very foundations.
2. Causes of the revolt
• Economic causes: Exploitative land revenue settlement→peasant indebtedness to moneylender,
summary evictions, discriminatory tariffs against Indian products, destruction of Indian trade,
handicraft, absence of industrialization, alienation of upper and middle classes.
• Political causes: Greedy policy of aggrandisement, annexation of the prINCely states, Policies like
'Effective control', 'Subsidiary alliance', and 'Doctrine of lapse' created suspicion in the minds of the
people; abolition of regal titles; alien rule of British and absentee sovereignty ship→ rule of
foreigners from distant land.
• Administrative causes: Exclusion of Indians from administrative posts. Rampant corruption in the
company's administration.
• Socio-Religious causes: Social legislations like Sati Abolition act, 1829, Widow re-marriage act,
1856, etc. Missionary activities; racial overtones; taxing mosque and temple lands; Religious
disabilities act (1856)->change of religion did not debar son from inheriting his father property.
• Outside Events: 1st Afghan war (1838-42), Punjab wars (18545-49)- British suffered losses.
• Immediate Causes: Mixing of bone dust in atta (flour), introduction of Enfield rifle. Greased
wrapping paper of cartridge of new rifle to be bitten off before loading and grease was reportedly
made of beef and pig fat.
• Long history of revolts: Bengal(1764), Vellore(1806), Barrackpore (1825), Afghan wars (1838-42).
• Discontent among sepoys: Restrictions on wearing caste and Sectarian marks; rumours of
proselytizing activities of chaplains; no foreign service allowance (Bhatta) when serving in Sindh or
in Punjab; Indian sepoy was paid 1/3rd the salary of a European sepoy; In 1854, Post office act (Lord
Dalhousie) was passed which withdrew the free-postage privilege of the sepoys.
3. Timeline
• 1849 – Governor General Lord Dalhousie announced that after the death of Bahadur Shah Zafar, the
family of the king would be shifted out of the Red Fort and given another place in Delhi to reside in.
• 1856 - Governor-General Canning decided that Bahadur Shah Zafar would be the last Mughal king
and after his death his descendants would be recognised as prINCes.
• 29 Mar, 1857 – Mangal Pandey, a young soldier, was hanged to death for attacking his officer in
Barrackpore.
• May, 1857 – Sepoys mutinied in several places.
• 10 May, 1857 – Sepoys rushed to Delhi from Meerut.
• Sep,1857 – Delhi was recaptured from the rebel forces.
• Oct, 1858 – Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar along with his wife was sent to prison in Rangoon.
• 1858 – A new Act passed by the British Parliament transferred the power of the East India Company
to the British Crown.
• Nov, 1862 – Bahadur Shah Zafar died in the jail of Rangoon.
4. Beginning of the revolt
• The revolt began on May 10, 1857, at Meerut, 58 kilometers from Delhi, and quickly spread across a
large territory, encompassing Punjab in the north and the Narmada in the south, as well Bihar in
the east and Rajputana in the west.
• In February 1857, the 19th Native Infantry at Berhampore (West Bengal), which refused to use the
newly imported Enfield rifle and mutinied, was dissolved.

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• Mangal Pandey, a young sepoy in 34th Native Infantry, went a step further and shot at his unit's
sergeant major at Barrackpore.
• 3rd native cavalry- On May 9, 1985 of them were dismissed and sentenced to 10 years
imprisonment.
5. Spread of the revolt
• Began at Meerut on May 10, 1857 - Punjab in north and Narmada in south to Bihar in east and
Rajputana in west.
• Hindu-Muslim unity: Bahadur Shah as symbolic head; Hindu and Muslim sepoys respected each
other’s religious sentiments.
• Awadh, Rohilkhand, Doab, Bundelkhand, Central India, Bihar, East Punjab.
• Civilians joined - peasantry, artisans, shopkeepers, day labourers, zamindars, priests, civil servants
• Peasants and petty zamindars attacked money lenders and Zamindars.
• Methods used: Attacked government buildings, destroyed bridges over rivers and dug up metalled
roads, targeted Delhi Bank.
• Several storm centres emerged in north India covering present-day Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, which
INCluded Delhi, Kanpur, Lucknow, Bareilly, Jhansi and Arrah.
• Several local leaders also like Shah Mai in Barout, Uttar Pradesh, and Gonoo, a tribal leader of Kol
tribals in singhbhum mobilised the communities for revolt.
Location Leaders British
Delhi General Bakht Khan Lt. Willoughby, John Nicholson, Lt.
Hudson
Kanpur Nana Saheb SirHugh Wheeler, Sir Colin Campbell
Lucknow Begum Hazrat Mahal Henry Lawrence, Brigadier Inglis, Henry
Havelock, James Outram, Sir Colin
Campbell
Bareilly Khan Bahadur Sir Colin Camphel
Bihar Kunwar Singh William Taylor
Faizabad Maulvi Ahmadullah
Jhansi Rani Laxmibai Sir Huge Rose
Baghpat Shah Mal
Allahabad and Benaras Maulavi Likayat Ali Colonel Oncell
6. Suppression of the revolt
• After a lengthy and bloody battle, British finally took Delhi on September 20, 1857, and the uprising
was eventually put down.
• The siege's commander, John Nicholson, was severely wounded and died as a result of his injuries.
• Bahadur Shah was apprehended and imprisoned.
• British control over India was largely restored by the end of 1859.
7. Consequences of 1857 revolt
• Change of Power: British government was forced to pass GOI act, 1858 and assumed direct
responsibility for the administration.
• PrINCes and landlords rewarded and befriended: PrINCes who remained loyal to British during
the revolt were rewarded (INCluded Gwalior, Rampur, Patiala and Jind). In 1861, a special order of
knighthood ‘the star of India’ was instituted and its recipients were rulers of Bhopal, Baroda,
Gwalior, Patiala and Rampur.
• Era of annexations and expansions ended and British promised to respect the dignity and rights of
the native prINCes. Doctrine of Lapse was abolished.
• Hostility towards Higher education
• Policy of social intervention was abandoned by colonial government.
• Divide and rule: Sowed seeds of communalism in India and disrupted the national Movement.

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•Racial discrimination: British rule was justified by philosophy of ‘Whiteman’s burden’- the burden
of civilizing the non-whites.
• Changes in military policy: The number of European soldiers was Increased; In Bengal army, ratio
was fixed at 1:2; In Bombay and Madras armies, ratio was fixed at 1:3 or 2:5 + Soldiers from Awadh,
Bihar and Central India were declared as non-martial while Punjabis, Gorkhas and Pathans were
declared as martial and recruited in large numbers + Caste and communal divisions were introduced
in each regiment; Army amalgamation scheme (1861)→ moved company’s European troops to
services of crown.
• Equal protection under law to all Indians, old Indian rights, customs would be given due regard while
framing law.
• Queen Victoria's Proclamation of 1 November 1858: It promised
o Thereafter India would be governed by and in name of British Monarch through a Secretary of
State.
o The assumption of Government of India by sovereign of Great Britain was announced by Lord
Canning at a durbar at Allahabad in the ‘Queen’s Proclamation’ issued on November 1, 1858.
o It was by this proclamation that the governor-general acquired the additional title of ‘Viceroy’.
o The era of annexations and expansion had ended and the British promised to respect the dignity
and rights of the native prINCes.
o The Indian states were to recognize the paramountcy of the British Crown and were to be treated
as parts of a single charge.
o Freedom of religion without interference from British officials.
o Equal and impartial protection under the law to all Indians, besides equal opportunities in
government services irrespective of race or creed.
o Old Indian rights, customs, and practices would be given due regard to while framing and
administering the law.
8. Role of women in 1857 revolt:
• Rani Lakshmi Bhai, Moti Bhai, Begum Hazrat Mahal, Sursi and women like Ashgari Begum, Asha
Devi, and Bhagavati Devi resisted the British attempts to exploit in their local areas for which they
welcomed death.
Rani Lakshmi Bai
• In Subhadra Kumari Chauhan’s famous poem Jhansi ki Rani (1930), the Rani is at once an avatar
(INCarnation) of the goddess of war and a brave daughter of the Marathas, even though her ultimate dishonour
prompt men to take up arms.
• Vrindavan Lal Varma’s historical novel, Jhansi ki Rani Lakshmi Bai (1946) applies Gandhi’s notion of
swaraj as disciplinary self-rule to identify the Rani unequivocally as an anti-colonial rebel dedicated, from the
onset of her political consciousness, to independence for Jhansi, and inevitably for India.
9. Description of revolt through art and literature
• Painting like ‘Relief of Lucknow’ painted by Thomas Jones Barker in 1859 commemorates the
British heroes who saved the English and repressed the rebels.
• Painting ‘In Memoriam’ painted by Joseph Noel Paton in 1859 depicted the anxious moment in
which women and children huddled in a circle looking helpless and innocent, seemingly waiting for
the inevitable dishonour, violence and death.
10. Reasons for failure:
• No All India participation (Eastern, Southern and western parts remained unaffected); limited
participation (Big zamindars acted as 'break waters to storm', moneylenders, educated Indians,
Gorkha and Sikh regiment helped British, many rulers not participated-Sindhia of Gwalior, Holkar of
Indore, Maharaja of Kashmir etc); Poor arms and equipment; less communication; lack of unified
programme and ideology; superiority of British resources.

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CHAPTER - 7 DEVELOPMENT OF INDIAN PRESS

1. Introduction:
• The Press as is known today was introduced in India by the British when in 1674 Bhimji Parak
(chief broker of English company at Surat) took keen interest in technology, and procured a printer
from England and set up printing press at Bombay.
2. Important Newspapers/Journals
• Bengal Gazette/Calcutta General Advertiser (1780): Started by James Augustus Hickey (Father
of Indian Press) + First newspaper in India and also First English language newspaper in India +
Seized in 1872 because of its outspoken criticism of government.
• Bengal Journal: Founded in 1785 by William Duane and Thomas Jones.
• Calcutta Chronicle: Founded by Daniel Stuart and Joseph Cooper; also set up Chronicle printing
press.
• Madras Courier: First newspaper to be established in the Madras Presidency, British India + It first
appeared in the English language on 12 October 1785 started by Richard Johnston.
• Bombay Herald: The Bombay Herald was first printed in 1790 Bombay, by William Ashburner.
• Digdarshan (First vernacular newspaper) and Samachar Darpan started by Serampore
Missionaries.
• The Friend of India: The Statesman was established in 1875 by Robert Knight as an outgrowth of
an earlier paper, The Friend of India (founded 1817).
• Bengal Gazette (1818): It was the first Indian-owned newspaper started by reformist Gangadhar
Bhattacharya.
• Hindu and Swadesamitran under G Subramaniya Aiyar.
• Voice of India under Dadabai Naoroji.
• Amrit Bazar Patrika under Sisirkumar Ghosh and Motilal Ghosh.
• Som Prakash: Founded by Dwaraknath Vidyabhusan in 1828.
• The Bengalee: By Girish Chandra Ghosh and Surendranath Banerjee in 1862.
• Indian Mirror under NN Sen.
• Kesari (in Marathi) and Maharatta (in England) under Balgangadhar Tilak.
• Sudharak under Gopal Krishna Gokhale
• Hindustan and Advocate under GP Verma.
• Tribune: The Tribune is an Indian English-language daily newspaper founded by Sardar Dyal
Singh Majithia on February 2, 1881, in Lahore.
• Indu Prakash: Indu Prakash was an Anglo - Marathi periodical published from Bombay in the late 1800s
and early 1900s + Established by Vishnu Parshuram Pandit in 1862, it was published as a weekly bi-
lingual periodical and often contained articles supporting the Indian freedom Movement and criticism of the
British colonial rule. It was latter merge in lokmanya.
3. Important Acts Governing Press in British India
• Censorship of Press Act (1799)
o Enacted by Governor-General Richard Wellesley to prevent French from publishing anything
critical against Britishers.
o It subjected all newspapers to government scrutiny prior to publication.
o Later expanded in 1807 to INClude all types of press publications, INCluding newspapers,
magazines, books, and pamphlets.
o Publications on Sunday were prohibited.
o Prescribed punishment for breach of rules was immediate deportation.
o Rules were relaxed in 1818 by Lord Hastings.
• Licensing Regulations (1823)
o Governor-General John Adams introduced the Licensing Regulation Ordinance.
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o It introduced licensing of Press (compulsory pre-publication licensing) for the first time;
constituted First press ordinance.
o It required a previous license for printing for all matters, except commercial matter.
o It made operating a press without a licence a criminal offence.
o The ban was primarily aimed at Indian-language newspapers or those edited by Indians.
o With exception of Calcutta Journal, no English newspaper was deprived of license in 1823.
o The government also had the authority to revoke the license.
o This prompted Raja Ram Mohan Roy to discontinue publication of his Persian journal
'Mirat-ul-akhbar,' which he began in 1822.
o Licensing later abolished by Metcalf’s Act of 1835.
• Regulations of 1825 (By Lord Amherst): It prohibited the servants of the company from having any
connection with the press.
• Press act of 1835 (By Lord Metcalfe)
o Charles Metcalfe had a liberal attitude toward Indian Press and he repealed 1823 regulations.
o This act, therefore, is called the ‘Metcalfe Act’ and Metcalfe is known as the ‘Liberator of the
Indian Press’.
o It required a printer/publisher to give precise account of premises of a publication and cease
functioning.
• Licensing act of 1857
o Governor General Canning enacted the Licensing Act of 1857 to impose stricter restrictions on
the press.
o This act-imposed licensing restrictions as well as the right to halt the publication and
distribution of any book, newspaper, or printed matter owned by the government.
o It was applicable to all papers, Indian and Anglo-India.
• Indian Penal Code of 1860 (Lord Canning): It contains offences like defamation and obscenity
which writers and publishers must avoid.
• Press and Registration of Books act, 1867 (By Lord Lawrence)
o Lord Lawrence passed the act, oldest surviving Press regulations in India.
o The act was to impose regulations but no restrictions on the press.
o The name of the printer, publisher, and place of publication were now required to be
INCluded in the print media, and a copy was required to be submitted to the government.
o Within one month of publication of a book, a copy had to be supplied free of charge to the local
government.
• Vernacular Press Act, 1878 (By Lord Lytton)
o Called as Gagging act; it excluded English language newspapers.
o The district magistrate had authority to order the printer and publisher of any vernacular
newspaper to enter into a bond with the government promising not to cause disaffection
against the government or antipathy between people.
o The printer and publisher could also be required to deposit security, which could be seized if
the offences reoccurred.
o The magistrate's decision was final, and there could be no appeal in a court of law.
o A vernacular newspaper could obtain an exemption from the Act's application by submitting
proof to a government censor.
o Item powered government for the first time to issue search warrants and enter newspaper
premises even without court orders.
o Som Prakash, Bharat Mihir, Dacca Prakash, and Samachar were charged under the VPA.
o INCidentally, to avoid the VPA, the Amrita Bazar Patrika morphed overnight into an English
newspaper.
o Later, the pre-censorship clause was repealed, and a press commissioner was appointed to
provide the press with authentic and accurate news.
o Ripon eventually repealed it in 1882.

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• Newspaper (INCitement to Offences) Act, 1908 (By Lord Minto): It empowered magistrates to
seize a press where a newspaper containing matter which INCited murder or any other act of
violence was printed.
• Indian Press Act, 1910
o It empowered district magistrates to ask for a deposit of security from the presses and where it
deemed fit, to forfeit it.
o Authorize searches and to declare newspaper copies and presses forfeited by government.
o Further enhanced under Defence of India regulations 1914.
o Printer of newspaper was required to submit two copies of each issue to local governments free
of charge.
• Indian Press (Emergency Powers) act 1931 (By Lord Willington)
• It gave wide-ranging powers to Provincial governments to suppress Civil Disobedience
Movement propaganda.
• It imposed on Press an obligation to furnish security at call of executive.
• Surendranath Banerjea became the first Indian journalist to be imprisoned in 1883.
Newspaper/Journal Place Year Founder/Editor
Bengal Gazette Calcutta 1780 James Augustus Hickey (Irish)
(or Calcutta General Advertiser)
Madras Courier Madras 1785 Richard Johnson (owner);
Hugh Boyd (first editor)
India Gazette/Calcutta General Advertiser Calcutta 1780 Bernard Messink
Bombay Herald Bombay 1789 William Ashburner (editor)
(First paper from Bombay)
Indian Herald Madras 1795 Started by R. Williams and
published by Humphreys.
Bengal Hurkaru (English weekly, later daily) Calcutta 1795 Hugh Boyd
Calcutta Journal (English bi-weekly) Calcutta 1818 James Silk Buckingham
Digdarshan (first Bengali monthly and Calcutta 1818 Serampur missionaries
Calcutta’s first vernacular newspaper) (William Carcy, Joshua
Marshman and William Ward)
Samachar Darpan (Bengali weekly) Serampore 1818 Baptist Missionary Society
(Bengal) (Joshua Marshman)
Sambad Kaumudi (Bengali weekly) Calcutta 1821 Raja Ram Mohan Roy
Mirat-ul-Akhbar (first Persian journal, a weekly) Calcutta 1822 Raja Ram Mohan Roy
Samachar Chandrika (orthodox Calcutta 1822 Bhabani Charan
Hindu newspaper of the Dharma Sabha) Bandyopadhyaya.
Jam-i- i-Jahan-Numah (first paper inUrdu) Calcutta 1822 Harhihar Dutta (Editor)
Amrit Bazaar Patrika (Oldest Indian owned Jessore 1868 Sisirkumarghosh and Motilal
English daily) district Ghosh
National paper Calcutta 1865 Debendranath Tagore
Indian Mirror (English weekly of Calcutta Calcutta 1862 Debendranath Tagore
BrahmoSamaj )
The Bengalee Calcutta 1862 Girish Chandra Ghosh, bought
by Surendranath Banerjee in
1879
Bangadoota (weekly in English, Hindu, Calcutta 1822 Raja Ram Mohan Roy
Persian and Bengali)
Bombay Samachar Bombay 1822 Fardunjee Marzban
Udant Mart and (first Hindi language Calcutta 1826 Pt. Jugal Kishore Shukla
newspaper)

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Rast Goftar Calcutta 1851 Dadabhai Naoroji
Hindu Patriot Calcutta 1853 Girish Chandra Ghosh
Madras Mail Calcutta 1868 -
Bangadarshana Calcutta 1873 Bankim Chandra Chatterjee
Bandi Jivan Bengal - Sachindranath Sanyal
Kranti Maharashtra 1927 SS Mirajkar, KN Joglekar, SV
Ghate
Kudi Arasu Tamil Nadu 1910 EV RamaswamyNaicker
Bahishkrit Bharat 1927 BR Ambedkar
Bombay chronicle Bombay 1913 Pherozshah Mehta
Yugantar Bengal 1906 Barindra Kumar Ghosh
Vital Vidhvansak 1888 Gopal Baba Walangkar
Paridasak - 1886 Bipin Chandra pal
Voice of India Bombay 1883 Dadabhai Naoroji
The Hindu (started as a weekly) Madras 1878 GS Aiyar, Viraraghavachari
and Subbarao Pandit

4. Outside India-
Name of News paper Written by Place
Bande Mataram Madam Bhikaji Cama Paris
Gadar Lala Hardayal San Francisco
Indian Sociologist Shyamji Krishna Varma London
Talwar Virendranath Chattopadhyaya Berlin

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CHAPTER – 8 POPULAR UPRISINGS AFTER 1857 (1857-1947)

1. Introduction:
• The Anti-British sentiments continued to simmer among the peasants, tribals, and artisans even after
the suppression of revolt of 1857 due to worst forms of colonial exploitation.
2. Indigo Revolt/Nilbidroh (Bengal, 1859-60)
• Indigo Cultivation in Bengal started in 1777 → Frenchman named Louis Bonnaud introduced it to
Indian Subcontinent (He was the first indigo planter in Bengal)
• Indigo planting became profitable with INCreasing demand for Blue Dye in Europe
• Cause: European planters forced the peasants to grow indigo at a loss, in place of food grains
necessary for their survival; offered loans known as Dadon, at high interest rates.
• Planters paid only 2. 5% of market price; growing indigo was not profitable for farmers.
• First started from the villages of Gobindpur (Nadia District).
• The Indigo farmers refused to sow indigo→first general strike in the history of Indian Peasantry.
• Participation: Women actively participated in this rebellion. Headmen, who had been forced to sign
indigo contracts, mobilised the indigo peasants and fought pitched battles with the lathiyals.
• The events covered in the contemporary newspapers Bengalee and Dinbandhu Mitra depicted it in
Nil Darpan; Harish Chandra Mukherjee (Editor of Hindoo Patriot) published regular reports.
Hindoo Patriot, established in Calcutta, first nationalist paper; serves as vehicle for indigo grievances
1859–61.
• Zamindars supported the planters in the revolt; complete unity of Hindu and Muslim peasants.
• The planters were given a free hand in oppression by an act passed in 1833.
• 29 planters appointed as honorary magistrates→ ‘Je Rakhak Se Bhakak’ (one who protects us is the
one who devours us→ generated resentment among peasants.
• Leaders: Bishnucharan Biswas and Digambar Biswas.
• Consequences
o Due to Nawab Abdul Latif's initiative, Indigo Commission 1860 was appointed; planters
unleashed reign of terror by Lathiyals (Armed Retainers) and Legal Manipulation.
o Magistrate Ashley Eden issued a notice stating that ryots would not be compelled to accept indigo
contracts.
o Indigo Commission
▪ The Commission held the planters guilty, and criticised them for the coercive methods they
used with indigo cultivators.
▪ It declared that indigo production was not profitable for ryots.
▪ The Commission asked the ryots to fulfil their existing contracts but also told them that they
could refuse to produce indigo in future.
o After the revolt, indigo production collapsed in Bengal. But the planters now shifted their
operation to Bihar.
Reasons for growing demand of Indian Indigo
By 13th C Indian indigo was being used by cloth manufacturers in Italy, France and Britain to dye cloth.
The main reasons for the growing demand were:
• Industrialization in Britain.
• Growing textile industries due to expansion in the cotton production that led to creating an
enormous new demand for cloth dyes.
• The existing supplies from the West Indies and America collapsed for a variety of reasons.
• Between 1783 and 1789 the production of indigo in the world fell by half. Cloth dyers in Britain
now desperately looked for new sources of indigo supply.
• In 1788 only about 30 per cent of the Indigo imported into Britain was from India. By 1810, the
proportion had gone up to 95 per cent.
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Systems of Indigo Cultivation
• Nij system of indigo cultivation: In this system, the planter produced indigo in lands that he directly
controlled. He either bought the land or rented it from other zamindars and produced indigo by directly
employing hired labourers. Around 25 per cent of the land producing indigo was under this system.
• Ryoti system of indigo cultivation: Under this system, the planters forced the ryots to sign a contract,
an agreement (satta). Village headmen was pressurised to sign the contract on behalf of the ryots.
Those who signed the contract got cash advances from the planters at low rates of interest to produce
indigo. But the loan committed the ryot to cultivating indigo on at least 25 per cent of the area under his
holding. The planter provided the seed and the drill, while the cultivators prepared the soil, sowed the
seed and looked after the crop. When the crop was delivered to the planter after the harvest, a new loan
was given to the ryot, and the cycle started all over again.

3. Mappila (Moplah) Uprising (1921)

• The Moplahs, descendants of Arab settlers had taken to agriculture as tenant cultivators or landless
labourers, had been hit hard by the introduction of the Ryotwari System in Malabar.
• The trigger came from NCM launched by the Congress in 1920 along with the Khilafat Agitation.
• Traditional system (destroyed by arrival of British) = equal sharing of the net produce of the land by the
janmi (holder of janmam tenure) + Kanamdar or Kanakkaran (holder of kanam tenure) + cultivator
• Causes: Moplah peasants rose against oppression of Jenmi landlords backed by the British
administration + This, together with over-assessment, illegal cesses and a pro-landlord attitude of the
judiciary and the police reduced the Moplahs to conditions of extreme penury.
• Given a communal color by British as Moplahs were Muslims, while the landlords were Hindus
(Namboodiri Brahmins)
• Tenants’ grievances were related to the security of tenure, high rents, renewal fees and other unfair
exactions of the landlords.
• Mahatma Gandhi supported the Movement
• British appointed high caste Hindus in positions of authority to get their support.
• Rebels also attacked various symbols and institutions of the colonial state, such as telegraph lines,
train stations, courts and post offices.
• Malabar district Congress Committee held at Majeri in 1920 + formation of tenants' Association at
Kozhikode
• British raised a special battalion, the Malabar special force for the riot.
• Leaders: Ali Musliyar, Variankunnath Kunjahammad Haji (haji ran a parallel Khilafat regime
headquartered in Nilambur, with its own separate passport, currency and system of taxation +
extensive army with the participation of Hindu men was built), Sithikoyathangal, M.P. Narayana
Menon, Chembrasery Thangal, K. Moideenkutti Haji, Kappad Krishnan Nair, Konnara Thangal,
Pandiyatt Narayanan Nambeesan, and Mozhikunnath Brahmadathan Nambudiripad.
• British reaction: British authorities imposed martial law to put an end to it. They also established a
new police unit called Malabar special police to put down the rebellion.
• Wagon tragedy: 67 Moplah prisoners were killed when they were being transported in a closed
freight wagon from Tirur to the Central Prison in Podanur due to suffocation.
• A report submitted to the Indian Council of Historical Research (ICHR) in 2016 recommended
removal of the Wagon Tragedy victims and leaders Ali Musliyar and Variamkunnath Ahmad Haji,
and Haji’s two brothers from a book - Dictionary of Martyrs: India’s Freedom Struggle 1857-1947.
4. Pabna Revolt (Eastern Bengal, 1873-75)
• The peasants of Pabna did not object to rent hikes, and, in fact between 1858 and 1873 they met the
rent demands of their landlords without any resistance.
• Causes: Pabna peasants rose against the malpractices of zamindars to enhance rent beyond legal
limits and to destroy the tenant's newly acquired occupancy right + Due to the slump in the jute
market the raiyats were beset with a near-famine situation

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• Opposed by pro-landlord newspaper Amrit Bazaar Patrika, zamindar-dominated British Indian
Association and its organ Hindu Patriot
• Aim: 'Ryots Of The Queen Of England And Of Her Only'.
• Peasants were prevented from acquiring occupancy right under Act X Of 1859.
• Struggle was mainly legal resistance and little violence.
• Leader: Ishan Chandra Roy, Shambhu Nath Pal, Khodi Mulla.
• Special Features: formation of agrarian leagues, legal resistance (drum beats, blasts from conch-
shells and night shouts), neither against zamindari system nor anti-colonial (goal limited to
redressal of immediate grievances), peasants did not defy British authority.
• The peasants did not defy the colonial authority and declared that their goal was to become the ryots
of the 'Queen of England'. They were opposed to the harassment and not to the payment of dues. They
wanted to be the 'Queen's Ryots' for securing redressal of their grievances.
• Supporters: Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, RC Dutt and Indian Association (Led By Surendranath
Banerjee, Anand Mohan Bose And Dwarkanath Ganguli).
• Majority of the peasant activists were Muslims (more than 213r'ds of the peasants, and about 70% of
Pabna's population were Muslims) they painted it as a communal Movement.
• However, the Movement was led by Keshab Chandra Sen, Ishan Chandra Roy and Sambhunath Pal
(Hindus).
• Consequences: Bengal Tenancy Act 1885 was passed.
• The Movement also spread to other areas like Dacca, Rajshahi, Bakergunje, Faridpur, Tripura and
Bogra, etc
5. Deccan Riots (1875)
• Exploitative Moneylenders→ Marwaris or Gujratis; conditions worsened due to crash in cotton prices
after end of American civil war; government raised land revenue by 50% In 1867 + High rents under
Ryotwari settlement
• Major Cause: The basis of the Deccan Riots lay in the evolution of the ryotwari system itself. By
favouring the Vanis (village moneylenders) over the Kunbis (cultivator caste), the courts and new
laws polarised caste differences.
• This implied an INCrease in the transfer of holdings from peasants to moneylenders.
• The Kunbis rose against the Vanis in order to dispossess them of their title deeds and mortgage
bonds, which were looked upon as instruments of oppression.
• Social boycott Movement organized by ryots against outsider money lenders.
• Supported by Poorna Sarvajanik Sabha led by justice ranade.
• Special Features: absence of anti-colonial consciousness, support of nationalist intelligentsia
• The peasantry, which had gathered for the weekly bazaar, launched attacks on the moneylenders and
destroyed the debt contracts and bonds.
• In 1879, Vasudeo Balwant Phadke launched a violent campaign against colonial rule, aiming to drive
them out and establish an Indian Republic.
• Debt bonds were seized; Deccan Riots Commission presented a report in 1878 + Deccan
Agriculturists Relief Act was passed in 1879-> restrictions on alienation of land of peasants and
arrest for failure to pay debts.
6. Koya Rebellion (1879-80)
• Causes: Tribal grievances such as erosion of forest rights, exploitation by money lenders etc.
• It occurred in Eastern Godavari District of Andhra Pradesh and some regions of Malkangiri (Koraput
District, Odisha).
• Led by: Tomma Dora (King Of Malkangiri).
• After Tomma Sora's death, Raja Anantayyar organized another revolt in 1886.
7. Munda Rebellion (Chota Nagpur, 1874-1901)
• Mundas practiced Khuntkatti System (whole clan jointly owned the land fit for cultivation)

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• Munda system of common land holdings had been destroyed by the intrusion of jagirdars, revenue
farmers, outsiders (dikus) and merchant money lenders.
• It had connection with Christianity in its early phase→accepted Christianity with belief that german
missionaries would help them against exploitation of zamindars.
• Revivalist Movement aimed to purge munda Society of all foreign elements and restore its pristine
character
• Uprising was known as 'Ulgulan' and 'Great Tumult'
• Led by Birsa Munda (he started the faith of ‘Birsait’) Also known as Dharti Aaba (Father of
Earth).
• Birsa himself declared that God had appointed him to save his people from trouble, free them from
the slavery of dikus (outsiders).
• Birsa urged the Mundas to give up drinking liquor, clean their village, and stop believing in
witchcraft and sorcery.
• He talked of a golden age in the past – a satyug (the age of truth) – when Mundas lived a good life.
Birsa also wanted people to once again work on their land, settle down and cultivate their fields.
• Birsa's followers began targeting the symbols of diku and European power. They attacked police
stations and churches, and raided the property of moneylenders and zamindars.
• They raised the white flag as a symbol of Birsa Raj.
• Consequence: Chotanagpur Tenancy Act, 1908 restricted the transfer of tribal land to non-tribal
people + “Khuntkatti” rights were recognised + ”Beth begari” was banned.
8. Rampa Rebellion/Manyam Rebellion (Andhra, 1879 And 1922)
• Tribal uprising led by Alluri Sitaram Raju (he did not belong to the tribal community) in Godavari
agency of Madras Presidency + also known as the Manyam Rebellion + Influenced by Non-
cooperation Movement
• Tribal People (British called them coolie labourers) of the forested hills faced starvation and felt legal
system favoured the Muttadar (Estate Landowners) and Merchants.
• Rose against erosion of forest rights, restrictions on Podu System (slash and burn cultivation) and
forced labour in road construction.
• He was nicknamed "Manyam Veerudu" (hero of the jungle) by local villagers for his heroic
exploits.
• It began in August 1922 and lasted until the capture and killing of Raju in May 1924.
9. Kisan Sabha Movement
• The main cause was the miserable conditions of the u. P peasants because of the policies of
the British government and the awadh taluqdars.
• Causes : exorbitant rents, illegal levies, renewal fees or nazrana, and arbitrary evictions or
bedakhli had resulted, making life miserable for the majority of cultivators.
• Gauri shankar mishra and indra narayan dwivedi founded the united Provinces kisan Sabha in
february 1918. Madan mohan malaviya backed them.
• Jhinguri singh, durgapal singh, and baba ramchandra were among the other prominent leaders.
• It urged kisans to refuse till bedakhali land, to refrain from offering hari and begar (forms of
unpaid labour), to boycott those who refused to accept these conditions, and to settle their disputes
through panchayats.
• The Movement developed a 14 demands-cum-oath charter known as the ‘kisan pledge’
• It faded quickly, owing to government repression and to passage of the awadh rent (amendment)
act.
10. Eka Movement/Unity Movement
• It is a peasant Movement that began in hardoi, bahraich, and sitapurin united Provinces at the end
of 1921.
• Founded by congress and the Khilafat Movement and was later led by madaripasi (used violent
methods)
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• Causes: high rents- 50% higher than recorded rates, oppression of thikadars in charge of revenue
collection, practice of share-rents.
• Tenants hired agricultural labourers to work in the fields, but they had no ownership rights to the
land they cultivated and were evicted by the zamindars if they did not pay the rent.
• Objectives: refusal to pay more than the recorded rent, demanding receipts for rents paid, refused to
pay nazrana or do begar (forced labour) + aika karo’ was a call for peasants and other agriculture.
• This Movement INCluded small zamindars who were dissatisfied with the British government
due to high land revenue demands.
• Nature of revolt: the Movement was initially peaceful due to involvement of congress and Khilafat
campaigners and worked within the framework of gandhian ideology + social boycott (sweepers,
barbers and washermen), picketing and holding mass rallies to push for their demands.
• However, as the Movement became more militant and began to aggressively resist zamindar violence,
the congress and Khilafat leaders distanced themselves from it.
• The eka Movement came to an end in march 1922 as a result of severe repression by authorities.
• The government quickly passed the oudh rent (amendment) act of 1921->intended to quell agrarian
unrest and address some immediate peasant grievances + removed the exaction of nazrana (renewal
fees) + fair and equitable rent rates for each district
11. Bardoli Satyagraha (1928)
• 1920 : the Movement of ‘Lagaan’ of non payment was started by the farmers.
• It was a Movement (founded in 1922 by the 'Merta Bandhus' (Kalyan Ji and Kunwar Ji) and Dayal
Ji + published magazines called ‘Patidar Yuvak Mandal’ and ‘Patel Bandhu’.) later launched
by Sardar Vallabhai Patel for the peasants of Bardoli against unfair tax INCreases.
• Volunteers came from Hindu, Muslim, And Parsi communities, among others.
• the peasants were asked to swear in the name of god that they would not pay taxes. those who
paid their taxes and supported the British were socially shunned.
• They refused to accept non-essential commodities at the local government offices.
• It sparked off when authorities decided to INCrease land revenue by 30%.
• It was a pivotal moment in the Civil Disobedience Movement
• Women of Bardoli gave Sardar Patel the title of “Sardar”.
• Women leaders: Bombay Parsi women Mithuben Petit, Bhaktiva, Maniben Patel, daughter
Shardaben Shah and Shadra Shah.
• Km Munshi, Lalji Naranji resigned from Bombay Legislative Council in support of the Movement.
• Two kinds of cultivators
o Kali Paraj- lower caste, tribes, untouchables as other backward classes.
o Ujta Paraj -all upper class and high class like the Patidar, Brahmin belonged to this class.
• Gandhiji observed the situation of the Kali Paraj was not good + he supported the Movement through his
writings in the periodical 'Young India.'
• Moderate faction of Congress, the ‘Surveillance of India Society’ supported the Movement.
• Bardoli Satyagraha Patrika was a daily newspaper published during the satyagraha.
• Methods used: Bhajan mandali, holy imagery and ‘bhuvas’ (used to communicate with Adivasis).
• British government established the Maxwell-Broomfield Commission-> Peasants were returned to
the land that had been taken from them; revenue was cut to 6. 03 per cent.
• It was primarily concerned with the plight of wealthy and middle-class farmers, and ignored plight of
impoverished farmers; did not bring up issue of Hali Pratha (a kind of bonded labor system).
• British reaction: A settlement with the farmers was mediated by Chunnilal Mehta, a key member of
the Governor's Council. He proposed a 5.7% INCrease, and land confiscated by the administration
would be returned upon payment of this tax.
12. All India Kisan Congress/Sabha (1936)
• It is the peasant wing of the Communist Party of India; founded in Lucknow with Swami
Sahajanand Saraswati (founded the Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha (BPKS) in 1929) as the
President and NG Ranga as general secretary.
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• At the Congress session in Lucknow in 1936, the All India Kisan Sabha was formed, with Sahajanand
as its first president.
• First session of the All-India Kisan Sabha was addressed by Jawaharlal Nehru.
• Goal: foster mutual understanding between peasants and landlords; abolish landlordism and
provide free land to agricultural and other rural laborers; raise the rural masses' standard of
living while also developing agriculture and industry; put an end to the exploitation of agricultural
and other rural laborers.
• Kisan manifesto issued and periodical under Indulal Yagnik started.
• Congress Manifesto for 1937 Provincial elections was strongly influenced by Aiks Agenda.
• Members of the Congress were prohibited from becoming members of Kisan Sabhas during the
Haripura session of the Congress in 1938.
• By 1942, the Communist Party of India (CPI) had taken control of the All India Kisan Sabha in all
Indian states, INCluding Bengal.
• More dominated by socialists and communists as it moved away from the Congress.
• Members of the congress were prohibited from becoming members of Kisan Sabhas during the
Haripura Session of the Congress in February 1938.
13. Peasant Activity In Provinces
• Kerala: Karshaksanghams (Peasant Organizations) came into existence, marching of jaths or
peasant groups to landlord to get their demands accepted.
• Andhra: NG Ranga set up in 1933 the Indian Peasant Institute; at many places summer schools
of economics and politics addressed by leaders like PC Joshi, Ajoy Ghosh and RD Bharadwaj.
• Bihar: Sahjanand Saraswati joined by Karyanand Sharma, Yadunandan Sharma, Rahul
Sankirtyan, Panchanan Sharma and Jamun Karjiti etc. Provincial Kisan Sabha developed a rift
with Congress over ‘Bakasht Land’ issue because of an unfavourable government resolution which
was not acceptable to the Sabha.
• Punjab: Peasant Mobilization organized by Punjab Naujawan Bharat Sabha, Kirtikisan Party,
Congress and Akalis.
14. Characteristics Of Popular Uprisings After 1857:
• Colonialism was not the target of these Movements, limited territorial reach, no continuity of
struggle, strong awareness of legal rights, lack of adequate understanding of colonialism, tendency to
look back (occurred within framework of old societal order and lack positive conception of
alternative Society).
15. Tebhaga Movement (1946)
• Initiated in Bengal by communist cadres of Bengal Provincial Krishak Sabha.
• System of cultivation of land was commonly known as Adhiary Pratha (half-half system): Tebhaga
literally means ‘Three Shares’ of Harvests; It was the Sharecroppers (Tenants) Movement.
• Tenants were demanding 2/3rd of the produce from land for themselves and 1/3rd for the
landlords.
• The demand of the Tebhaga (sharing by thirds) Movement was to reduce the share given to landlords
to one third + it would be stored in the Khamars (godowns) of Bagardars and not that of the Jotedars
(whom the zamindars distributed lands through a system called Pattani + directly connected with
lands and cultivation)
• The main slogan is “nijkamaredhantolo”.
• There was large-scale participation of women in Movement.
• The landless and poor peasant women formed fighting troops called Naribahini and took a front
rank role in defending the gains of the Movement.
• Movement sparked off in an area under PS Chirirbandar in the district of Dinajpur.
• Further in 1943, Bengal Provincial Kishan Sabha called for a mass Movement among
sharecroppers in September 1946 to keep tebhaga (twothirds) of the harvested crops.

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• Muslim league ministry led by Suhrawarddi published the Bengal Bargadars Temporary
Legislation Bill
• Floud Commission (1938) exposed the maladies in the prevailing system which obliged
sharecroppers to relinquish half of their harvest as rent.
• Bargadari act of 1950 recognised the rights of bargadars
• Outcomes: Approximately 40% of sharecropping peasants obtained tebhaga rights willingly granted
by landholders, repeal or reduction of unjust and illegal exaction.
16. Telangana Movement
• It was an armed revolt started by the Communist Party In 1946 against the policies of the Nizam
Of Hyderabad.
• Vetti (forced labour) system consisted of work performed by lower castes at the will of landlord.
• Uprising began when Deshmukhs thug murdered a village militant in Jangaon district of Nalgonda.
• Clashed with the Razakars, a militia headed by Kasim Rizvi.
• Peasants organized themselves into village sanghams and attacked using lathis, stone slings and
chilli powder.
• Indian National Congress, Andhra Jana Sangam, and Andhra Maha Sabha (AMS) have raised
the issue of telangana's poor peasantry.
• Jagir Ryotu Sangham was formed in 1940 to bring pressure upon the government to solve the
problems of the peasants working under the jagirdars.
• Later, the guerrilla-styled armed struggle against both the landlords and razakars was adopted, for
which the arms were provided by the Communist Party of India leadership.
• Improvement in condition of women was witnessed.
• British response: Vetti was abolished and lands were distributed.

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SOCIO-RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENTS OF 19TH

CHAPTER – 9 CENTURY

1. Introduction: The 19th century constitutes an important phase in Indian history because during this time
Indian culture witnessed a massive resurgence. Various socio-religious reform Movements such as
BrahmoSamaj , Arya Samaj etc emerged during this time.
2. Aim Of The Reform Movements: attainment of well-being of the individual and Society as well as
national progress. Truth, Equity and Justice emerged as governing values for emergence of new India.
3. Factors Contributing To Rise Of 19th Century Reform Movements:
• Impact Of British Rule (Enlightened Europe)
• Social Conditions: Religious and Social Ills, Depressing position of women and caste problem.
• Opposition to Western Culture
• New awareness among enlightened Indians.
4. Steps to ameliorate women’s position
• First applicable to Bengal presidency
Abolition Of Raja Ram
Regulation Of 1829 alone; sati declared as a culpable
Sati Mohan Roy
homicide.
• Declared infanticide illegal and
equivalent to murder
Female Bengal Regulations • 1870 act made it compulsory for
Infanticide Of 1795 And 1804 parents to register birth of all babies
• Verification of male kids after
sometime
• Vishnu Shastri Pandit founded
Widow Remarriage Association in
Brahmo Samaj 1850s.
Hindu Widow’s
Widow ; Ishwar • Karsondas Mulji started Satya
Remarriage Act
Remarriage Chandra Prakash in Gujarat in 1852 to
1856
Vidyasagar advocate widow remarriage.
• Prof. D K Karve in western India-
opened a widow’s home in Poona.
• It was not applicable to Hindus,
Muslims and other recognized faiths.
• BM Malabari – age of consent act,
1891→forbade marriage of girls
below the age of 12.
• In 1850s-60s, Mulji was a prominent
member of the “Bombay
Intelligentsia” in conflict with the
Child Native/Child “merchant aristocracy” over social
Marriage Marriage Act, 1872 issues.
• Mulji’s place in history as a reformer
is due to the Maharaj Libel Case in
1862 which earned him the title of “a
reformer, a Martin Luther of the
Banian Cast”
• Sarda Act (1930) - pushed up
marriage age to 18 and 14 for boys
and girls.
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• 1910: It Convened First Bharat Stree Mandal Meeting In
Sarla Devi Allahabad—1st Major Indian Women Organization Setup By
Chaudhurani A Woman—For Education, Abolition Of Purdah, Improve
Status, All Over India;
Ramabai • 1904: Founded Ladies Social Conference (Bharat Mahila
Ranade Parishad) Under National Social Conference In Bombay
Pandita • Founded Arya Mahila Samaj - Pleaded For Improvement In
Ramabai Educational Syllabus Of Women Before English Education
Saraswati Commission Which Was Referred To Queen Victoria.
• Played a vital role in formation of National Council Of
Women’s Women In 1925.
Organizations Mehribai Tata • Other women who held imp positions on Executive
Committee Of Council INClude Cornelia Sarabji, Tarabai
Premchand And Shaffi Tyabji.
• 1927: All India Women’s Conference (Aiwc) Founded; first
women’s organization with an egalitarian approach;
founding members-> Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad, Rani
Sahiba, Sarojini Naidu, Kamladevi Chattopadhyaya And
Margaret
Lady Dorab Tata.
Cousins
• Laws Involved In: Sarda Act (1929), Hindu Women’s
Right To Property Act (1937), Factory Act (1947), The
Various Hindu Code Bills, Maternity Benefits Act (1961),
Dowry Prohibition Act (1961), Etc.
5. Education of women
• 1819: Christian missionaries were the 1st to set up Calcutta Juvenile Society 1848: Jed Bethune
founded Bethune School
• Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar→35 girls’ schools in Bengal.
• 1854: Woods Despatch - stressed on need for female education.
• 1914: women’s medical service worked in training nurses and mid-wives
• 1916: Prof DK Karveestablished Indian women’s university.
• Note:- Jagannath Shankar Seth and Bhau Daji were among the active promoters of girls’ schools in
Maharashtra.
6. Raja Ram Mohan Roy
• He was considered as Father of Modern India→ first Indian who made efforts to guide Indian
Society from medieval to modern outlook.
• Philosophy of Vedanta as scientific and rational; synthesis of east and west; critique of Hinduism
→Vedas and Upanishads preached monotheism
• Supported inheritance of parental property by daughters; opposed child marriage and rigidity in
caste system and supported remarriage of widows.
• Published a treatise in 1805 in Persian language →tuhfat-ul-muwahhidin; also published
manazarutul adyan (contains discussion on various religions in Persian).
• Book titled ‘Gift To Monotheists’ in 1809-> efficacy of idea of worshipping a single god.
• Established Atmiya Sabha (1815)-> main purpose was to fight against social evils prevailing in
Hinduism and propagate monotheism.
• Founded Hindu College in 1817 in Calcutta with help of David hare and others.
• Precepts of Jesus- a guide to peace and happiness in 1820->highlighted ethical nature of Jesus
Christ’s teachings.
• Sambad kaumudi (moon of intelligence) in 1821.
• Mirat ul Akhbat (mirror of intelligence) in 1822.

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• Established Vedanta College in Calcutta in 1825.
• Subhash Chandra Bose termed Raja Ram Mohan Roy as ambassador of the age.
• Supported the revolution of Naples and Spanish America and condemned oppression of Ireland by
absentee English landlordism.
• Brahmo Samaj (Society of God) (1828)
o First reform Movement of India based on modern western ideas; primary purpose is to teach
monotheism and rid Hinduism of its evils; emerged as a powerful platform for the promotion of
humanism and social regeneration.
o Religious reforms: opposed to entire brahmanical system based on superstitious practices and rituals +
discarded infallibility of religious scriptures, idol worship, polytheism and concept of avatars + no
definite stand on karma and transmigration of soul + worship of one god without mediation of priests.
o Social reforms: condemnation of caste system, untouchability and also opposed sati, child
marriage and polygamy.
7. Debendranath Tagore (1817-1905)
• He became head of Brahmo Samaj after Raja Ram Mohan Roy.
• Tattvaranjini Sabha was organized by him at jorasanko (Calcutta) in 1839; later renamed as
Tattwabodhini Sabha→ aimed at countering rapid influence of Christianity in India by enthusiastic
advocacy of vedantism and indigenous culture.
• Tattwabodhini press and Tattwabodhini Patrika was established in 1843.
• Tattwabodhini Sabha and Brahmo Sabha were merged by Debendranath Tagore in 1843 to create
Brahmo Samaj .
• He condemned idol worship, ceremonies and penances prevailing among the brahmans and
discouraged pilgrimages.
• He wrote a religious text called brahmo dharma; introduced a brahmo form of worship known as
brahmopasana.
• Introduced a formal ceremony of initiation into brahmo Sabha which was based on Mahanirvan tantra.
8. Keshub chandra sen
• Joined Brahmo Samaj in 1858; established sangat Sabha (friendly Association ) in 1859.
• Branches were opened in UP, Punjab, Bombay, Madras and other towns.
• He laid stress on universalism as opposed to Debendranath’s stress on national Hindu identity.
• He founded a new 'universal' religion - naba bidhan - in 1880 (new dispensation).
• He believed that only christian doctrine could breathe new life into Hindu Society.
• He was appointed secretary of the Asiatic Society in 1854.
• The religious path he chose is known as new-vaishnavism.
• Daily "Dharma Tattwa" fortnightly journal named Indian Mirror was started in 1861(first Indian
journal in English language).
• Brahmo Marriage Act or Civil Marriage Act, 1972 was enacted due to efforts made by KC Sen→
it legalized marriage performed according to brahmo rites; Increased marriage to 18 years and 14
years for boys and girls respectively [note: the act is not applicable to Muslims, Hindus and other
recognized faiths].
• Established Indian Reform Association in 1870; a journal for women called Brahmo Bodhini
Patrika was also started by him.
• He was instrumental in the establishment of the Albert College in 1862, as well as the Bethune
College for ladies
9. Split in brahmo Samaj
• First spilt: radical changes introduced by K. C. Sen in Brahmo Samaj were opposed by a group led
by Debendranath Tagore + in 1866, Debendranath's group separated from K C. Sen's group by
calling itself Adi Brahmo Samaj + K. C. Sen's group came to be known as Brahmo Samaj of
India or navvidhana + Adi Brahmo Samaj introduced the slogan that brahmoism was Hinduism +
K. C. Sen's adopted slogan was that brahmoism was catholic and universal.
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• Second split: KC Sen married his daughter to maharaja of cooch bihar and performed traditional
Hindu ceremonies + sadharan Brahmo Samaj created by younger members under leadership of
Ananda Mohan Bose and Ram Kumarvidyaratna + Anand Mohan Bose drafted the constitution of
sadharan brahmo Samaj .
10. Arya Samaj and Dayanand Saraswati
▪ It was established by Swami Dayanand Saraswati in 1875; early headquarters at Bombay and later
transferred to Lahore.
▪ Emerged as a reaction to western influences; slogan was ‘go back to the vedas’; the Movement is
called revivalist in form, not in content.
▪ It focused on the mission of modernizing Hinduism in western and northern India.
▪ Sought inspiration from the vedas, which he believed infallible as the divine word of god.
▪ Disregarded authority of puranas and blamed them for spreading evil practices like idol worship
and superstitions in Hindu religion.
▪ Published his views in Satyartha Prakash (the true exposition).
▪ Rejected philosophy of maya and held that god, soul and matter were distINCt and eternal
entities.
▪ His vision of India INCluded a classless and casteless Society
▪ First DAV school was established at Lahore with Mahatma Hansarj as the Headmaster.
▪ The Dayananda Anglovedic (DAV) College was established in 1886 in Lahore. But a difference of
opinion between two groups in the Samaj arose over the curriculum of the DAVCollege.
o One group was known as the College party (some sources say ‘culture’ party), among whose
leaders were Lala Hansraj, Lala Lal Chand, and Lala Lajpat Rai the other was the Mahatma (later
gurukul) party led by Guru Datta Vidyarthi and Lala Munshi Ram (who later came to be known
as Swami Shraddhanand).
o While the College party favored the government curriculum and English education to meet
economic and professional needs. Mahatma party was interested in introducing the study of
Sanskrit and vedic philosophy in the tradition of ancient gurukuls.
o College party had nothing against non-vegetarianism, the Mahatma Party was in favor of all the
aryas being strict vegetarians.
▪ Rejected Theory of Niyati (destiny) and upheld doctrine of ‘Karma’.
▪ He asserted every Hindu’s right to read and interpret the vedas; rejected caste system based on birth.
He subscribed to Vedic notion of four-varna system based on occupation.
▪ Dayanand anglo-vedic institutions all over the country with the aim of providing best of eastern and
western learning.
▪ Started ‘Shudi’ Movement to convert non-Hindus to Hinduism.
▪ He also raised slogan of ‘India for Indians’ and infused spirit of intense patriotism.
▪ Formed ‘cow protection Association ’ against cow slaughters in 1882.
▪ Fixed minimum marriageable age at 25 years for boys and 16 years for girls.
▪ Books written by him: Pakhand Khandan (1866), Refutation of Advaita Philosophy (1873), Satyarth
Prakash (1874) in Sanskrit language, Pancha Mahayajna Vidhi (1875), Refutation of Philosophy of
Vallabhacharya (1875), Veda Bhasya Bhumika (1876) and Veda Bhasya (1877).
11. Balshastri jambhekar
• Started the Anglo Marathi newspaper Darpan in 1832.
• Known as father of Marathi Journalism.
• Founded Bombay Native General Library and native improvement Society.
• In 1840, he started Digdarshan which published articles on scientific subjects as well as history.
• He was the first professor of Hindi at the Elphinston College, besides being a director of the Colaba
observatory.
12. Young Bengal Movement (1820s- 1830s)
• The Hindu College of Calcutta intellectuals were at the forefront of the new Bengal Movement.
These philosophers were also referred to as Derozians.
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• Derozio supported radical views through his teaching and by forming a debate and discussion group
on literature, philosophy, history, and science.
• They revered the ideas of the French Revolution and British Liberalism.
• Derozio was first nationalist poet of modern India + removed from the Hindu College in 1831
because of radicalism.
• Established academic Association and Society for acquisition of general knowledge.
• Associated with journals like Hesperus, Calcutta Literary Gazette and East India.
• They carried on agitations in support of public issues like revision of company’s charter, better
treatment of Indian labour in British colonies, freedom of press and Indianisation of services + they
lacked to link masses like peasant cause.
• Important leaders: Dakshinaranjan Mukherjee, Krishna Mohan Banerjee, Mahesh Chandra Ghosh
and Ram Gopal Ghosh + INCluded christians such as Reverend Alexand Duff, who founded the
general assembly institution and his students like lal behari dey, who went to renounce Hindusim
13. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (1820-91)
• In 1851, he became principal of Sanskrit College; opened gates of College to western thought as
well as non-brahmin students.
• His agitation in support of legalizing the re-marriage of widows ->passage of Hindu widow
remarriage act (1856).
• Vidyasagar initiated the acceptance of admission fees and tuition fees.
• He introduced ‘sunday’ as the weekly holiday and summer vacation in may and june.
• He assisted revered Bengali poet Michael Madhusudan Dutta in moving from france to England to
study for the bar.
• As secretary of Bethune school, he led the Movement for women’s education.
• Literary works: bahubihaha and bidhaba bibaha. He also started Bengali newspaper shome
prakash in 1858, ‘Upakramonika’ and ‘Byakaran Koumudi’ (interpreting complex notions of
Sanskrit grammar in easy legible Bengali language), Betaal Panchavinsati (1847) Banglar Itihaas
(1848), Jivancharita (1849), Shakuntala (1854), Mahabharata (1860), Seetar Vanavas (1860),
Bhrantivilaas (1869), Oti Alpa Hoilo (1873)
• People began addressing him as "Daya Sagar" because of his enormous generosity and kindness
14. Prarthana Samaj
• Established in Bombay by Dr. Atma Ram Pandurang in 1876 with the objective of rational
worship and social reform.
• Agenda: disapproval of caste system, women education, widow remarriage and raising the age of
marriage for both males and females
• Important leaders: R. C. Bhandarkar and Justice Mahadev Govind Ranade.
• They devoted themselves to the work of social reform such as inter-caste dining, inter-caste marriage,
widow remarriage and improvement of the lot of women and depressed classes.
• MG Ranade→socrates of Maharashtra and prophet of cultural renaissance in Maharashtra + article
titled ‘atheists confession of faith’ + established Deccan Education Society
15. Ramakrishna Paramahamsa
• Gadadhar chattopadhyaya was a poor Brahmin priest who subsequently became known as
Ramakrishna Paramahamsa.
• He had no formal education in philosophy or shastras, and his schooling ended at the primary level.
• He devoted his entire life to god.
• He was a follower of Kali, the Hindu goddess.
• He was a priest at the Dakshineswar Kali temple who drew a large number of monastic and lay
followers.
• Sarada Devi, Ramakrishna Paramhansa's spiritual companion, was also his wife.
16. Ramakrishna mission and swami Vivekananda
• It was established in 1896 by swami Vivekananda; headquartered at belur near Calcutta.
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• Believed in philosophy of vedanta, socio-religious evils like untouchability and caste system were
opposed by him.
• He published a pamphlet titled I Am A Socialist→appealed to upper classes in India to give up their
position and privileges so that lower classescould be uplifted.
• Vivekananda published Prabuddha Bharata (monthly in English) and Udbodhan (fortnightly in
bangla) newspapers.
• Vivekananda stressed on the need for a healthy balance between spiritualism and materialism.
• Concept of Daridra Narayana.
• Subhash chandra bose had called Vivekananda the "Maker Of Modern India"
• Literary works: Bartaman Bharat, lectures from Colombo to Almora and the East and the West, Raja
Yoga, Jnana Yoga, Karma Yoga.
• Belur math: it was established by swami Vivekanand in west Bengal in 1899 which became his
permanent abode. He died here in 1902.
17. Theosophical Society
• It was founded by H. P. Blavatsky in USA in 1875. Later, US Army Colonel Henry Steel Olcott
joined it.
• Headquarter was shifted to India at Adyar (located near Madras) in 1882.
• The central Hindu College in varanasi, which opened in 1898, was its most successful venture in this
direction.
• Drew inspiration from the philosophy of Upanishads, Samkhya, Vedanta and of thought to
encourage international brotherhood.
• It accepts Hindu beliefs of karma and reINCarnation.
• Annie Besant joined the theosophical Society in 1893 and became its president in 1907.
• It was revivalist in its outlook. It advocated strengthening of ancient religions of Hinduism,
Buddhism and Zoroastrianism.
• Annie Besant translated the Bhagavad Gita to English language.
• In 1893, Besant represented the theosophical Society at world parliament of religions in Chicago.
• In 1898, Besant laid foundation of central Hindu College in Benaras.
• Rukmini was the president of the theosophical Society after Dr. Besant’s passing.
• It preached universal brotherhood of men irrespective of distINCtions of caste, creed, race or sex
18. Paramahansa Mandali: founded by Dadoba Pandurang Tarkhadar in 1849.
• It fought against caste-based discrimination. Its chief objective was demolition of all caste
distINCtions. Its members would eat food cooked by low-caste people.
• Mahadeo govind ranade joined the Samaj in 1870.
• Other leaders : R.G. Bhandarkar (1837- 1925) and N.G. Chandavarkar (1855-1923).
19. Jyotiba Phule and Satyashodak Samaj
• He organized a powerful Movement against upper caste domination and brahminical supremacy.
• He became the first Indian to start a school for the untouchables.
• Phule was influenced by thomas paine’s book titled the rights of man
• He founded the Satyashodhak Samaj (truth seekers’ Society) in 1873.
• It was an anti-brahmin organization.
• Main aims: social service and spread of education among women and lower caste people.
• Phule’s works Sarvajanik Satyadharma, Shetkaryaca Asud and Ghulamgin, became a source of
inspiration for the common masses.
• Phule used the symbol of Rajah Bali as opposed to the brahmins’ symbol of rama.
• He was bestowed with the title of mahatma by a maharashtrian social activist vithalrao krishnaji vandekar.
• It aimed at the complete abolition of the caste system and socio-economic inequalities.
• Published a pamphlet titled Isara in 1885.
• Major publications: Tritiya Ratna (1855); Powada: Chatrapati Shivajiraje Bhosle Yancha (1869);
Gulamgiri (1873), Shetkarayacha Aasud (1881).
20. Students literary and scientific Society (1848): established in 1848 by several educated young men and
had two branches known as Marathi and Gujaratai Gyan Prakashak Mandalis.

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21. Radha Swami Movement
• Started by tulsi ram of agra in 1861.
• He was popularly known as swamiji maharaj or shiv dayal sahib.
• It believed that there was no need to renounce worldly life for spiritual gains; held that all religions
were true.
• He himself never used the term 'radhasoami'.
• His writings 'sar bachan' used the word "sat nam"
• He initially referred to "sat nam" (true name) and "anami" (nameless).
• Satsang (company of good or pious people) was organized by radha swamis.
• His 'bani' (poetical compositions) and sayings from satsang were published in two books. Both were
titled "sar bachan" (meaning 'conclusive utterances')
• He got influenced by the teachings of tulsi saheb, who taught 'surat shabd yoga'
22. Deva Samaj
• It was founded by Shiv Narayan Agnihotri at Lahore in 1887.
• Deva shastra contains the teachings of Dev Samaj. These teachings emphasize eternity of soul,
supremacy of guru, existence of supreme being and good acts or karmas.
23. Justice party
• Officially the south Indian Liberal Federation
• Founded in 1916 at Madras by C. N. Mudaliar, T M. Nair, P. Tyagaraja.
• It started in the Madras presidency to secure jobs and participation in the parliament for non-brahmins
• In 1917, the Madras presidency Association was created to urge that the lower classes be given
distINCt representation in the legislature.
• It also played a vital role in allowing women to contest elections paving the way for Dr.
Muthulakshmi reddy to become the first woman legislator in India.
• The pioneering efforts of Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy saw the abolition of devadasi system when the
justice party was in power.
• In 1938, E V. Ramaswamy (Periyar) was elected the leader of the justice party.
• In 1944, Justice Party along with the Self Respect Movement was renamed Dravidar Kazhagam.
24. Self-respect Movement
• S. Ramanathan invited EV Ramaswamy to start this Movement in Tamil Nadu.
• It was an egalitarian movement that advocated for the abolition of brahminical rule, equal rights
for backward groups and women in Society, and the resuscitation of dravidian languages such as
Telugu, Tamil, Kannada, and Malayalam.
• Annai Meenanmbal and Veeramal were two of the movement's female leaders.
• Its aims are articulated in "Namathu Kurikkol" and "Tiravitakkalaka Lateiyam. ’
• He advocated burning of Manu Smriti and Ramayana.
• It emphasized birth control and legalizing widow remarriage; merged with justice party in 1944 to
form dravida kazhagam.
25. Other important Reform Movements
• Madras Hindu Social Reform Association : Kandukuri Veeresalingam Pantulu founded it in 1892. He
was called as father of modern telugu prose literature. He worked for removal of social evils on issues like
widow re-marriage, female education and general upliftment of women.
• Madras Hindu Association : it was established by Annie Besant in 1904.
• Gandiya Sabha was established by radhakant deb to propagate education.
• Veda Samaj founded under influence of KC Sen by Sridharalu Naidu.
• Bharat Dharma Maha Mandala was established in Haridwar by Pandit Din Dayalu Sharma; Madan
Mohan Malviya was closely associated with Maha Mandala and Sanathan Dharma Movement.
• Swami Narayan Sect founded by Sahajanand Swami in 1800 AD; also known as Uddhav
Sampradaya.

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• Bhil Seva Mandal founded by Amritlal Vithaldas Thakkar in 1922.
• Satnami Sect was founded by ghasi das; opposed caste system and emphasized that all men are
equal.
• Dharma Sabha was established by radhakanta deb at Calcutta in 1830; it opposed abolition of sati.
• Sevasadan was founded by Behramji Merwanji Malabari in 1885 AD; behramjiedites the Indian
spectator.
• Servants of India Society was formed at Poona in 1905 by Gopal Krishna Gokhale. It worked for
upliftment of depressed classes and tribals; Hitavada in 1911.
• Gopal ganesh agarkar was co-founder of new English school, Deccan Education Society and
Fergusson College. First editor of Kesari. He started his own periodical Sudharak which spoke
against untouchability and caste system.
• Indian National Social Conference was formed by Raghunath Rao and MG Ranade; called as social
reform cell of INC; advocated inter-caste marriages, opposed polygamy and kiulinism. Launched Pledge
Movement to inspire people to take a pledge against child marriage.
• Social Service League established by NM Joshi in 1911 at Bombay. Activities INCluded police
court agents work, legal aid and advice to poor and illiterate. He also founded the All India Trade
Union Congress in 1920.
• Sevasamitiwas founded by Hridya Nathkunzru at Allahabad in 1914.
• Bahujan Samaj Movement was started by Chhatrapati Shahujimaharaj of Kolhapur.
• Aravipuram Movement/ Sri Narayan Dharma Paripalanayogam was launched by Nanuasan in 1888. It
fought for rights of ezhava community to enter temples. Gave the slogan ‘one caste, one religion and one
god’. He wrote a book titled Jati Mimamsa. Narayana Guru took a stone from Neyyar river and installed it
as a Shivalinga at Aruvippuram on Sivaratri in 1888. It drew famous poet Kumaran asan as a disciple of
Narayana Guru.
• Nair Service Society was established by mannathu padmanabha pillai at travancore in 1914.
• Depressed Classes Mission was founded by Maharshi Vitthal Ramji in 1906 to create educational
facilities for people belonging to lower classes.
• All India depressed classes federation was established by BR Ambedkar in 1920 to work among
Mahar community of Maharashtra.
• Pillai Movement founded in Tamil Nadu during late 19th century; called themselves as vanniyakula
kshatriya.
• Vaikomsatyagraha was organized in Kerala in 1924-25 by K Kelappan, T K Madhavan and K P
Kesava Menon. It was the first organized Temple Entry Movement of depressed clases.
• Lokahitwadi Gopal Hari Deshmukh wrote his famous 100 letters ‘Shatapatren’ in Prahabhakar, a
marathi weekly; started a weekly Hitechhu and also played leading role in founding the periodicals-
Gyan Prakash, Indu Prakash and Lokahitawadi.
• Narayan Mahadev Parmanand wrote under pen name of ‘Political Recluse’.
• Vishnu Shastri Chiplunkar started a monthly magazine ‘Nibandhamala’. Founded the new English
school in Pune in 1880.
• Prof DK Karve established in 1896 a widow’s home in Poona; opened an Indian women university
at Bombay in 1916.
• Behramji M Malabari in 1885 founded sevasadan which took care of exploited women. His efforts
led to passage of age of consent act of 1891.
• Vitthal Ramji Shinde in 1906 established depressed classes mission.
• Ved Samaj was established by Keshub Chandra Sen and K Sridharalu Naidu.
26. Muslim Socio-Religious Reform Movements
• Wahabi Movement
o Started in 1821 by Syed Ahmed Barelvi; influenced by teachings of Shah Waliullah.
o It aimed at removing all the new elements that entered the religious life of Muslims
o It was revivalist in nature which believed in greatness of old puritanical form of Islam.
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o It worked for restoration of political power of the Muslim community.
o India was considered to be Dar-Ul-Harb (land of the kafirs) and it needed to be converted to
Dar-Ul-Islam (Land of Islam).
o During the revolt of 1857, they played a key role in spreading anti-British sentiments.
• Titu mir Movement
• Mir Nithar Ali, popularly known as Titu Mir, was a disciple of Sayyid Ahmed Barelvi, the
founder of the Wahabi Movement.
• Titu mir adopted Wahabism and advocated the Sharia.
• He organised the Muslim peasants of Bengal against the landlords, who were mosly Hindu,
and the British indigo planters.
• Ahl-i-hadith
o It was led by Nawab Siddiq Hasan Khan and Syed Nazeer Husain in 1850s.
o They were moderate followers of Syed Ahmed Barelvi.
o It was a branch of Tarigah-I-Muhammadiya.
o They condemned polytheism and not in favour of sufism.
• Ahmadiyya Movement
o It forms a Sect of Islam which originated from India; founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad in
1889 at Qadian, Punjab.
o It was based on liberal principles; described itself as the standard-bearer of mohammedan
renaissance; Movement was strictly apolitical
o It spread western liberal education among the Indian Muslims.
o They opposed jihad, or sacred war, against non-Muslims and emphasized the importance of
human fraternity.
o Only Islamic Sect to believe that the Messiah had come in the person of Mirza Ghulam
Ahmad to end religious wars and bloodshed and to reinstate morality, peace and justice.
• Aligarh Movement and Syed Ahmed Khan
o Started by sir Syed Ahmed Khan in 1864 to propagate western scientific education among
Muslim masses
o Scientific Society was established in 1864 to spread western education among Muslims through
Urdu translation.
o Undertook to modernise Muslim’s education by adapting English as a medium of learning and
western education rather than just focusing on traditional teachings.
o Aligarh Institute Gazette, a magazine published by sir syed was an organ of the scientific
Society.
o He attacked the system of ‘Piri and Muridi’.
o He began publication of the urdu journal Tehzeeb-Ul-Akhlaq in 1870.
o He founded the Aligarh school in 1875 on the birth anniversary of English Queen Victoria.
o Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental (MAO) Education Conference was started by him in 1886.
o Published a book titled loyal muhammadans of India in1860.
o In 1888 he established United Indian Patriotic Association to oppose Indian national congress.
o In 1893 he established Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental Defence Association .
o In ‘commentaries on the quran’, he criticized narrow outlook of traditional interpreters and
gave broader interpretation in light of rationalism.
o Altaf Hussain Hali, Maulvi Nazir Ahmad Dehlvi, Shibli Nomani, Theodore Beck and
Theodore Morison were also associated with Aligarh Movement.
• Deoband Movement
o Started at the Darul Uloom (or Islamic Academic Centre), deoband, in Saharanpur district (united
Provinces) in 1866 by Mohammad Qasim Nanotavi and Rashid Ahmed Gangohi to train
religious leaders for the Muslim community.
o It was an anti-British Movement which worked for upliftment of Muslims by imparting religious
education. It welcomed the formation of INC in 1885.
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o Aim: moral and religious regeneration of the Muslim community.
o In 1888 issued a fatwa (religious decree) against Syed Ahmed Khan’s organisations, the United
Patriotic Association and The Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental Association .
o Shibli Numani favoured the INClusion of English language and european sciences in the
system of education; founded the Nadwatal Ulama and Darul Uloom in Lucknow and believed
in the idealism of the congress and cooperation between the Muslims and the Hindus to create
a state in which both could live amicably.
• Faraizi Movement
o Started by Haji Shariatullah in 1819 at Faridpur (Bangladesh).
o It represented protests of peasants against British indigo planters, zamindars and government
offcials.
o It demanded that friday and id prayers should be suspended in India because under Britishrule
India was Dar-Ul-Harb (Land Of Infidels Or Enemies).
o It introduced new clothes for its followers so that Muslims could be distinguished from Hindus.
• Other important Muslim Movements
o Firangi mahal Movement by abdul Bari in Lucknow; it supported Khilafat Movement.
o Anjuman-i-himayat-i-Islam established by shah din and muhammad shafi in Lahore in 1866
which expressed loyalty towards British government.
o Khaksar Movement established by Allamama Shriqi in 1931 with Lahore as its main centre. It
is aimed to regenerate Islam and to promote social service.
o Darul Uloom Nadwatul Ulama established in 1894 by Maulana Shiblinomani in Lucknow
which focused on reforming Muslim education system.
o Tayuni Movement was started by Maulana Keramat Ali Jaunpuri; it was orthodox in its outlook
and inspired by religious teachings of Shah Waliullah; rejected new elements that had entered
Islam
o Nawab Abdul Lateef and Mohammedan Literary Society (1863): it promoted western
education among the Muslims an also encouraged discussions on religious, social and political
issues.
o Ahl-Al-Quran established by Maulvi Abdullah Chakralvi in Punjab.
o Arhar Movement was against the loyalist and anti-Hindu beliefs of upper class Muslim
leadership of the time.
o Azad Muslim Conference founded by Allah Baksh Soomro in 1929 which opposed the demand
for Pakistan.
27. Sikh reform Movements
• Nirankari Movement
o Baba Dayal Das founded this Movement of purification and return in 1840.
o Advocated for the restoration of Sikhism to its roots, emphasizing the worship of one god
and Nirankar (formless).
o Introduced Anand Karaj (simplified form of marriage), condemned marriage processions,
drinking, dowry, dancing and rituals. Later this version marriage got formal recognition through
Anand Marriage Act of 1909.
o It laid emphasis on Guru Nanak and on Sikhism before the establishment of Khalsa by Guru
Gobind Singh at Anandpur and this separated them from the namdaris.
• Namdhari Movement
o Founded by Bhagat Jawahar Mal in 1840.
o His disciple Baba Balak Singh continued it.
o Worship of god through meditation and prayers.
o Followers required to abandon their worship of gods, idols and refrain from drinking, stealing,
falsehood etc.
o Beef consumption was strictly prohibited.

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• Singh Sabha Movement
o Gianigian singh and Thakur Singh Sandhawalia established it in 1873.
o Objectives: restoration of original purity of Sikhism, propagation of knowledge by using Punjabi
language and publishing historical religious books.
o Promotion of learning by using Sikh Educational Conference.
o It did not hold the British government directly responsible for the myriad social and religious ills.
o Nihang Sikhs began to influence the Movement, and Tat Khalsa launched a sustained campaign.
o Khalsa College was founded by it at Amritsar in 1892.
• Akali Movement
o Akali Jathas led this Movement to reform sikh gurudwaras and purify sikh religious places.
o It began as a strictly religious Movement to reform gurdwaras, quickly took on a political
dimension and became an integral component of India's liberation struggle.
o It led to passage of All India Sikhs Gurudwara Act in 1925, which established a SGPC, a sikh
representation organization that serves as the custodian of all significant sikh places of worship.
o Toshakhana keys affair- British stole keys to the Toshakhana (treasury) of Sri Harmandir Sahib.
28. Parsi reform Movements
• Rahnumai Mazadayasnan Sabha
o Established by western educated progressive parsi leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji, SS Bengali,
JB Wacha, KN Kama and Naoroji Furdunji in 1851.
o It criticized elaborate ceremonies at marriages and funerals and stood for uniform laws of
inheritance.
o Rast Goftar (truth teller) was published by it as a weekly paper.
o Propagated education among women and worked to ensure legal rights of women; also fought for
uniform laws of marriage.

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CHAPTER – 10 BEGINNING OF MODERN NATIONALISM IN INDIA

1. Introduction: Indian nationalism grew as a result of colonial policies and as a reaction to colonial
policies. It was a product of worldwide upsurge of concepts of nationalism initiated by french revolution,
Indian renaissance and offshoot of modernization initiated by British.
2. Factors in the growth of modern nationalism
• Understanding contradictions in Indian and colonial interests.
• Political administrative and economic unification.
• Western education and thought.
• Role of press and literature
• Re-discovery of India’s past.
• Progressive character of socio-religious reform Movements.
• Rise of middle class intelligentsia.
• Impact of contemporary Movements and
• Reactionary policies of rulers
• Lytton's reactionary policies such as lowering the maximum age limit for I C. S. Examination
from 21 to 19 years (1876), holding the Grand Delhi Durbar in 1877 while the country was in the
grip of famine, passing the Vernacular Press Act (1878), and passing The Arms Act (1878).
3. Political Association s before INC in Bengal
• Bangabhasha Prakasika Sabha
o Formed in 1836 by associates of raja ram mohan roy to discuss government policy and
seeking rederessal through petitions and memorandums.
• Zamindari Association /landholders Society
o Founded in Calcutta by dwaraknath Tagore, radhakant deb and others to safeguard
interests of landlords of Bengal, bihar and orissa.
o It launched organized political activity in India.
o It was the first to adopt the path of constitutional demonstration for the fulfillment of its
objectives.
• Bengal British India Society (1843)
o Founded for the purpose of collecting and disseminating information about the actual
condition of the people of British India.
o In 1851, Zamindari Association and Bengal British India Society merged and formed a
new organization called the British Indian Society.
o It demanded for establishment of a separate legislature with popular objectives, salary
reduction of upper-class bureaucrats and abolition of salt tax, excise tax, and postage
[partially accepted in 1853 charter act].
• Dadabhai Naoroji founded the East India Association in London in 1866 to discuss the Indian
question and persuade public men in England to promote Indian welfare.
• Sisir Kumar Ghosh founded the Indian league in 1875 with the goal of "stimulating the sense of
nationalism among the people. "
• Indian Association of Calcutta was founded in 1876 by Surendranath Banerjee and Ananda
Mohan Bose. S. Banerjee had declared that it was based on concept of united India derived
from inspiration of Mazzini.
4. Political Association s before INC in Bombay
• Bombay Association (1852): first political organization in Bombay by Jagannath Shankar Seth
on the pattern of the Calcutta British India Association . Its purpose was to give suggestions to
the government against discriminatory government rules and to give a memorandum to the
government to remove various errors.

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• Poona Sarvajanik Sabha (1870): formed in Poona by MG Ranade, Ganesh Vasudeo Joshi and
S Chiplunkar with aim of serving as a bridge between government and people. It is considered as
precursor to the Indian National Congress.
• Bombay Presidency Association (1885): formed by Pherozshah Mehta, KT Telang and
Badruddin Tyabji.
5. Political Association s before INC in Madras
o Madras (native) Association (1852): a branch of British Indian Association of Calcutta set up
at Madras under name of Madras Native Association .
o Madras Mahajan Sabha (1884): formed by M Viraraghavachari, G Subramaniyaiyer, P Ananda
Charlu to coordinate activities of local Associations.
6. Pre-congress political work (1875-85)
• Indian Mirror of Calcutta was carrying out a continuous campaign on the need to an All-India
Association .
• Protests all over India over imposition of license tax (1878) and abolition of cotton import
duties (1879).
• Opposed the Afghan war (1878-80) of Lord Lytton.
• Campaigns against the Vernacular Press Act and the Indian Arms Act (aimed at disarming the
Indians) of 1878, and The Plantation Labour And The Inland Emigration Act (during1881-82)
which condemned plantation labourers to serfdom.
• During 1883, agitation was organised in favour of the Ilbert Bill which aimed at bringing
Indian magistrates at par with the european magistrates.
• Indian Association organized an All India National Conference in 1883.

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INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS: FOUNDATION &

CHAPTER – 11
MODERATE PHASE

1. Introduction: Indian National Congress was formed by A O Hume in the year 1885 (originally known as
Indian Nation Union). Originally it was decided that conference of ‘Indian National Union’ would be
convened at Poona but due to outbreak of Cholera in Poona, the venue shifted to Bombay.
2. Background of Indian national congress
• Founded on December 28, 1885, at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College in Bombay, with 72 delegates
in attendance.
• Hume was appointed general secretary and WC Bannerjee was elected president.
• Other founding members: William Wedderburn and Justice John Jardine.
• Congress was formed with the intention of discussing issues that all citizens of the country face,
regardless of caste, creed, religion, or language.
3. Objectives of INC
• To promote friendly relations between nationalist political workers from various parts of the country.
• To develop and consolidate a sense of national unity regardless of caste, religion, or province.
• To formulate popular demands and present them to the government.
• To train and organize public opinion in the country.
• To provide an outlet - "a safety valve"-for the growing popular discontent with British rule.
• To raise awareness about colonial exploitative policies and Indian political rights.
4. First session of INC in 1885
• A. O. Hume organized the first session of the Indian National Congress in December 1885 at
Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College in Bombay.
• The first session drew 72 delegates from all Indian Provinces. There were 54 Hindus, 2 Muslims,
and the remaining members were Jain and Parsi.
• Dadabhai Naoroji (thrice president), Badruddin Tyabji, Pherozeshah Mehta, P. Anandacharlu,
Surendranath Banerjea, Romesh Chandra Dutt, Ananda Mohan Bose, and Gopal Krishna Gokhale
were some of the great congress presidents during this early period.
5. Foundational theories of INC
• Safety valve theory (Lala Lajpat Rai): extremist leaders like Lala Lajpat Rai believed in ‘safety
valve’ theory. Even marxist historians ‘conspiracy theory’ was an offspring of safety valve notion.
• Lightning conductor theory (G. K Gokhale): INC represented the desire of politically conscious
Indians to establish a national body to express Indian political and economic demands. The early
congress leaders used hume as a 'lightning conductor,' i. e. , a catalyst to bring together nationalistic
forces, even if under the guise of a 'safety valve. '
6. Moderate phase (1885-1905): this period constituted early phase of congress and is also referred as
period of tea-party politics or political mendicancy.
• Dadabhai Naoroji: he is known as India's Grand Old Man and the country's unofficial ambassador.
He was the first Indian to be elected to the British House of Commons. He was a founding member
of the Indian National Congress and served as president of three congress sessions. In his book
'Poverty and Un-British Rule in India,' he proposed the drain theory and explained the British
exploitation of India. He served as the first Indian member of the British parliament. His first
agitation, in 1859, concerned recruitment to the Indian civil service. In 1865 and 1866, Naoroji helped
found the London Indian Society and the east India Association, he became a member of the royal
commission on Indian expenditure. He pledged "loyalty to the backbone" to British crown and
"permanent continuance" of the British rule in India (Calcutta session, 1886).

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• Pherozeshah Mehta: he was dubbed the "Lion of Bombay." he was elected president of the Indian
National Congress in 1890. He founded the Bombay chronicle, an English weekly newspaper, in
1910. Mehta joined the lINColn's inn in 1864 and studied for the bar for three years. He became a
member of the liberal school of Indian politics. He was instrumental in the establishment of a
Swadeshi Bank, the Central Bank of India. Mehta is best known as the founder of the modern
Bombay municipal corporation. He co-founded the Bombay presidency Association(1885) with
Justice Telang and served as its secretary. In 1894, he was made a CIE., and in 1904, he was
knighted. The University of Bombay awarded him the honorary degree of Doctor of Law in 1915.
• P. Ananda Charlu: in 1884, with the assistance of his associates (M Viraraghavachari and G.
Subramaniya Aiyer), he established the Madras Mahajan Sabha, a political organization aimed at
creating public opinion. In 1891, he presided over the congress's annual session in Nagpur. He
served on the Madras Legislative Council from 1903 to 1905.
• Surendranath Banerjea: also known as Rashtraguru and Indian Burke; founded the Indian National
Association in 1876; founded the Bengalee, a newspaper. He advocated for the civil disobedience
Movement. He left congress after the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms of 1919 because he supported
the reforms rather than Gandhi's non-cooperation. In 1919, he accepted a knighthood from the British.
• Romesh Chandra Dutt: in 1871, dutt was admitted to University College in London and sat for
the Indian Civil Service Examination. In the same year, Dutt was called to the bar at the middle
temple. He was the first Indian to be appointed District Magistrate in 1883.
• G. K Gokhale: between 1899 and 1902, he was a member of the Bombay Legislative Council, and
from 1902 until his death, he worked at the Imperial Legislative Council (1915). In the Banaras
session of 1905, he was elected president of the INC. He founded the servants of Indian Society and
advocated for Indian self-government. He was also associated with the Sarvajanik Sabha journal
started by Govind Ranade. In 1908, Gokhale founded the Ranade Institute Of Economics. He started
English weekly newspaper, the Hitavada (the people's paper). He played a key role in framing the
Morley-Minto Reforms of 1909. He became president of INC in 1905 in Banaras session. He is
regarded by Mahatma Gandhi as his political guru. Gandhi wrote a book in gujarati dedicated to the
leader titled ‘Dharmatma Gokhale
• Badruddin Tyabji: he joined the middle temple after passing the London matriculation, became a
Barrister in April 1867 - first Indian barrister in Bombay - and rose quickly in the profession.
Badruddin Tyabji, Pherozeshah Mehta, and Kashinath Telang became known as 'the triumvirate' or
'the three stars' of Bombay's public life. He was the third president of the congress, after wc Naoroji,
serving from 1887 to 1888. He was appointed to the Bombay high court in Bannerjee and Dadabhai
1895, becoming the first Muslim judge and the third Indian to do so. Badruddin was the first Indian to
hold the position of Chief Justice of the Bombay High Court.
• Jamnalal Bajaj : he was an ethical entrepreneur who was dubbed the ‘merchant prINCe’ by Mahatma
Gandhi. In 1923, he took part in the Flag Satyagraha in Nagpur, defying a restriction on flying the national
flag, and was imprisoned by British forces. Further, as the President of the ‘Gandhi Seva Sangh and
chairman of the ‘All-India Khaddar Board,’ he undertook an extensive khadi tour of the entire country.
7. Methods used by moderates
• They relied on constitutional and peaceful means to achieve their goal.
• They concentrate on educating people, raising their political consciousness, and forming public
opinion.
• The moderates organized lectures in various parts of England in order to create public opinion.
• Moderates used various types of newspapers and chronicles to criticize government policies,
INCluding the Bengali newspaper, the Bombay Chronicle, the Hindustan Times, Induprakash, Rast
Goftar, and the weekly journal India.
• They also asked the government to conduct an investigation and find ways and means to solve the
problems that people were experiencing.
• Meetings were held in England, Mumbai, Allahabad, Pune, and Calcutta, among other places.
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8. Contributions of moderate nationalists
• Economic critique of British imperialism: early nationalists such as dadabhai Naoroji, R C. Dutt,
Dinshaw wacha examined the political economy of British rule in India and proposed the "drain
theory" to explain British exploitation of India. They demanded a reduction in Inland Revenue, the
abolition of the salt tax, better working conditions for plantation laborers, a reduction in military
spending, and so on.
• Constitutional reforms: from 1885 to 1892, nationalist demands for constitutional reform centered
on: council expansion—that is, greater participation of Indians in councils; and council reform -
more powers to councils, particularly greater control over finances.
• Campaign for general administrative reform Indianization of government service, separation of
judicial and executive powers, an oppressive and tyrannical bureaucracy, Increased spending on
welfare (i. e. , health, sanitation), education (especially elementary and technical), irrigation works
and agricultural improvement, agricultural banks for cultivators and better treatment for Indian
laborers in other British colonies.
• Protection of civil rights: these rights INCluded the freedom of expression, thought, association ,
and the press.
9. Achievements of the moderates
• Indian Councils Act of 1892 Increased the number of members in the imperial Legislative Councils
and Provincial Legislative Councils.
• ICS examination in India
• Demand for Swaraj (1905- benares session)
• Training of Indians in political work
• Economic critique of British rule: Dadabai Naoroji’s poverty and un-British rule in India and RC
dutt’s economic history in India. Prithwis Chandra Ray's the poverty problem in India (1895).
William Digby's "Prosperous British India (1901). Romesh Chandra Dutt's England and India: a
record of progress during a hundred years(1897) Subramanya Iyer's some economic aspects of British
rule in India (1903).
• Welby commission on Indian expenditure appointed in 1895 to enquire into Indian expenditure.
• They coined the phrase "no taxation without representation."
• Masses however played a passive role as early nationalists lacked political faith in masses.

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CHAPTER – 12 RISE OF MILITANT NATIONALISM

1. Introduction: The extremist ideology had been simmering ever since the revolt of 1857 and finally
surfaced in 1905 during Bengal partition. The new group demanded Swaraj as the goal to be achieved by
militant and self-reliant methods.
2. Causes for rise of extremism
● Recognition of true nature of British rule: Famines between 1896 and 1900; bubonic plague in
Maharashtra, Natu brothers were deported without trial; Tilak was imprisoned on sedition charges.
● Indian members in Calcutta Corporation were reduced; Official secrets act curbed freedom of press.
● Indian Universities act ensured greater government control over universities.
● Response to growing westernization: Intellectuals such as Swami Vivekananda, Bankim Chandra
Chatterjee inspired young nationalists with their articulate arguments, painting India's past in more
vivid colors than British ideologues.
● Lord Curzon administrative measures: Calcutta Corporation Act (1899); Official Secrets Act
(1904); Indian Universities Act (1904); Partition of Bengal (1905).
● International influences: Despised humiliating treatment to Indians in South Africa; nationalist
movements in Turkey, Egypt, Persia, Ireland and China; Progress made by Japan after 1868, defeat of
Italian army by Ethiopians (1896), Boer wars (1899-1902) where British faced reverses and Japan’s
victory over Russia (1905) demolished myths of European invINCibility.
● Existence of Militant school of thought: Raj Narain Bose, Ashwini Kumar Datta, Aurobindo Ghosh
and Bipin Chandra Pal in Bengal, Vishnu Shastrichiplunkar and Bal Gangadhar Tilak in Maharashtra
and Lala Lajpat Rai in Punjab.
3. Ideology of Extremists
● ‘Swaraj’ or self-rule was the goal of Extremists.
● Direct political action based on self-reliance, self-sacrifice and strong will.
● Inspired by ideology of Swami Vivekanada, Dayanand Saraswati and Bankim Chandra Chatterjee.
● Moved beyond the constitutional methods to protest → resorted to strikes, boycotts, burning down of
foreign items, etc. Confrontation was their method instead of Persuasion.
● They wanted to set up parallel institutions outside the purview of the Raj.
● They opposed westernization of Indian Society; Extremists never showed any loyalty to the British
Crown.
4. Prominent Extremist Leaders
• Bal Gangadhar Tilak: He was an Indian nationalist, teacher and an independence activist conferred
with the title of Lokmanya + He founded the Deccan Education Society in 1884 along with his
associate Gopal Ganesh Agarkar and others to create a new system of education that taught young
Indians nationalist ideas through an emphasis on Indian culture + Tilak helped found the All India
Home Rule League in 1916–18 with G. S. Khaparde and Annie Besant + Tilak’s Home Rule League
worked in Maharashtra, Central Provinces and Karnataka and Berar region. Besant’s League was
active in the rest of India + Newspapers: Kesari (Marathi) and Mahratta (English) + Books: Shrimadh
Bhagvad Gita Rahasya and Arctic Home of the Vedas.
• Lala Lajpat Rai: Also called Punjab Kesari and Lion of Punjab + He was influenced by Swami
Dayananda Saraswati and joined Arya Samaj in Lahore + He believed that the ideals in Hinduism
combined with nationalism will lead to the establishment of a secular state + Along with Bipin
Chandra Pal and Bal Gangadhar Tilak, he formed Lal-Bal-Pal trio of extremist leaders + He founded
the Home Rule League of America in 1917 in New York + He was also elected President of the All
India Trade Union Congress + He supported the non-cooperation movement of Gandhi at the Nagpur
session of the Congress in 1920 + He was elected deputy leader of the Central Legislative Assembly
in 1926 + In 1928, he moved a resolution in the assembly refusing cooperation with the Simon
Commission since the Commission had no Indian members + He founded Hindu Relief movement in
1897 to provide help to the famine -stricken people and thus preventing them falling into the clutches
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of the missionaries + He founded the Servants of People Society in 1921 + In 1885, Rai established
the Dayanand Anglo-Vedic School in Lahore and remained a committed educationist throughout his
life. + Literary works: ‘The Arya Samaj ’, ‘Young India’, ‘England’s Debt to India’, ‘Evolution of
Japan’, ‘India’s Will to Freedom’, ‘Message of the Bhagwad Gita’, ‘Political Future of India.
• Bipin Chandra Pal: He started popularising the idea of ‘swaraj’ to Indians + He edited the journals ‘The
Democrat’ and ‘The Independent’ and started many newspapers and magazines such as ‘Paridarsak’, ‘Bande
Mataram’, ‘New India’ and ‘Swaraj’ + Books: ‘Indian Nationalism’, ‘Swaraj and the Present Situation,
‘Nationality and Empire’, ‘The Basis of Social Reform’, ‘The New Spirit and Studies in Hinduism’, and
‘The Soul of India’ + He joined the Congress Party in 1886 + He also participated in the Swadeshi
movement and the non-cooperation movement. He agitated against the partition of Bengal of 1905.
• Aurobindo Ghosh: From 1902 to 1910 he partook in the struggle to free India from the British. +
He was much influenced by the American Revolution, revolts in Italy and the French revolts against
England + He helped establish the Anushilan Samiti of Calcutta in 1902 + He was edited newspapers
such as Bande Mataram and published magazine Arya; greatest literary achievement was ‘Savitri’, an
epic poem with about 24000 lines + In May 1908, Aurobindo was arrested in connection with the
Alipore Conspiracy Case.
• Rajnarayan Bose: One of the founders of Indian National Association + Played a significant role in
promoting nationalist ideas and organizing public meetings to raise awareness about the need for self-rule.
• Ashwin Kumar Dutt: Nationalist leader and philanthropist who came into prominence during the
Swadeshi movement + He was connected with enterprises like the Swadeshi Bank, Hindustan
Cooperative Insurance and Cooperative Navigation Ltd + He organised Swadesh Bandhab Samiti
during the Swadeshi Movement, which was later expanded to more than 159 branches across Bengal
+ He played an instrumental role in setting up the Barisal Hitaishi newspaper as the mouthpiece of the
Swadesh Bandhab Samiti + He used magic lantern lectures to raise the political consciousness of the
people through the Swadesh Bandhab Samiti.
• V.O. Chidambaram Pillai: Popularly known as Kappalottiya Tamilan (The Tamil Helmsman) and
Sekkizuththa Semmal (scholarly gentry who suffered at the oil press) + Towards the end of 1905, he
visited Madras and was drawn closer to the Swadeshi Movement initiated by Bal Gangadhar
Tilak and Lala Lajpat Rai + Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company (SSNCo) + He established many
institutions like Swadeshi Prachar Sabha, Dharmasanga Nesavu Salai, National Godown, Madras
Agro-Industrial Society Ltd and Desabimana Sangam + Writings: Meyyaram (1914), Meyyarivu
(1915), Anthology (1915), Thirukural with literary notes of Manakudavar (1917), Tholkappiam with
literary notes of Ilampooranar (1928).
5. Work of Extremists
● In 1891, Tilak opposed the Age of Consent Bill.
● Aurobindo published articles entitled New Lamps for the Old in Indu Prakash.
● In 1895, Tilak introduced the Shivaji festival to further stimulate nationalism among young
● In 1896, Gokhale organized a separate political Association called the Deccan Sabha.
● In 1895, Tilak ousted Gokhale and Ranade from Poona Sarvajanik Sabha and now control of Sabha
came into the hands of extremists.
● Tilak started newspapers Mahratta (in English) and Kesari (in Marathi).
● Promoted boycott of British made goods and use of swadeshi to encourage Indian industries.
● National Scheme of Education: Bengal Council of National education led by Gurudas Banerjee;
Pachaiappa national college was established in Madras.
● They were successful in getting annulled partition of Bengal in 1911.
● Formation of Samitis: the Dawn Society (named after the famous journal of the time-Dawn), the
Anti-Circular Society (formed initially to protest against the "Carlyle Circular''), the Swadesh
Bhandhav, the Brati, the Anushilan and the Sadhena samiti.
● Extremists found expression in periodicals like New India (edited by Bipin Chandra Pal), Bande
Mataram (edited by Aurobindo Ghosh), Sandhya (edited by Brahmabandhav Upadhyaya) and
Yugantar (edited by Bhupendranath Dutta).

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● Encouraged cooperative bodies-> Organizations formed on voluntary basis for rural sanitation,
organizing fairs and pilgrimages and relief work during calamities.
6. Government Reaction on Extremists
● Several laws passed by British Government to check the activities and influence of Extremists-
Seditious Meetings Act, 1907; Indian Newspapers (INCitement to Offences) Act, 1908; Criminal
Law Amendment Act, 1908; and the Indian Press Act, 1910.
● Tilak was sentenced and sent to a prison in Mandalay (Burma) because of his support to the
revolutionaries who were involved in the killing of two British women.
7. Governor General Lord Curzon (1899-1905)
● Curzon appointed a police commission in 1902 headed by Sir Andrew Frazer.
● Passage of Indian Universities Act, 1904 → Increase official control over universities and exercise
stricter control over affiliation of private colleges.
● Formed Roberts on Railway commission (1901) headed by Thomas Robertson -> recommended
setting up of a Railway board.
● Army reforms under Lord Kitchener; every army battalion was subjected to a severe test, ‘the
Kitchener test’.
● Special mission to Tibet (1903) headed by Colonel Younghusband to counter Russian influence.
● Famine commission headed by Anthony MacDonnell.
● Irrigation commission headed by Colin Scott Moncrieff.
● Co-operative credit societies, 1904 to provide loans to cultivators.
● Formation of Imperial agriculture department.
● Partition of Bengal, 1905.
8. Features of Partition of Bengal
● The British Government decided to partition Bengal in December 1903. Lord Curzon was the viceroy
of India at that time who made this decision.
● Divided into two Provinces: (a) Bengal comprising of Western Bengal as well as the Provinces of
Bihar and Orissa (b) The second was Eastern Bengal and Assam.
● Bengal retained Calcutta as its capital while Dacca was chosen as the capital for Eastern Bengal.
● The real motive of partition was the desire to weaken Bengal.
● The administrative division was on the basis of:
o Linguistic Basis: Reducing the Bengalis to a minority in Bengal itself. The new proposal of
Bengal was provisioned to have 17million Bengalis and 37 million Hindi and Oriya speakers.
o Religion Basis: The western Bengal was to be a Hindu majority area and the Eastern Bengal was
to be a Muslim majority area.
9. Anti-Partition movement under Moderates
● Prominent Moderates are Surendranath Banerjee, Krishna Kumar Mitra, Narendra Kumar Sen and
Prithwishchandra Ray.
● Methods: Petitions to government, public meetings, memoranda and propaganda through newspapers
such as Hitabadi, Sanjibani and Bengalee.
● On Aug 7, 1905→Boycott resolution held in Calcutta Townhall, formal proclamation of Swadeshi
movement was made.
● INC session at Calcutta (1906) under presidentship of Dadabai Naoroji → goal of INC was self-
government like UK or colonies of Australia or Canada.
● Boycott of foreign goods, public meetings and processions, corps of volunteers, use of traditional
popular festivals, emphasis on self-reliance, national education and indigenous enterprises.
● The message was propagated to boycott goods such as Manchester cloth and Liverpool salt.
● Rabindranath Tagore also composed Amar Sonar Bangla.
● People tied Rakhis on each other’s hands as a symbol of unity.
● Swadesh Bandhab Samiti of Ashwini Kumar Dutta in Barisal.
● Swadeshi Sangam formed in Tirunelveli by VO Chidambaram Pillai, Subramania Siva etc.

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● Bengal national college inspired by Tagore’s Shantiniketan was set up with Aurobindo Ghosh as its
principal.
● Bengal Institute of Technology was set up for technical education and funds were raised to send
students to Japan for advanced learning.
● Ashutosh Mukherjee is credited for establishing the Bengal Technical Institute in 1906.
● Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company at Tuticorin was established by V.O Chidambaram Pillai.
● Subramania Bharati wrote Sudesha Geetham.
● Nandalal Bose was first recipient of scholarship offered by Indian Society of oriental art founded in 1907.
● Ramendra Sunder Trivedi urged for observance of arandhan → keeping hearth unlit as a sign of
mourning in all homes.
● Extremist ideas found expression in periodicals like: New India (edited by Bipin Chandra Pal), Vande
Mataram (edited by Aurobindo Ghosh), Sandhya (edited by Brahmabandhav Upadyaya) and yugantar
(edited by Bhupendranath Dutta).
● Boycott was first suggested in Krishna Kumar Mitra’s journal Sanjivini on 3 July 1905 and later
embraced by prominent figures at Town Hall meeting on 7 August 1905.
● Acharya PC Ray set up the famous Bengal Chemicals Factory.
● Samitis spread the message of Swadeshi to villages through magic lantern lectures and swadeshi songs.
● In deltaic Andhra the struggle was known as the Vandemataram Movement.
10. Vandemataram Movement in Andhra
• Started on February 11, 1907, in Andhra Pradesh following the announcement of the Bengal Partition
of 1905.
• The prominent leaders of the movement were Harisarvothama Rao, Pingali Lakshmi Narayana,
Kasinadhuni Veera Mallayya, Bodi Narayana Rao, and others.
• In April 1907, Bipin Chandra Pal made a historical visit to Vijayawada and Masulipatnam and gave
speeches on the origin and meaning of Swadeshi and Bande Mataram. He was welcomed with
slogans like "Vande Mataram" and "Swadeshi Ki Jai."
• A play was written by Kavi Raju named "Rana Pratap," inspired by Bipin Chandra Pal, which
infuriated the British because of its patriotic content.
• A series of conferences was held to start national schools and village Associations and to propagate
Swaraj, Swadeshi, and boycotts.
11. Partition of Bengal – Impact
● Rabindranath Tagore wrote the famous song 'Amar Sonar Bangla,' which later became Bangladesh's
national anthem.
● Many Muslims in the Bengali Muslim community welcomed the move, believing that becoming the
majority in the new province would advance their educational, economic, and political interests.
● People began boycotting British goods, which had flooded the Indian market and harmed indigenous
industry.
● The partition succeeded in causing a communal schism in the country and even aided in the formation
of Muslim League in 1906.
12. Partition of Bengal – Annulment
● The partition was declared unconstitutional in 1911 as a result of widespread political protests.
● On December 12, 1911, King George V announced at the Delhi Durbar that eastern Bengal would be
absorbed into the Bengal Presidency.
● Lord Hardinge annulled the partition of Bengal in 1911. It was done in response to the Swadeshi
movement's riots against the policy.
● The capital was moved to New Delhi, clearly to provide a stronger base for the British colonial government.
● Bengal's Muslims were shocked because they had seen the Muslim majority East Bengal as a sign of
the government's eagerness to protect Muslim interests.
● Muslim leaders were initially opposed to the partition. After the creation of the Muslim-majority
Provinces of Eastern Bengal and Assam, prominent Muslims began to see it as advantageous.
● Eastern Bengal saw communal riots in Mymensingh, Comilla, Jamalpur and Bakshigunj.
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13. Extent of Participation
• Student participation was visible in Bengal, Maharashtra especially in Poona and in parts of South-
Guntur, Madras and Salem.
o Carlyle Circular: In October 1905, Carlyle, the Chief Secretary of the Government of Bengal,
issued an infamous circular that posed a threat to student picketers. It warned of withdrawing
grants, scholarships, and institutional affiliations from students involved in protests against the
British government.
• Participation of Muslims-
o Abdul Rasul, Liaqat Hussain, Guznavi, Maulana Azad but most of upper and middle class
Muslims stayed away led by Nawab Salimullah of Dacca.
o Khwaja Atiqullah, step-brother of Nawab Salimullah. At the Calcutta session of the Congress
(1906), he moved a resolution denouncing the partition of Bengal.
o Abdur Rasul presided over Bengal Congress Conference held at Barisal in 1906. He published the
Weekly Mussalman in 1906.
o Liaqat Hussain, a liberal Muslim vehemently opposed the 'Divide and Rule' policy of British.
• Workers participation- Sep 1905 → 247 clerks of Burn Company in Howrah struck work against a
humiliating work regulation. Oct 1905-> First real labor union, Printer’s Union was formed as a result
of bitter strikes in government owned presses. Indian Millhand’s Union, Budge-Budge was formed
when jute mill workers were organized by Ashwini Coomar Banerji.
• Social base of movement expanded to zamindari, students, women and lower middle classes in
cities and towns.
• It was not able to garner support of Muslims, especially the Muslim peasantry.
• The movement largely remained confined to upper and middle classes and zamindars and failed to
reach masses- especially the peasantry.
• Regional participation
o In Poona and Bombay under Bal Gangadhar Tilak
o In Punjab under Lala Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh
o In Delhi under Syed Haider Raza
o In Madras under Chidambaram Pillai
14. Reasons for decline of Swadeshi movement
• No support of Muslim masses, movement unable to convert several forms of struggle like passive
resistance and constructive work into real political practice, Hindu overtone of Swadeshi movement,
split in congress (Surat split, 1907) and bitter government repression.
15. Consequences of Swadeshi movement
• Revival of domestic cottage industries and handicrafts
• The production of indigenous textiles, soaps, matches and other daily-use items received a boost.
• The involvement of students, women, peasants, and artisans, along with the middle class, fostered
wider participation that bridged urban-rural divides.
• Nationalism became a political movement.
• In response to growing opposition and administrative difficulties, the partition was annulled by Lord
Hardinge in 1911.
16. Differences between Moderates and Extremists
Basis Moderates Extremists
• Aimed at administrative and • Aimed at achieving Swaraj
constitutional reforms. • Wanted to end tyranny rule of
• Wanted more Indians in British.
administration and not to an end of
Aim
British rule.
• They were secular in their attitudes,
though not always forthright enough
to rise above their Sectarian
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 PRELIMS – 2025 | Modern Indian History
interests.
● They believe in the efficacy of ● They were radical in their approach.
peaceful and constitutional ● Demands of extremists were
agitation. aggressive.
● They had great faith in the British ● They believed in atmashakti or self-
sense of justice and fair play. reliance as weapon against
● They were inspired by the ideas of domination.
western philosophers like Mill, ● Ideological inspiration was Indian
Burke, Spencer and Bentham. History, Cultural heritage, national
Ideology
education and Hindu traditional
symbols. Hence, they revived the
Ganapati and Shivaji festivals to
arouse the masses.
● Guided by four principles: Swarajya,
Swadeshi, Boycott of foreign goods
and National education to make the
Indian aware.
● They follow the principles of 3P: ● They believe in militant methods.
Petition, Prayer and Protest. ● Method of Non-Cooperation.
Method-ology
● They believed in cooperation and
reconciliation.
● A.O. Hume. W.C. Banerjee, ● LalaLajpat Rai, Lokmanya Bal
Surendra Nath Banerjee, Dadabhai Gangadhar Tilak. Bipin Chandra Pal,
Naoroji, Feroze Shah Mehta. Gopala Aurobindo Ghosh Rajnarayan Bose,
Leaders Krishna Gokhale. Pandit Madan and Ashwini Kumar Dutt
Mohan Malaviya. Badruddin Tyabji.
Justice Ranade and G. Subramanya
Aiyar
• Zamindars and Upper middle • Educated middle and lower middle
Social Support
classes in towns classes in towns
● Economic Critique of British ● Demand of Swaraj
Imperialism ● Spread of national education
● Constitutional Reforms and ● Support to revolutionary movements
Propaganda in Legislature ● Encouraged co-operative
● Campaign for General organization
Contri-bution Administrative Reforms ● Set up charitable association for
● Defence of Civil Rights rural sanitation, preventive police
duties, regulation of fairs and
pilgrim gatherings for providing
relief fund during famines and other
calamities.

17. Calcutta congress session (1906)- President Dadabhai Naoroji

• Four compromise resolutions on Swaraj, Swadeshi, Boycott and National education were passed.
• Naoroji declared swaraj as the goal of Indian National congress.
18. The Surat Split, 1907
• Held at bank of River Tapti; extremists led by Lal-Bal-Pal and moderates led by Gopal Krishna
Gokhale.
• Extremists preferred Nagpur for Indian National Congress Session of 1907, but it was changed from
Nagpur to Surat, the preferred place for the moderates.
• Congress leaders split into two groups: moderates and extremists.

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• Extremists set two main goals- Demanded that Lala Lajpat Rai be appointed President of INC and
second demand was for Swaraj's resolution. Both demands were rejected by the Moderates.
• Extremists attempted to push Lala Lajpat Rai's candidacy for Congress President, while moderates
supported Dr. Rash Behari Ghosh.
• LalaLajpat Rai saved situation by stepping down, and Rash Behari Ghosh took over as President.
19. Impact of Surat split on Extremists
● Seditious Meetings Act 1907.
● Indian Newspapers (Incitement to Offences) Act 1908.
● Criminal Law Amendment Act 1908.
● Indian Press Act 1910.
20. Aftermath of Surat Split
● The British Divide and Rule policy resulted in the Surat Split.
● Minto-Morley reforms-> Increased number of elected members in councils, but no real power as they
were merely advisory bodies; introduced separate electorates to please the Muslims.
● Due to the efforts of the leaders of the Home Rule movement, both groups later reunited at the
Lucknow session of Congress in 1916.
● The exit of Extremist left Congress paralysed for more than a decade as Moderates could achieve
very little.
21. Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Sedition charges (1909)
● In 1909, he was tried for second time for sedition for what he had written in 1908 in his Kesari about
a bomb thrown by Bengal revolutionaries in Muzzaffarpur, resulting in the death of two innocent
European women.
● He was represented by MA Jinnah, but his application for bail was rejected. He was sent to Mandalay
(Burma) jail for six years.
22. Morley-Minto reforms (1909)
● Elective principle was recognized for the non-official membership of the councils in India.
● The Legislative Councils at the Centre and the Provinces Increased in size.
● It introduced non-official majority at the Provincial legislature level.
● It provided for the first time for Indians to be associated with the executive council. Satyendra Sinha
became the law member in Viceroy’s executive council.
● Legislatures could now pass resolutions (which may or may not be accepted), ask questions and
supplementaries, vote separate items in budget though budget as whole could not be voted upon.
● System of separate electorate for Muslims; Income qualification for Muslim voters was kept lower
than that of Hindus.
● Separate representations were provided for presidency corporations, chambers of commerce,
universities and Zamindars.

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FIRST PHASE OF REVOLUTIONARY ACTIVITIES

CHAPTER – 13 (1907-1917)

1. Introduction: The activities of revolutionary heroism started as a by-product of the growth of militant
nationalism. The revolutionaries involved in individual heroic actions such as organizing assassinations of
unpopular officials and informers among the revolutionaries themselves.
2. Reasons for rise of revolutionary terrorist movement: Failure of moderate methods, failure of
extremists to give a positive lead to youth, violent repression of Swadeshi.
3. Methods: Formed secret societies, recruited young persons and trained them in values of action and
sacrifice for freedom of the country. Assassinations of unpopular officials, heroic individual acts, secret
societies and political robberies (Swadeshi dacoities).
4. Revolutionary Activities in Bengal
● The first revolutionary organizations were formed in 1902 in Midnapore (under Jnanendra Nath Basu)
and Calcutta (under Promotha Mitter and including Jatindranath Banerjee, Barindra Kumar Ghosh,
and others).
● In April 1906, Anushilan's inner circle launched the weekly Yugantar.
● Sandhya and Yugantar in Bengal, and Kal in Maharashtra, were among the newspapers and journals
advocating revolutionary activity.
● Prafulla Chaki and Khudiram Bose threw a bomb at a carriage carrying a particularly sadistic white
judge, Kingsford, in Muzaffarpur in 1908.
● The whole Anushilan group was arrested and tried in Alipore conspiracy case (Manicktolla bomb
conspiracy or Murarupukur conspiracy).
● Barrah dacoity was conspired in 1908 by Dacca Anushilan under the leadership of Pulin Das to raise
funds for revolutionary activities.
● In December 1912, Rashbehari Bose and Sachin Sanyal staged a spectacular bomb attack on Viceroy
Hardinge.
● Barisal conspiracy case (1913) → trial of 44 Bengalis accused of inciting rebellion against Raj. Five
of accused including Pulin, were transported to cellular jail in Andamans to serve long term
imprisonment.
● Pulin refusing to accept the leadership of Mohandas Gandhi, founded the Bharat Sevak Sangha in
1920
● Pamphlet Mukti Kon Pathe (Which way lies salvation) urged the Indian soldiers to supply arms to the
revolutionaries.
● Muzaffarpur Conspiracy: On 30 April 1908, Prafulla Chaki and Khudiram Bose threw a bomb at a
carriage, which they believed was occupied by the unpopular British Magistrate Douglas Kingsford,
district judge of Muzaffarpur and ended up killing two English women travelling in it
● Hemchandra Kanungo (or Hem Das), a senior member of Jugantar, was sent to Paris for military
training under a Russian Revolutionary in exile there.
● Howrah Gang Case (1910): Leader: Jatindranath Mukherjee; Bengali nationalists of the Anushilan
Samiti were captured for homicide of Inspector Shamsul Alam who was investigating the progressive
exercises of the Samiti.
● 1910 Samsul Aslam case: a Deputy Superintendent of Police Samsul Aslam, who was conducting
the Alipore Case, was shot dead while leaving the Calcutta High Court.
5. Anushilan Samiti (1902)
• Founded by Satish Chandra Basu after encouragement from Sister Nivedita and Swami Shradananda;
named it after Bankim Chandra’s play Anushilan-Tattva, or theory of discipline.
• Pramathanath Mitra was its main patron; backed by extremist leaders such as Bipin Chandra Pal and
Brahmabandhab Upadhya.
• In April 1906, Anushilan's inner circle (Barindra Kumar Ghosh, Bhupendranath Dutta) launched the
weekly Yugantar.
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6. Jugantar Party
● It was the leading revolutionary terrorist group in colonial Bengal formedby the inner circle of
Anushilan Samiti. Barindra Kumar Ghosh and Bagha Jatin were its main leaders.
● It was established in 1906 and was headquartered at Baubazar street in Calcutta.
● Barindra vowed to free India from the British colonial domination with religious inspiration tempered
by acts of violence, justifying murders by Ksatriyas.
● The first Taxicab dacoity took place on February 12, 1915 in Garden Reach, Kolkata under the
leadership of Narendra Bhattacharya.
● Hemchandra Qanungo set up a combined religious school and bomb factory at a garden house in
Maniktala suburb of Calcutta.
● It arranged for the import of German arms and ammunition through sympathizers and revolutionaries
in other countries.
● As per 'German Plot' or the 'Zimmerman Plan,' Jatin asked Rashbehari Bose to take command of
Upper India in order to foment an all-India insurgency.
● Other important leaders associated are Bhupendranath Datta, Rash Behari Bose, Surendra Mohan
Bose, Guran Ditt Kumar and TarakNath Das.
● The main features of programme were murder of Europeans in hotels, clubs, and cinemas; burning of
the Dum-Dum(Calcutta) aerodrome; cutting off of the gas and electricity supply of Calcutta;
destruction of the telegraphic communication and destruction of bridges and Railway lines by
dynamites and hand grenades.
7. Revolutionary Activities in Maharashtra
● Ramosi Peasant Force by Vasudev Balwant Phadke in 1879 ->aimed to rid country of the British by
instigating an armed revolt by disrupting the communication lines.
● Bal GangadharTilak → Ganpati and Shivaji festivals and journals Kesari and Mahratta, during the
1890s.
● In 1897 Chapekar brothers, Damodar and Balkrishna, murdered the Poona Plague Commissioner,
Rand.
● Vinayak Damodar Savarkar and Ganesh Damodar Savarkar founded Abhinav Bharat Society (Young
India Society) in 1904. It was founded as "Mitra Mela" in Nasik while Vinayak Savarkar was still a
student at Fergusson College in Pune.
● VD Savarkar wrote Mazzini Charitra (a translation of Italian revolutionary Mazzini’s writings)
● Savarkar soon founded the 'Free Indian Society' to help fellow Indian students to work for India's
freedom through a revolution (by any means), a guerrilla war along the lines of Revolt of 1857.
● 'Grave Warning' was a pamphlet that was widely distributed in London.
● Savarkar also wrote Transportation for life, Kale Pani and Gandhi Gondhal (Gandhi's confusion), a
political critique of Gandhi's policies.
● Madanlal Dhingra assassinated Lt. Col. William Curzon-Wyllie, the political aide-de-camp to the
Secretary of State for India, on the evening of 1 July 1909, at a meeting of Indian students at the
Imperial Institute in London.
● Anant Laxman Kanhare assassinated AMT Jackson, the district magistrate of Nasik, in India in the
historic "Nasik Conspiracy Case" in 1909.
● A political pamphlet Bhavani Mandir was published by Aurobindo Ghosh.
● Barindra Kumar Ghose published Vartaman Rananiti.
● In 1906, Savarkar wrote Mazzini Charitra which was a translation of Mazzini’s writings.
● Savarkar founded ‘Free India Society’ to help fellow Indian students to work for India’s freedom
through a revolution, a guerrilla war along lines of revolt of 1857.
8. Revolutionary Activities in Punjab
● Extremism in Punjab was fueled by issues such as frequent famines combined with an increase in
land revenue and irrigation tax, zamindars' practice of 'begar,'.

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● Lala Lajpat Rai, who brought out Punjabi, and Ajit Singh (Bhagat Singh's uncle), who organized
extremist Anjuman-i-Mohisban-i-Watan in Lahore with its journal, Bharat Mata, were among those
active here.
● Extremism in Punjab died down after the governments struck in May 1907 with a ban on political
meetings and the deportation of Lala Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh.
● After this, Ajit Singh (Pagdi Sambhal Movement 1907) and a few others associates- Sufi Amba
Prasad, Lalchand, Bhai Parmanand, Lala Hardayal developed into full-scale revolutionaries.
9. Revolutionary Activities in Delhi:
• Delhi Conspiracy Case (1912): Rash Behari Bose and Sachin Sanyal organised a daring attempt
and a bomb was thrown on Viceroy Lord Hardinge in Chandni Chowk, Delhi, killing his attendants.
Dina Nath became government approver under pressure. Four persons were hanged, these were
Master Amir Chand, Awadh Bihari, Bal Mukund and Basant Kumar Biswas. Rash Behari Bose
fled to Japan.
10. Revolutionary Activities in Madras :
• Vanchinathan Iyer (or Vanchi) was a Tamil revolutionary who assassinated British officer Ashe
(district collector of Tirunelveli) responsible for firing at a crowd that was protesting the arrest of the
Extremist leader VO Chidambaram Pillai.
• Vanchi was a close associate of VVS Aiyar who led the Pondicherry Branch of VD Savarkar's
Abhinav Bharat Society.
• Both Vanchi and VVS were members of Bharatha Matha Association .
11. Revolutionary activities abroad
● Shyamji Krishna Varma founded the Indian Home Rule Society - 'India House' - in London in 1905
as a center for Indian students, a scholarship scheme to bring radical youth from India, and a journal
called 'The Indian Sociologist.' Revolutionaries such as VD Savarkar, Har Dayal and Madanlal
Dhingra also became members of India house.
● In 1909, Madanlal Dhingra assassinated India Office bureaucrat Curzon-Wyllie.
● Berlin committee for Indian Independence established by Virendranath Chattopadhyay etc.
● New centers emerged on the continent - Paris, and Geneva from where Madam Bhikaji Cama, a Parsi
revolutionary who had developed contacts with French socialists and who brought out Bande
Mataram, and Ajit Singh operated.
● After 1909 when Anglo-German relations deteriorated, Virendra Chattopadhyaya chose Berlin as his
base.
12. Ghadar Party (1913)
● The Ghadar Revolutionaries were mainly Punjabi immigrants settled in the West Coast of North
America since 1904, particularly USA and Canada.
● Originally known as Pacific Coast Hindustan Association , it was founded on July 15, 1913 in United
States(San Francisco) by Lala Har Dayal, Pandurang Khankhoje, Harnam Singh Tundilat, Sant Baba
Wasakha Singh Dadehar, Baba Jawala Singh, Santokh Singh, and Sohan Singh Bhakna.
● In 1907, Circular-e-Azad (circular of liberty) was published by Ramnath Puri.
● Free Hindustan (1908) was started by Tarak Nath Das.
● Swadesh Sevak Home in Vancouver was set up by GD Kumar on lines of India House in London.
● Taraknath and GD Kumar together founded United India House in Seattle (USA).
● The party was organized around the weekly newspaper The Ghadar.
● The Komagata Maru Incident (1914) involved the Japanese steamship Komagata Maru, on which a
group of British Raj citizens attempted to emigrate to Canada in 1914 but were denied entry. To fight
for the rights of the passengers, a 'Shore Committee' was formed in Vancouver led by Hussain Rahim,
Sohan Lal Pathak and Balwant Singh.
● It pledged to wage revolutionary war against British in India.
● Ideology of party was strongly secular.
● Ghadr programme: Assasinate officials; publish revolutionary literature; work among Indian troops
abroad and raise funds and bring about a simultaneous revolt in all colonies of Britain.

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● Ghadar paper first issue in Urdu and its Gurumukhi version came a month later. The caption on its
masthead read ‘Angrezi Raj Ka Dushman’ (enemy of British rule).
● First Lahore conspiracy case (1915) →After failed Ghadar conspiracy, trials were held at Lahore by a
special tribunal set up under Defence of India Act 1915.
● Many of them after their release founded the Kirti and communist movements in Punjab.
● Kirti Kisan Sabha: Established on 12 April 1928 with a view to organising small agriculturists and
industrial workers and other low-paid urban labour, for revolutionary activity. Kirti movement was
started by Bhai Santokh Singh, a Ghadar leader.
13. Berlin committee for Indian Independence
● Established in 1915 by Virendranath Chattopadhyay, Bhependranath Dutta, LalaHardayal and others
with the help of German office under ‘Zimmerman Plan’.
● They aimed to mobilize Indian settlers abroad to send volunteers and arms to India to INCite
rebellion among Indian troops there and to organize armed invasion of British India.
14. Paris India Society
● In 1905, Bhikaji Cama together with Singh Rewabhai Rana and Muncher Shah Godrej, she co-
founded the Paris Indian Society (1905).
● Revolutionary literature: Bande Mataram and Madan’s Talwar.
15. Singapore Mutiny
● The 1915 Singapore Mutiny, also known as 1915 Sepoy Mutiny or the Mutiny of the 5th Light
Infantry, was a mutiny against the British in Singapore by up to half of a regiment of 850 Indian
Muslims sepoys during World War I.
● Among the scattered mutinies during this period, the most notable was in Singapore on February 15,
1915, by Punjabi Muslim 5th Light Infantry and the 36th Sikh battalion under Jamadar Chisti Khan,
Jamadar Abdul Gani, and Subedar Daud Khan.
16. Decline of Revolutionary Activities: After 1918, the revolutionary Activities came to a temporary halt
due to several reasons:
● Stern Government repression along with a series of draconian laws.
● Lack of popular response.
● World War-I ended and the government released all political prisoners arrested under the Defense of
India Act.
● The discussion began on the new Constitutional Reforms (Government of India Act 1919) which
generated an atmosphere of compromise.
● Gandhi arrived on the national scene and emphasized non-violent means which also halted the place
of revolutionary activities.

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FIRST WORLD WAR AND NATIONALIST

CHAPTER – 14 RESPONSE

1. Introduction: In the First World War (1914-19), Britain allied with France, Russia, USA, Italy and Japan
against Germany, Austria-Hungary and Turkey. This period saw the maturing of Indian nationalism.
2. Nationalist Response to British participation in First World War
● Moderates supported as a matter of duty.
● Extremists, INCluding Tilak supported the war efforts.
● Revolutionaries utilized opportunity to wage a war on British rule.
3. Home Rule League Movement: A trend of aggressive politics in national movement was pioneered by Tilak
and Annie Besant on lines of a similar movement in Ireland.
● Factors: Outbreak of first world war (Britain’s difficulty is India’s opportunity), disillusionment with
reforms of 1909, repression of Ghadar movement, Tilak’s release from Mandalay and efforts for re-entry
into congress, Annie Besant’s entry into Indian politics, burden of war time miseries.
● Aim: National alliance which works throughout the year (unlike the Congress which had annual sessions)
with main objective of demanding home rule for all of India within the British commonwealth.
● Prominent Leaders: Balgangadhar Tilak, Annie Besant, G.S. Khaparde, Sir S. SubramaniaIyer, Joseph
Baptista and Mohammad Ali Jinnah.
● Tilak’s League
o Started in April 1916 at Belgaum during Bombay Provincial conference.
o GS Kharpade and Joseph Kaka are one of the founding members of Tilak’s league and operated in
Maharashtra (Poona was the headquarters, excluding Bombay city), Karnataka, Central Provinces and Berar.
o Demands included swarajya, formation of linguistic states and education in the vernacular.
o There was no trace of any religious appeal.
o Tilak was defended by a group of lawyers led by Mohammad Ali Jinnah.
● Annie Besant League
Annie Besant (1847-1933)
• In 1890 she met Helena Blavatsky and subsequently joined the Theosophical Society. She had come to India
from England in 1893 as part of her theosophy related work.
• In 1898, she played a key role in the establishment of Central Hindu College, Banaras which later became the
nucleus of Banaras Hindu University (1916).
• In 1907, she became the President of the Theosophical Society, whose international headquarters were in
Adyar, near Madras. She increasingly became involved in Indian politics and joined INC.
• In 1914, during the First World War, she build up Home Rule Movement on the lines of Irish Home Rule
League, leading to her election as President of the Congress in 1917.
• Annie Besant founded the All-India Home Rule League in Madras in September 1916 and expanded to cover the rest
of India (including Bombay city). This was India's first faction to demand complete independence.
• It had 200 branches, was less organized than Tilak's league, and had George Arundale as its organizing
secretary.
• Annie Besant was first woman President of Indian National Congress in 1917 at Calcutta.
• By 1918, she had founded Madras Parliament, Madanapalle College (now in Andhra Pradesh), Adyar Arts
League, Bombay Home Rule League, Women's Indian Association at Adyar and the Women's Indian
Association at Adyar.
• Literary Works: India: A Nation; A Plea for Self Government book, The Ancient Wisdom, My path to
atheism, The Future Of Indian Politics, A World Without God, Gandhian Non - Co-operation; Or, Shall India
Commit Suicide?, Wake Up, India: A Plea For Social Reform, A Study in Karma, Annie Besant founded two
newspapers, "The Commonweal" and "New India.
o Congress failed to keep its promise of reviving local level congress committees → All India Home
Rule league formed in 1916 in Madras and covered rest of India (including Bombay city)
o George Arundale as organizing secretary, S. Subramaniya Aiyar (Grand old man of South India) as
honorary president.

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o Jamnadas Dwarkadas, Shankerlal Banker and IndulalYagnik started Bombay paper Young India and
set up an All India Propaganda Fund to publish pamphlets.
o From Adyar, Annie Besant along with Arundale, CP Ramaswamy, BP Wadia brought out newspapers
‘New India’ and ‘Commonweal’.
o New members joined: Jawaharlal Nehru in Allahabad, B Chakravarti and J Banerjee in Calcutta.
● Later, the leagues were joined by Moderate Congressmen Motilal Nehru, Jawaharlal Nehru, Bhulabhai
Desai, Chittaranjan Das, K.M. Munshi, B. Chakravarti, Saifuddin Kitchlew, Madan Mohan Malaviya,
Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Tej Bahadur Sapru and LalaLajpat Rai. Mohammad Ali Jinnah led the Bombay
division.
● Government Attitude: Tilak was barred from entering Punjab and Delhi. In June 1917, Annie Besant and
her associates, B.P. Wadia and George Arundale, were arrested. Sir S. Subramaniya Aiyar renounced his
knighthood in protest. As directed by Gandhiji, Shankarlal Banker and Jamnadas Dwarkdas carried
signature campaign of 1000 men willing to defy the internment orders.
● Methods Used: Organising discussions, reading rooms, propaganda through public meetings, newspapers,
pamphlets, posters, etc.
● Why the Agitation Faded Out by 1919
o Lack of effective organisation.
o Communal riots were witnessed during 1917-18.
o Moderates were pacified by talk of reforms (contained in Montagu’s statement of August 1917 which
held self-government as long-term goal of the British rule in India) and Besant’s release.
o Talk of passive resistance by the Extremists kept the Moderates away from activity from September
1918 onwards.
o Tilak had to go abroad (September 1918) in connection with a libel case against Valentine Chirol
whose book, Indian Unrest, had featured Tilak as responsible for the agitational politics that had
developed in India.
● In 1920, Gandhi accepted the presidentship of the All India Home Rule League, and changed the
organisation’s name to Swarajya Sabha. Within a year, however, the league joined the Indian National
Congress.
● Calcutta session of Muslim league (1912): It committed the league to “working with other groups for a
system of self-government suited for India.
● Maulana Azad’s Al hilal and Mohammad Ali’s Comrade faced repression
● Lucknow Session of INC (1916)
o Extremists were readmitted to Congress (Reunion of Moderates and Extremists)-> Congress president
AC Mazumdar welcomed extremists.
o Muslim League and Congress put up joint demands under Lucknow Pact.
▪ Congress accepted League’s position on separate electorates and Nineteen Memorandum.
▪ Muslims were granted fixed proportion of seats in legislatures at All-India and Provincial levels.
▪ A system of weightage to minority political representation should be adopted.
▪ No bill concerning a community should be passed if the bill is opposed by three-fourth of the
members of that community in Legislative Council.
▪ Term of Legislative Council should be five years.
▪ Half of members of viceroy’s and Provincial governor’s executive councils should be Indians.
▪ Executive should be separated from judiciary.
o Tilak’s demand for Congress working committee turned down.
● Montagu’s Statement (1917)
o The Secretary of State for India, Edwin Samuel Montagu, made a statement on August 20, 1917 in
the British House of Commons in what has come to be known as the August Declaration of 1917.
o Attainment of self-government for Indians became a government policy hence the demand by
nationalists for self-government or home rule could not be termed as seditious.
o Objections of Indian Leaders: No specific time frame was given; government alone was to decide
the nature and the timing of advance towards a responsible government.

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CHAPTER – 15 MAHATMA GANDHI: EMERGENCE AND IDEOLOGY

1. Introduction: Mahatma Gandhi emerged on Indian political scene during the period of 1917-18 and
significantly transformed the ideology and range of the national movement. PurnaSwaraj or complete
Independence emerged as the goal of the national movement during this phase.
2. Why Nationalist Upsurge at End of First World War
● Post-War economic hardship.
● Expectations of Political gains for cooperation in the war
● Nationalist disillusionment with imperialism worldwide.
● Impact of Russian Revolution.
3. Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms
● Dyarchy in Provinces- rule of two-> executive councilors and popular ministers.
● Reserved subjects to be administered by governor through executive council and transferred subjects
to be administered by ministers from Legislative Council.
● Ministers were responsible to legislature and had to resign if no-confidence motion was passed
against them by legislature.
● Extensive powers to governor, governor-general and secretary of state for interference.
● Franchise expanded; women also given the right to vote.
● Legislative Councils could initiate legislation but the governor’s assent was required.
● Legislative Councils could reject budget but governor could restore it, if necessary.
● Governor-general to administer with an executive council of 8—three to be Indians.
● Bicameral central legislature- Central Legislative Assembly (tenure is 3 years) as the lower house and
Council of States (tenure is 5 years) as the upper house.
● Termed unworthy and disappointing- a sunless dawn by Tilak and Annie Besant found them
‘unworthy of England to offer and India to accept’.
4. Early Career of Gandhi
● Born in Porbandar, Gujarat's prINCely state of Kathiawar.
● After studying law in England, Gandhi traveled to South Africa in 1893 in connection with a case
involving, Dada Abdullah.
● In South Africa, he witnessed the ugly face of white racism and organized Indian workers to fight for
their rights->developed the idea of Satyagraha and used it against Asiatic Registration Law.
● He remained there until 1914 when he returned to India.
5. Gandhi’s Activism in South Africa (1893-1914)
● 1893 : Departure of Gandhi to South Africa, Experiences racial discrimination in various forms; a
famous incidence-Gandhi was thrown off the first class compartment of the train at Pietermaritaburg
station (07 June)
● 1894 : Foundation of Natal Indian Congress
● 1899 : Foundation of Indian Ambulance Core during Boer Wars.
● 1904 : Foundation of Indian Opinion (magazine) and Phoenix Farm at Phoenix near Durban.
● 1906 : First Civil Disobedience Movement (Satyagraha) against Asiatic Ordinance in Transvaal.
● 1907 : Satyagraha against Compulsory Registration and Passes for Asians (The Black Act) in
Transvaal.
● 1908 : Trial and imprisonment-Johannesburg Jail (First Jail Term).
● 1910 : Foundation of Tolstoy Farm (Later Gandhi Ashrama) near Johannesburg.
● 1913 : Satyagraha against derecognition of non Christian marriages in Cape Town.
● 1914 : Quits South Africa forever and returns to India, Awarded Kaisar-i-Hind for raising an Indian
Ambulance Core during Boer wars.
● Inspired by John Ruskin’s unto the Last-> Translated into Gujarati under the title ‘Sarvodaya’.
6. Technique of Satyagraha: Always remain truthful and non-violent, withdrawal of cooperation and
boycott, non-payment of taxes and declining honours and positions of authority.
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7. Gandhi Arrives in India (9th January 1915)
● Gopala Krishna Gokhale was the political guru of Gandhi. He took promise from Gandhi that he
should travel the country for gaining experience and should not express any opinion on public
question for the first year.
● Champaran Satyagraha (1917)- First Civil Disobedience
o Gandhi was requested by Rajkumar Shukla to look into the problems of farmers in context of
indigo planters of Champaran in Bihar.
o European planters forced peasants to grow indigo on 3/20(tinkathia system).
o Towards end of 19th century, German synthetic dyes replaced indigo, the European planters
demanded high rents and illegal dues from peasants.
o Gandhi, joined now by Rajendra Prasad, Mazhar-ul-Haq, Mahadeo Desai, Narahari Parekh and
JB Kriplani.
o Gandhi able to convince authorities that tinkathia system should be abolished and peasants should
be compensated for illegal dues.
o Liet. Governor Edward Gait compelled to appoint Champaran Agrarian committee with Frank
Sly as chairman and Gandhi as one of its members.
o As compromise with planters, he agreed that only 25% of money taken should be compensated.
o Other leaders are Brajkishore Prasad, Anugrah Narayan Sinha, Ramnavami Prasad and
Shambhushan Varma.
o British reaction: Committee of Inquiry appointed in 1917 to investigate and report on
Champaran's agrarian conditions. Gandhiji was chosen as one of its members. The Committee
recommendations are:
▪ The Tinkathia system should be abolished.
▪ The ryots who paid Tawan to the factories would receive one-fourth of it back.
▪ The realisation of abwab (illegal cesses) should be stopped.
▪ If someone enters into an agreement to grow indigo, it should be voluntary; and the term
should not be longer than three years.
▪ The decision to select the field where indigo will be grown should be made by the ryots.
▪ Almost all of the Inquiry Committee's recommendations were accepted by the Government,
and the Champaran Agrarian Act in 1918 was passed.
● Ahmedabad Mill strike (1918)- First hunger strike
o Dispute between cotton mill owners of Ahmedabad and workers over discontinuation of plague
bonus (also wartimeinflation).
o Striking workers dismissed—they turned to Anusuya Sarabhai for help, who went to Gandhi.
o Agreed at 35% hike (instead of 20% of owners, 50% of workers)
● Kheda Satyagraha, 1918- First Non-cooperation
o Crops failed in Kheda (Gujarat).
o According to revenue Code, if yield < 25% normal produce - farmers entitled to remission.
o Gujarat Sabha asked no revenue for 1919, but government declined. Gandhi asked farmers not to
pay taxes.
o Sardar Patel, Narahari Parikh, Mohanlal Pandya and Ravi Shankar Vyas went around the villages
and organized the villagers.
o Government agreed to suspend the tax for agreement with the farmers. It agreed to suspend tax
for year in question and for the next, reduce the increase in rate and return all the confiscated
property.
● Rowlatt Satyagraha (1918)- First Mass Strike
o It was in response to the British government enacting the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes
Act of 1919, popularly known as the Rowlatt Act.
o The act was passed on the recommendations of Sedition Committee chaired by Sir Sidney
Rowlatt.
o Act curbed fundamental rights such as freedom of expression and strengthened police powers.

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o It gave the government enormous powers to repress political activities and allowed detention of
political prisoners without trial for two years.
o Gandhi called the act as “Black Act”; organized Satyagraha Sabha.
o Observance of nationwide hartal, fasting, prayer and civil disobedience against specific laws and
courting arrest and imprisonment.
o During the Rowlatt Satyagraha the participants tried to ensure that Hindus and Muslims were
united in the fight against British rule.
o Younger elements of Besant’s home rule league supported Gandhi- Jamnadas Dwarkdas,
Shankarlal Banker, Umar Sobhani, BG Horniman. Mahadev Desai, Rajagopalachari, C. Vira
Raghavachari and S. Kasturi Ranga Iyengar also supported Gandhi.
● Jallainwalla Bagh Massacre and Inquiry Committee
o On April 9, 1919 Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr. Satyapal, were arrested by the British officials
without any provocation except that they had addressed protest meetings, and taken to some
unknown destination.
o Tagore gave up knighthood; Gandhi gave up title Kaiser-i-Hind (forwork during Boer War)
o Udham Singh (Ram Mohammad. Singh Azad) assassinated General O’Dwyer
o Hunter Committee of Inquiry- 3 Indian members: Sir Chimalal Harilal Setalvad (VC-Bombay
University); Pt. Jagat Narayan (MLC in UP), Saradar Sahibzada Sultan Ahmad Khan (lawyer);
o The committee did not impose any penal or disciplinary action because Dyer’s actions were
condoned by various superiors.
o Before the committee, government had passed Indemnity Act to protect its officers (called the
“white washing” bill). Even Churchill condemned Dyer’s act.
o Strangely, Golden Temple led by Arur Singh honored Dyerand called hima Sikh.
o Congress non-official committee—Motilal, Gandhi, CR Das, Abbas Tyabji, MR Jayakar;
criticized Dyer’s act as inhuman and said there was no justification in introduction of martial law
in Punjab.
o Gandhi- Himalayan blunder or Himalayan miscalculation.
8. Amritsar Congress (1919, presided by Motilal Nehru)
● Gandhi real entry into congress politics
● Gandhi undertook responsibility of framing a new constitution for the congress.
9. Gandhi and his Ideology
● Satya (truth), ahinsa (non-violence), asteya (non-stealing), aparigraha (non-possession) and
brahmacharya (self-control).
● Satyagraha: Persistence of truth; evolved by Gandhi in South Africa; aimed to insist on truth and
make enemy see one’s own point of view by self-suffering and not by violence.
● Ahinsa: Non-violence forms the basis of satyagraha. Non-violence is complete innocence which is
complete absence of ill will against all that lives.
● Swaraj: Refers to popular sovereignty where people govern themselves.
● Swadeshi: Aimed at replacing machine made foreign cloth with handmade cloth as a solution to
poverty of peasants who could spin at home to supplement their INCome.
● Sarvodaya: Sarvodaya is a term meaning 'Universal Uplift' or 'Progress of All'. The term was first coined by
Gandhi ji as the title of his translation of John Ruskin's tract on political economy, "Unto This Last".
● Stateless and Classless Society of self-sufficient villages based on non-violence instead of force, on
service instead of exploitation and renunciation instead of acquisitiveness.
● Varna system: Favorable view; it implied equality of all professions as well as equal earning of all
professions.
● On Education: Supported state funding of education; Wardha scheme of education proposed in 1937
in Harijan→ learning by activity, seven year course to be taught in mother tongue; further worked out
by Zakir Hussain Committee.
● On Women: rejected notion of women as ‘weaker sex’.
● Untouchability: Denounced it as ‘crime against humanity’.

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NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT AND

CHAPTER – 16 KHILAFAT AANDOLAN

1. Introduction: The British during 1919-22 were opposed through two mass movements- Khilafat and
Non-cooperation. Though the two movements emerged from separate issues, they adopted a common
programme of action i.e, non-violent non-cooperation.
2. Background: Disillusionment with Miseries, Rowlatt act and Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, radical
nationalist Muslims like Mohammad Ali, Abdul Kalam Azad, Hakim Ajmal Khan and Hasan Imam
become more influential than conservative Aligarh school elements.
3. Khilafat Issue
● Indian Muslims were angered by the treatment meted out to Turkey by British after First World War.
● Demands: Restoration of Khalifa’s position, Khalifa’s control over the Muslim sacred places should
be retained, in territorial adjustments after the war, Khalifa should be left with sufficient territories.
● Khilafat Committee: In early 1919, the All India Khilafat Committee was formed under the
leadership of the Ali brothers, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Ajmal Khan, Dr. Mukthar Ahmed Ansari
and Hasrat Mohani, to force the British Government to change its attitude to Turkey.
● Gandhi was the President of All India Khilafat committee.
● Tilak didnot support alliance with Muslim league over religious issue and was skeptical of
satyagraha.
4. Non-Cooperation Khilafat Movement
● June 1920- Central Khilafat Committee met at Allahabad and was attended by both congress and
Khilafat leaders. Gandhi declared program of NCM which include- Boycott of all government jobs,
boycott of titles conferred by British and Non-payment of taxes.
● Maulana Mohammad Ali Jauhar journals- the Comrade (English weekly launched from Calcutta
in 1911) and Hamdard (Urdu daily in 1912).
● Hasrat Mohani- Coined the term ‘Inquilab Zindabad’ and first person to demand complete
independence in 1921 at Ahmedabad Congress session.
● 1920 Nagpur session (President C Vijayaraghavachari): NCP endorsed;From self-government by
constitutional methods to swaraj through peaceful and legitimate means; 15-member CWC formed;
linguistic organization of Provincial congress committees; ward committees formed; entry fee
reduced to four annas; Gandhi declared that if non-cooperation programme was implemented
completely, swaraj would be ushered in within a year; opening of congress membership to all men
and women of age 21 years and above; resolutions on Hindu-Muslim unity, removal of
untouchability.
● Surendranath Banerjea founded the Indian National Liberal Federation.
● Educational institutions organized under the leadership of Acharya Narendra Dev, CRD as, Lala,
Zakir Hussain, Subhas Bose (became Pres, National College, Calcutta)—INCluded Jamia Millia
(Aligarh), Kashi Vidyapeeth, GJ Vidyapeeth, BR Vidyapeeth.
● Lawyers gaveup practice: Motilal, Nehru, C. Rajagopalachari, Kitchlew, Patel, Asaf Ali, Rajendra
Prasad Tilak Swaraj Find was oversubscribed and Rs 1cr collected.
● In Assam, strikes in tea plantations, stemmer services and Assam-Bengal railways had been
organized. JM Sengupta was a prominent leader in these strikes.
● In November, 2021, the visit of Prince of Wales to India invited strikes.
● Congress volunteer group emerged as alternate police.
● Peasants participation was massive, women gave up Purdah, massive participation of Mulsims and
maintenance of communal unity despite events like Mappilla Uprisings.
● The spirit of defiance led to local struggles as well: Awadh Kisan Movt (UP) under Baba Ram
Chandra, Eka Movement(UP), Mapilla Revolt (Malabar), Sikh agitations for removal of mahants,
Bhil movement in Rajasthan led by Motilal Tejawat, Alluri Sitarama Raju in Andhra played a
prominent role in organizing the tribals.
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● Talks between Gandhi and Reading (viceroy) broke down when Gandhi refused to urge Ali brothers
to remove parts from their speeches that suggested violence.
5. Chauri Chaura INCident (1922)
● At Chauri-Chaura, in Gorakhpur district of Uttar Pradesh, police tried to stop a procession of
Congress and Khilafat activists. Irritated by this behaviour, some activists attacked them and the
police opened fire at them.
● Shocked by this incident Gandhiji withdrew the Non-Cooperation Movement.
● The civil disobedience at Bardoli was also postponed.
● Gandhi stated that without adequate discipline and restraint on the part of the people, the movement
had proved to be a ‘Himalayan Blunder’.
th
6. 10 March 1922: Gandhi arrested; trial held before Mr. Broomfield; sentenced to 6 years imprisonment
and was lodged in Yerawada jail, Poona.
7. November 1922: Mustafa Kamal Pasha declared Turkey as a secular state and later abolished the
Caliphate itself (1924), thus ended the issue of Khilafat world over.

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CHAPTER – 17 SWARAJISTS AND CONSTRUCTIVE WORK (1922-29)

1. Introduction: The period between 1922 and 1929 saw the emergence of the Swarajists as a new trend in
Indian politics. The Swaraj party was formed under leadership of Motilal Nehru and C.R Das with twin aims
of council entry and constructive work.
2. Chittaranjan Das: Popularly known as Deshbandu, joined Anushilan Samiti with Pramathanath Mitra. In
1909, he successfully defended Aurobindo Ghosh in Alipore conspiracy case (1909). He started the newspaper
‘Forward’ and later changed its name to ‘Liberty’.
3. Motilal Nehru: Started the daily ‘Independent’, participated actively in NCM, criticized Gandhi’s decision to
withdraw the movement after Chauri-Chaura and helped found swaraj party.
4. Swarajists (Advocated for council entry)
● Led by C R Das, Motilal Nehru, and Ajmal Khan.
● They wanted to 'end or mend' these councils; no intention of transforming colonial rule.
● CR Das announced formation of Congress-Khilafat Swarajya party (Swaraj party) in 1923 with himself as
President and Motilal as secretary.
● Two types of Swarajists: Responsivists: Lala, Malviya, NC Kelkar—cooperation with govt; Hindu
interests. Non-responsivists: Withdrew from legislatures; did not contest 1926 elections.
5. No Changers (Gandhi was the main proponent)
● C Rajagopalachari, Vallabhai Patel, Rajendra Prasad and MA Ansari.
● Opposed council entry, advocated concentration on constructive work and continuation of boycott and
non-cooperation.
6. Special session of Congress held at Delhi in September 1923, the Congress suspended all propaganda against
council-entry and permitted Congressmen to stand as candidates and exercise their franchise in forthcoming
elections
7. Gandhi’s Attitude
● Gandhi was initially opposed to Swarajists but after release from jail, he gradually reconciled with
Swarajists.
● Both sides came to an agreement in 1924 (endorsed at Belgaum session in Dec 1924 over which Gandhi
for the only time presided).
8. Swarajist Activity in Councils
● Policy of uniform, continuous and consistent obstruction to wreck the reforms from within is comparable
to method of sabotage.
● Split among Swarajists themselves on communcal and Responsivist- Non responsivist lines.
● Responsivists among Swarajists- Lala Lajpat Rai, MM Malviya and NC Kelkar advocated cooperation
with government and holding of office wherever possible; they also wanted to protect the Hindu-interests.
● In 1930, Swarajists finally walked out as a result of Lahore congress resolution on Purna Swaraj.
● Vithalbhai Patel was elected speaker of Central legislative assembly in 1925.
● C. Viraraghavachari moved a resolution demanding Provincial autonomy and dominion status for India.
● In 1928, the government was defeated on the Public Safety bill by which government proposed to deport
‘undesirable’ and ‘subversive’ foreigners.
9. Constructive works by No Changers
● Ashrams sprang up, where young men and women worked among tribals and lower castes (particularly in
Gujarat's Kheda and Bardoli areas), popularising the use of charkha and khadi.
● National schools and colleges were established to train students in a non-colonial ideological framework.
● Progress toward Hindu-Muslim unity, the abolition of untouchability, the boycott of foreign cloth and
liquor, and flood relief.
10. Muddiman Committee (1924)
● It investigated issue of Dyarchy which was introduced by the Government of India Act of 1919.
● It had 4 Indian members → Sir Sivaswami Aiyar, Dr. R P Paranjape, Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru and
Mohammad Ali Jinnah.

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EMERGENCE OF NEW FORCES: SOCIALISTIC

CHAPTER – 18 IDEAS AND TRADE UNIONS

1. Introduction: The ideas of Marx and Socialist thinkers inspired many groups to come into existence as
socialists and communists. These ideas resulted in rise of left wing within Congress, represented by
Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhash Chandra Bose.
2. Spread of Marxist and Socialist Ideas
● Younger nationalists were critical of both Swarajists and No-Changers
● Advocated a more consistent anti-imperialist stance in the form of a Purna Swarajya slogan
(Complete Independence)
● They were influenced by awareness, emphasized the importance of combining nationalism and anti-
imperialism with social justice.
● Early Communist Groups
o Virendranath Chattopadhyaya, Bhupendranath Dutt and Barkatullah: These revolutionaries
working outside India also converted to Marxism.
o Shripad Amrit Dange: Dange published a book named Gandhi vs. Lenin, in which he showed
his preference for Lenin. In 1922, he founded the Socialist, the first socialist weekly in India.
Through this journal, on 16th September 1924, Dange announced the formation of the Indian
Socialist Labour Party of the Indian National Congress.
o Singaravelu Chettier: Singaravelu Chettier, an old communist lawyer announced the formation
of the Labour Kisan Party of Hindustan
● The Communist Party of India (CPI) was founded in 1920 in Tashkent (now the capital of
Uzbekistan) by M.N. Roy, Abani Mukherji, and others following the second Comintern Congress.
M.N. Roy was also the first to be elected to the Comintern leadership.
● Peshawar Conspiracy Case (1922-23): Another significant event at Tashkent was that thousands of
Muslim Mujahirs (pilgrims), disappointed with British government's attitude towards the Sultan of
Turkey, joined Roy's military school. During their return to India, they were caught by the police and
tried at Peshawar.
● Many communists were imprisoned in the Kanpur Bolshevik Conspiracy Case in 1924, INCluding
S.A. Dange, Muzaffar Ahmed, Shaukat Usmani, and Nalini Gupta.
● The CPI was formally founded in 1925 at the Indian Communist Conference in Kanpur.
● Formation of Workers' and Peasants' Parties (WPP): The main political work of early
communists was to organise several parties of peasants and workers within the Congress to function
as front organisation of the CPI.
o Labour-Swaraj Party (Bengal, 1925-26): It was the first organization of the INC comprising
peasants and workers and was later renamed as Peasants' and Workers' Party of Bengal. It was
organised by Muzaffar Ahined with the help of Kazi Nazrul Islam (then a havildar in the 49
Bengal Regiment, later gained popularity as a Bengali poet). Ahmed also brought out a magazine,
Navayug.
o Congress Labour Party (Bombay, 1926): It propagated its program and ideology through the
use of press and published its main organ Kranti in Marathi.
o Kirti Kisan Party (Punjab, 1926): The party was headed by Sohan Singh Josh and included
many Chadar members of 1914. Its main journal was Kirti (worker) earlier founded by Bhai
Santokh Singh. Mihnatkash (worker) in Urdu was another important journal.
o WPP (Meerut, October 1928): Formation of this party was attended by British communist
Philip Spratt.
3. Activism of Indian Youth
• Students' leagues were being formed all over the place.
• Student conferences were being held.
• Jawaharlal Nehru presided over the All Bengal Students' Conference in 1928.
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4. Peasants Agitation
• Peasant agitations in the United Provinces sought revision of tenancy laws, lower rents, protection
from eviction, and debt relief.
• Similar peasant uprisings occurred in the Andhra Rampa region, Rajasthan, and the ryotwari areas of
Bombay and Madras.
• Vallabhbhai Patel led the Bardoli Satyagraha in Gujarat (1928).
5. Growth of Trade Union
• The All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC), founded in 1920, led the trade union movement.
• Its first president was Lala Lajpat Rai, and its first general secretary was VM Pawar. Tilak was
another of the evocative spirits.
AITUC important sessions
Session Date Place President General
secretary
First October 1920 Bombay Lala Lajpat Rai VM Pawar
Second November-December 1921 Jhari Joseph Baptista Diwan
Chamanlal
Third March 1923 Lahore CR Das Diwan
Chamanlal
Seventh March 1927 Delhi Diwan Chamanlal NM Joshi
Ninth December 1928 Jharia Jawahar lal Nehru NM Joshi
Tenth November-December 1929 Nagpur Subhash Chandra SV Deshpande
Bose
• During the 1920s, major strikes occurred at Kharagpur Railway Workshops, Tata Iron and Steel
Works (Jamshedpur), Bombay Textile Mills (which involved 1,50,000 workers and lasted 5 months),
and Buckingham Carnatic Mills.
6. Caste Movements
● Justice movement: Started by C.N. Mudaliar, T.M. Nair, and P. Tyagaraja in Madras Presidency to
secure jobs and representation for non-brahmins in the legislature + It seek for separate representation
for the lower caste in legislature + support from various non-brahmin communities, INCluding the
intermediate castes, backward classes, and scheduled castes.
● Self-respect movement (1925): Under "Periyar" - E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker (Madras) + It aimed to
reject Brahmanical religion and culture + It aimed to establish a Society based on principle of equality
and social justice + Advocated for alternative wedding ceremonies that did not involve Brahmin
priests.
● Satyashodhak activists in Satara (Maharashtra)
● Bhaskar Rao Jadhav (Maharashtra): Inspired by the ideas of Jyotiba Phule, formed an anti-
Brahman and strongly anti-Congress party, which attacked the caste system and claimed to speak for
the Bahujan Samaj against the money-lenders and Brahmans.
● Mahars under Ambedkar (Maharashtra)
● Kerala's radical Ezhavas are led by K. Aiyappan and C. Kesavan.
● Yadavs in Bihar seek social advancement.
● Unionist Party led by Fazl-i-Hussain (Punjab).
7. Revolutionary Activities
• In Punjab-UP-Bihar, two strands of the Hindustan Republican Association(H.R.A.) emerged.
• Surya Sen led the Yugantar, Anushilan, and later the Chittagong Revolt Group in Bengal.
8. Revolutionary activity during 1920s
• Major influences: Upsurge of working class trade unionism, Russian revolution (1917), journals
extolling self-sacrifice of revolutionaries such as Atmasakti, Sarathi and Bijoli.
• Bandi Jivan – Sachin Sanyal
• Pather Dabi- Sharat Chandra Chatterjee

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• In Punjab-United Provinces- Bihar: Dominated by Hindustan Republican Association /Army
HRA(later, HSRA): –founded in 1924 in Kanpur by Ram Prasad Bismil, Jogesh Chandra Chatterjee
and Sachin Sanyal to organise armed revolution to overthrow colonial government and establish
Federal Republic of US of India based on adult franchise.
• Kakori Robbery (Aug 1925): The men held up train at Kakori near Lucknow and looted official
railway cash. A big crackdown → setback for HRA. At the end of the trial, Ashfaqullah Khan,
Ramprasad Bismil, Roshan Singh and Rajendra Lahiri were sentenced to death and hanged.
Chandrasekhar Azad was only HRA leader who succeeded in escaping arrest.
Sachindranath Sanyal wrote Bandi Jivan, which became the textbook of the revolutionaries. He
was also the author of HRA manifesto, the Revolutionary, Sanyal vs. Gandhi debate was published
in Young Indian during 1920-24. Sachin Sanyal was the mentor of revolutionaries like
Chandrashekhar Azad and Bhagat Singh.
Sarathachandra Chatterjee wrote the novel Pather Dabi (1926) meaning the Demands of the
Road". The book is about a secret Society named Pather Dabi.
• Hindustan Socialist Republican Association: HRA reorganized as HSRA at 1928 meet to address
the Kakori setback; under Chandrashekhar Azad; others: Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, Bhagvaticharan
Vohra and BK Sinha, Shiv Verma, Yashpal and JaidevKapur of UP.
• The book ‘Philosophy of Bomb’ was written by Bhagwati Charan Vohra with the help of
Chandrasekhar Azad and Yashpal.
• Saunders’ Murder (Dec1928): After Lala Lajpat Raideath, Bhagat Singh, Azad and Rajguru shot
dead Saunders, the police officer responsible.
• Bombin Central Legislative Assembly (April 1929): Bhagat + Batukeshwar Azad; against Public
Safety Bill and Trade Disputes Bill
• Bhagat, Sukhdev and Rajguru tried in Lahore Conspiracy case.
• Bhagat Singh founded a socialist youth organisation, Naujawan Bharat Sabha (with himself as its
founding secretary in 1926), on the lines of Mazzini's Young Italy Movement.
• Bhagat Singh and Sukhdev also organised the Lahore Student's Union for political education of the
students.
• Jatin Das became the 1st martyr on the 64th day of his fast.
• Azad involved in a bid to blow up Viceroy Irwin’s train in 1929. Azad encountered by police and
Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru hanged in 1931.
• In Bengal, after the death of CR Das (1925), Bengal Congress broke into two factions: Led by JM
Sengupta (Anushilan group joined him); other led by SC Bose (Yugantar group backed him).
• Chittagong Armory Raid (April 1930): Surya Sen (popularly known as Masterda) participated in
NCM and became teacher at school. Jailed in 1926-8 for revolutionary activities. Gathered a large
number of revolutionaries including Ganesh Ghosh, Ambika Chakravarthy and Loknath Paul.
Became secretary of Chittagong District Congress Committee. Organised Raid to occupy two main
armories, destroy telephone and telegram connect to Chittagong ad dislocate rail. Raided under the
banner of Indian Republican Army- Chittagong Branch—very successful—hoisted national flag,
proclaimed provisional govt.
• Surya Sen had Muslims such as Satar, mir Ahmed, Fakir Ahmed Mian in his group.
9. Role of Women
• Pritilata Waddedar: died conducting a raid
• Kalpana Dutt: tried and life sentenced along with Surya Sen Santi Ghosh and
• Suniti Chanderi: Shot the DM
• Bina Das: fired point blank at the governor at convocation

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SIMON COMMISSION AND SIMON BOYCOTT

CHAPTER – 19 MOVEMENT (1927-29)

1. Introduction: As per a provision of the GOI act 1919, an Indian Statutory commission was to be
appointed at the end of 10 years after the passing of the act to enquire into the working of the GOI under
the act of 1919 and suggest fresh reforms.
2. Simon commission (8th November 1927)
• Why it was appointed before time - Tory government of Britain was facing the prospect of electoral
defeat at the hands of Labor party; nationalist opinion in India resented method of periodic enquiry;
pressure created by Swaraj party and the youth activists led by Nehru and Bose; Also, various reports
showed the insufficiency of 1919 Act— Lee Commission: failure to recruit enough British officers +
Mudiman commission: deadlock between diarchic dispensation + Linlithgow Commission: crisis of
Indian agriculture.
• Composition: Lord Birkenhead, secretary of state for India announced appointment of the
commission (all British and all members of the British parliament) under chairmanship of Sir John
Simon assisted by Clement Atlee.
• It is an all-white seven-member Indian statutory commission set up by British government under
Stanley Baldwin’s prime ministership on November 8, 1927.
• Mandate: Enquire into working of system of government, growth of education and development of
representative institutions in British India, subject of relations between British India and Indian states
and to report whether and to what extent it is desirable to establish the principle of responsible
government.
• Members: Clement Atlee, Edward Cadogan, George Lane-Fox, Vernon Hartshorn, Donald Howard,
Harry Levy-Lawson and Sir John Allsebrook Simon.
• Indian Response to the Simon Commission
o The call for boycott was endorsed by Congress, Section of Muslim league, Liberal federation led
by Tej Bahadur Sapru, Indian Industrial & Commercial Congress and Hindu Mahasabha.
o Congress session in Madras (1927) under MA Ansari boycotted commission.
o Bhagat Singh opposed the commission.
o Muslim league led by Muhammad Shafi, Justice party in Madras, Central Sikh Sangh, Unionists
in Punjab and All India Achut Federation did not oppose the commission.
o Ambedkar was appointed by Bombay Legislative Council to work with the commission. He
argued for Universal Adult Franchise, Provincial autonomy, dyarchy at centre; submitted
memorandum of rights on behalf of the Bahishkrit Hitakarni Sabha.
• Simon boycott movement
o Black flag demonstrations, hartals and slogans of ‘Simon Go Back’.
o T. Prakasam bravely rose in protest in Andhra Pradesh.
o Emergence of groups such as Punjab Naujawan Bharat Sabha, Workers and Peasants parties and
Hindustani Sewa Dal (Karnataka).
o In 1927, Jawaharlal Nehru represented INC at Brussels Congress organized by League against
imperialism.
o Lala Lajpat Rai was fatally hit during a lathi-charge while leading an anti-Simon agitation.
o Bhagat Singh vowed to avenge his death and decided to kill James Scott, the police officer who
ordered the lathi charge.
o The commission visited twice and boycotted each time.
• Impact
o Gave a stimulus to radical forces for complete independence and socio-economic changes.
o Nehru Report (result of challenge of Lord Birkenhead).

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• Report of the Simon commission (7th June 1930)
o Retention of separate electorates.
o Reservation of seats for depressed classes
o Abolition of dyarchy in Provinces.
o Establish representative governments in Provinces with autonomy
o Extension of franchise and expansion of legislatures.
o Separation of Burma from British India.
o Governor - discretionary power in internal security and protecting diff communities
o Rejected parliamentary responsibility at the centre – Governor General to have complete power to
appointment cabinet members.
o Government of India to have complete control over High courts
o Federalism accepted: was not immediately; it suggested “Consultative Council of Greater India”
o NWFP and Baluchistan should have own legislatures and right to be represented at centre.
o Sindh should be separated from Bombay, Burma should be separated from India (not natural part
of India)
o Indianise the army (but retain British forces).
o Note :- The report contained no mention of Dominion Status
• Delhi proposals (Dec 1927)
o Aim: Bridge the gulf between the Congress and Muslim league and present a common demand
before British.
o MA Jinnah presided over the session- agreed to forego separate electorates.
o Sindh should be separated from Bombay presidency as a separate province.
o Muslim representation in Central legislature should be either 1/3rd of total or more than that.
o Representation in Punjab and Bengal should be made on the basis of population to ensure Muslim
majority in legislature.
o In Madras congress session of 1927, the congress passed a resolution accepting most of the
demands of Delhi proposals.
o Muslim league split over issue; separate annual session of league held at Lahore under
presidentship of Sir Mian Muhammad Shafi.
• Nehru Report (1928)
o Answering Birkenhead’s challenge, an All Parties Conference met in Feb 1928 and appointed a
sub-committee under chairmanship pf Motilal Nehru to draft a constitution.
o It included Tej Bahadur Sapru, SC Bose, MS Aney, Mangal Singh, Ali Imam, Shuab Qureshi and
GR Pradhan.
o Nehru Report confined itself to British India (prINCes to be in a federal relationship)
• Main recommendations of Nehru report
o Dominion status- self-governing
o Reject separate electorate; rather, reservations
o Linguistic Provinces
o 19 fundamental rights including equal rights of women, right to form unions and Universal adult
suffrage.
o Provincial councils to have 5-yr tenure, headed by governor acting on advice of Provincial
executive council.
o Full protection to culture and religious interests of Muslims.
o Complete dissociation of state from religion.
o Responsible government at centre and in Provinces.
o Bicameral parliament- legislative powers should invest with King and bicameral parliament, and
executive powers with the King exercisable by Governor General.
o Communal representation was to be reconsidered after 10 years and Baluchistan was to be given
full Provincial status.
o Hierarchy of courts with Supreme Court at its apex should be established.
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• Status of Princely states: In 1927, the subjects of Princely states formed States People’s conference
to introduce self-governing institutions; Butler committee laid stress on preservation of Princely states
through British Paramountcy.
• Hindu MahaSabha Demands
o Opposed the idea of Muslim-majority Provinces
o Opposed reservation in Punjab and Bengal
o Demanded strictly unitary structure
● Compromises: Muslim league dissociated itself from and stuck to its demands. The concessions to
Hindu MahaSabha included:
o Joint electorates everywhere but reservation only where Muslims in minority
o Sindh to be detached from Bombay only after Bombay only after dominion status was granted
and subject to weightage given to Hindu minority in Sindh
o Political structure proposed broadly unitary (as residual powers with centre)
● In Dec 1928, Jinnah proposed 3 amendments: 1/3rd rep to Muslims in central legislature;
Reservation to Muslims in Bengal and Punjab legislatures proportionate to population, till Universal
adult suffrage was established, Residual powers to Provinces.
● Jinnah Fourteen Points (March 1929)
o Federal Constitution with residual powers to Provinces
o Provincial autonomy
o No constitutional amendment by centre without concurrence of states
o All legislatures and elected bodies to have adequate representation of Muslims in every province
without reducing a majority of Muslims in a majority of Muslims in a province to a minority or
equality
o Adequate representation to Muslims in services and self-governing bodies
o 1/3rd Muslims rep in central legislature
o In any cabinet at centre or Provinces, 1/3rd to be Muslims
o Separate electorates
o No bill/ resolution passed of 3/4th minority against it
o Any territorial redistribution not to affect Muslim majority in Punjab, Bengal and NWFP
o Separation of Sindh from Bombay
o Constitutional reforms in NWFP and Baluchistan
o Full religious freedom to all communities
o Protect Muslim rights in religion, culture, education, language
• Nehru and Bose opposed the idea of “dominion” and set up Independence for India League.
• Calcutta congress session (Dec 1928, presided by Motilal Nehru): In case the government did not
accept the Nehru report by 31st Dec 1929, the congress would declare complete independence as its
goal.
• CWC formed a Foreign Cloth Boycott Committee to carry out an aggressive program of boycott of
foreign cloth and its public burning.
• Delhi Manifesto (2nd November 1929): It demanded that purpose of Round Table conference should
not be to discuss when dominion status would be granted.
• Lahore congress session (31st Dec 1929): Presided by Jawaharlal Nehru, Purna Swaraj as goal for
India, announcement of civil disobedience movement; on 31st Dec 1929, on banks of River Ravi, J.L
Nehru hoisted the newly adopted tricolor.
• Independence Pledge (26th January 1930): Congress decided to celebrate the day as the first
Independence Day or Purna Swaraj day and took Independence pledge (drafted by Gandhi).

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CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT AND ROUND

CHAPTER – 20 TABLE CONFERENCES

1. Introduction: The Civil disobedience movement (CDM) was the mass movement launched by the
congress after a gap of 8 years. There were several factors that prepared the ground for the CDM, starting
from withdrawal of NCM to non-acceptance of Nehru report by British government.
2. Run up to Civil Disobedience Movement (CDM)
• Calcutta session of congress (December 1928, presided by Motilal Nehru)
o Nehru Report was approved by the Congress, but the younger elements led by Jawaharlal Nehru,
Subhash Bose, and Satyamurthy demanded that the Congress set the goal of purna swaraj, or
complete independence.
o One year given to government to agree else CDM.
• Lahore Congress Session (Dec 1929, presided by Jawaharlal Nehru)
o Boycott Round Table Conference
o Complete independence as aim
o CWC authorized to launch CDM INCluding non-payment of taxes
o All members of legislature asked to resign
o January 26, 1930, was designated as the first Independence (Swarajya) Day.
• Political Activity during 1929
o Gandhi toured India; CWC organized Foreign Cloth Boycott Committee.
o Other developments: Meerut Conspiracy Case (March); Bomb explosion in Central Leg
Assembly by Bhagat Singh + BK Dutt (April); Minority Labour govt by MacDonald (May) and
Wedgewood Benn became Secretary of State for India.
• Irwin’s declaration (October 31, 1929)
o Joint effort by the Labour government and a Conservative Viceroy.
o The declaration's goal was to "restore faith in the ultimate goal of British policy."
o Irwin's promised dominion status would be unavailable for a long time.
o Promised RTC after the Simon Commission submitted its report.
• Delhi Manifesto (Nov 2nd 1929)- Conditions for attending RTC
o RTC purpose should be not to determine whether or when dominion status was to be reached but
to formulate a constitution for implementation of dominion status.
o Congress to have majority representation at RTC
o General amnesty for political prisoners and a policy of reconciliation.
o Irwin rejected the demands.
• Gandhi’s Eleven Points (January 1930)
o Reduce expenditure on army and civil services by 50%
o Introduce total prohibition
o Reform CID (Criminal Investigation department)
o Change Arms Act allowing popular control of issues of firearms licenses
o Release political prisoners
o Accept Postal Reservation Bill
o Reduce rupee-sterling exchange ratio to 1s 4d
o Protection for Indian textiles (protective tariff) and coastal shipping.
o Reserve coastal shipping for Indians Specific Peasant demands
o Reduce land revenue by 50%
o Abolish salt tax and government’s salt monopoly
• CDM- the Salt Satyagraha and other upsurges
• Dandi March (March 12- April 6, 1930): Gandhi informed viceroy of his plan of action. Subhas
Chandra Bose had compared the salt march to Napoleon’s March from Elba to Paris.

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• Gandhi + 78 followers of Sabarmati Ashram were to march from his HQ in Ahmedabad through
villages of Gujarat for 240 miles.
• Gandhi’s instructions to his followers:
▪ Wherever possible civil disobedience of the salt law should be started
▪ Foreign liquor + cloth shops can be picketed
▪ We can refuse to pay taxes if we have requisite strength
▪ Lawyers can give up practice
▪ Public can boycott law courts by refraining from litigation
▪ Government servants can resign
▪ Obey local leaders after Gandhi’s arrest
o Spread of Salt Law Disobedience: Gandhi’s arrest came on May 4, 1930 when he had
announced that he would lead a raid on Dharsana Salt works on the west coast. After Gandhi’s
arrest the CWC sanctioned non-payment of revenue in ryotwari areas; no chowkidara tax
campaign in zamindari areas and violation of forest laws in Central Provinces.
o Satyagraha at Different Places
▪ Tamil Nadu- C. Rajagopalachari organized a march from Tiruchirapalli to Vedaranniyam on
the Tanjore coast in April 1930 to defy the salt law.
▪ Kerala- Salt marches were organized by K. Kelappan, a Nair Congress leader best known for
the Vaikom Satyagraha.
▪ Orissa- Salt satyagraha was successful in the coastal districts of Balasore, Cuttack, and Puri
under Gandhian leader Gopalbandhu Chaudhuri.
▪ Assam- In May 1930, however, a successful student strike against the Cunningham Circular,
which prohibited student political participation; Chandraprabha Saikiani INCited the
aboriginal Kachari villages to break forest laws which was denied by Assam congress
leadership.
▪ Peshawar- Gaffar Khan, also known as Badshah Khan and Frontier Gandhi, founded the first
Pushto political monthly Pukhtoon + organized a volunteer brigade known as the 'Red-Shirts,'
who followed nonviolence.
▪ Dharsana- Sarojini Naidu, Imam Sahib, and Manilal (Gandhi's son) resumed the unfinished
business of leading a raid on the Dharasana Salt Works on May 21, 1930.
▪ People in Wadala (Bombay), Karnataka (Sanikatta Salt Works), Andhra Pradesh, Midnapore,
Balasore, Puri, and Cuttack enthusiastically embraced this new form of salt satyagraha.
▪ Maharashtra and Karnataka- In these areas, forest laws such as grazing and timber
restrictions were flouted, as was the public sale of illegally obtained forest produce.
▪ United Province- A no-revenue campaign was launched, with zamindars encouraged to
refuse to pay revenue to the government.
▪ Manipur and Nagaland- Rani Gaidinliu, a Naga spiritual leader who followed her cousin
Haipou Jadonang, born in what is now the state of Manipur, raised the banner of revolt
against foreign rule at the age of thirteen.
▪ Krishna Pillai during Civil Disobedience movement defended the national flag and resisted
lathi charge on the Calicut beach on November 11, 1930.
• Government Response
o July 1930: Irwin suggested RTC, reiterated dominion goal, accepted Sapru and Jayakar
suggestion to explore possibility of peace between Congress and government.
o Aug 1930: Motilal and Nehru taked to meet Gandhi in Yeravada Jail and discuss settlement.
They reiterated 3 demands:
▪ Right of secession from Britain
▪ Complete national government with control over defence and finance
▪ Independent tribunal to settle Britain’s financial claims
• Gandhi-Irwin Pact/ Delhi Pact (1931):
• Irwin agreed for-

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o Immediate release of political prisoners not convicted of violence
o Remission of all fines not yet collected
o Return all lands not yet sold to 3rd parties
o Lenient treatment to those government servants who resigned.
o Right to make salt in coastal villages for personal consumption (not sale)
o Right to peaceful and non-aggressive picketing
o Withdraw emergency ordinances
● Irwin rejected:
o Public inquiry into public excesses
o Commutation of Bhagat Singh and his comrades’ to life sentence
● Gandhi agreed:
o Suspend CDM
o Participate in next RTC
● The pact paved the way for the GOI Act 1935, which softened the diarchy system and allowed a
greater number of Indian representatives in centre legislature.
● Karachi Congress Session (March 1931)
o Dissociated from political violence but admired “bravery” and “sacrifice” of 3 martyrs.
o To endorse the Gandhi-Irwin Pact.
o Reiterated goal of Purna Swaraj
o Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru were executed 6 days before the session (on March 29).
o Punjab Naujawan Bharat Sabha met Gandhi on his way to Karachi with black flag demonstrations
in protest of his failure to secure a commutation of the death sentence for Bhagat and his
comrades.
o Resolution on FR: Free speech and free speech; Right to form Associations; Right to assemble;
Universal Adult Franchise; Equal rights irrespective of caste, creed, sex; Neutrality of state in
religious matters; Free and compulsory primary education; Protect culture, language, script of
minorities and linguistic minorities.
o Resolution on National Economic Policy: Substantial reduction in rent and revenue in case of
landholders; exemption from rent for uneconomic holdings, control of usury, right to workers and
peasants to form unions.
● First Round Table Conference (Nov, 1930)
o Held in accordance with the Simon Commission's report from 1930.
o The British King George V officially inaugurated on November 12, 1930, at the House of Lords
in London, and it was chaired by the then-British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald.
o First time the British and Indians met as equals.
o Congress and some prominent business leaders declined to attend, but many other Indian groups
were present.
o Attended by Princely States, Muslim League, Justice Party, Hindu Mahasabha, and others.
o Muslim league sent Aga Khan, Maulana Mohammad Ali Jauhar and others.
o GOI represented by Narendra Nath, Bhupendra Nath Mitra, CP Ramaswami Iyer and M
Ramachandra Rao.
o Nothing much was achieved; generally agreed that India was to develop into a federation;
safeguards regarding defence and finance, while other departments were to be transferred.
● Second Round Table Conference (Sep 7-Dec 1931)
o Conference convened in London.
o Members of Indian Liberal Party such as TB Sapru, CY Chintamani and Srinivasa Sastri appealed
to Gandhi to talk with the viceroy.
o The conference's main task was accomplished through the two committees on federal structure
and minorities.
o INC nominated Gandhi as its sole representative. A Rangaswami Iyengar and MM Malaviya were
also there.

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o Apart from the Congress, there were a large number of Indian participants. The prINCely states,
Muslims, Hindu groups, Liberals, Justice Party, Sikhs, Parsis, and Indian Christians.
o Gandhi demanded the immediate establishment of a responsible government at the national and
Provincial levels; rejected the idea of a separate electorate for untouchables; separate electorates
or special safeguards for Muslims or other minorities were unnecessary.
o Separate electorates were demanded by Muslims, the poor, Christians, and Anglo-Indians ->
'Minorities' Pact.'
● Communal Award (August 16, 1932)
o British PM Ramsay MacDonald announced; also known as the 'McDonald Award’.
o Based on findings of Indian Franchise Committee (also known as Lothian Committee), it
established separate electorates and reserved seats for minorities, including the depressed classes,
who were granted 78 reserved seats.
o Thus, for some seats in Bombay, this award provided separate electorates for Muslims,
Europeans, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians, depressed classes, and even Marathas.
o Provisions: In Provincial legislatures, seats were to be distributed on communal basis + existing
seats of Provincial legislatures were to be doubled + Muslims wherever minority granted
weightage + Except in NWFP, 3% seats reserved for women in all Provinces + depressed classes
to be accorded status of minority + Allocation of seats were to be made for labourers, landlords,
traders and industrialists.
o Response : Congress decided neither to accept it nor to reject it, Gandhiji saw the Communal
Award as attack on Indian unity and nationalism, Ambedkar supported the Communal Award
● Poona Pact (Sep 24, 1932)
o Signed at Yerwada Central Jail in Pune by Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar and Mahatma Gandhi.
o Highlighted by the government as an amendment to the Communal Award.
o Abandoned separate electorates for depressed classes.
o Seats reserved for the poor was increased from 71 to 147 in Provincial legislatures and to 18% of
the total in the Central Legislature.
o Nobody would be discriminated against on the basis of caste on matters regarding election to the
local bodies or in public services appointments.
o A certain sum of money from the educational grant would be allotted for the education of the
Depressed Classes in all Provinces.
● Third Round Table Conference (Nov 17-Dec 24, 1932)
o INC and Gandhi did not attend third Round Table Conference and neither did many Indian
leaders.
o Delegates were sent by the Indian states. Aga Khan III, B.R. Ambedkar, Muhammad Iqbal,
Begum Jahanara Shahnawaz, and Sir Purshottamdas Thakurdas were among the other Indian
representatives.
o In March 1933, the recommendations were published in a White Paper and debated in the British
Parliament.
o A Joint Select Committee was formed to examine the recommendations and drafted a new Act for
India, and the committee produced a draft Bill in February 1935, which became the Government
of India Act of 1935.
o During this conference, a college student named Chaudhary Rahmat Ali proposed the name of the
the inclusion of a Bill of Rights for citizens was postponed for flimsy reasons.
o The Inclusion of a Bill of Rights for citizens was postponed for flimsy reasons.
● Other Facts Regarding Round Table Conference:
o Round Table Conferences (RTCs) were attended by different groups via their representatives,
such as
o Princely states, Muslim League, Sikhs, Parsis, Women, Liberals, Depressed classes etc.
o Depressed classes were represented by Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar in all the three round table
conferences (RTCs).

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 PRELIMS – 2025 | Modern Indian History
o Similarly, liberals were represented by Tej Bahadur Sapru in all the RTCs.
o While, Begum Jahanara Shahnawaz represented women in every RTC.
● Gandhi’s Harijan Campaign 1932
o Established the All India Anti-Untouchability League in September 1932 and the weekly Harijan
in January 1933.
o After his release, he moved to the Satyagraha Ashram in Wardha, vowing not to return to the
Sabarmati Ashram until swaraj was won.
o Beginning in Wardha, he conducted a Harijan tour covering 20,000 km while collecting funds for
his newly formed Harijan Sevak Sangh.
o Gandhi was attacked by orthodox and reactionary elements throughout his campaign.
● Extent of Mass Participation
o Women - Gandhi had specifically requested that women take the lead in the movement. They
quickly became a familiar sight, picketing outside liquor stores, opium dens, and shops selling
foreign cloth.
o Students - Along with women, students and youth played a significant role in the boycott of
foreign clothing and liquor.
o Muslims - Some areas, such as the NWFP, saw a high level of participation. Middle-class
Muslim participation was high in Senhatta, Tripura, Gaibandha, Bagura, and Noakhali.
o Merchants and petty traders - Traders' Association s and commercial bodies were active in
carrying out the boycott, particularly in Tamil Nadu and Punjab.
o Tribals - Tribals were active participants in Central Provinces, Maharashtra, and Karnataka.
o Workers - Workers from Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, and Sholapur took part.
o Peasants - Peasants were active in the United Provinces, Bihar, and Gujarat.

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DEBATES ON FUTURE STRATEGY AFTER CIVIL

CHAPTER – 21 DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT

1. Introduction: After withdrawal of CDM, there are two-stage debate on future strategy of nationalists –
First stage on course of national movement in immediate future (1934-35) and second stage (1937)
considered the question of office acceptance in context of Provincial elections.
2. First Stage Debate: what to do in immediate future i.e. phase of non-mass struggle:
Three perspectives came up:
● Constructive work on Gandhian lines.
● Constitutional struggle and elections to Central Legislature
● Left (Nehru)—resume non-constitutionalist mass struggle. Nehru criticized S-T-S (Struggle-Truce-
Struggle) strategy and offered S-V (Struggle-Victory) strategy.
● Finally, yes to council entry
3. Government of India Act, 1935
● Factors leading to the act: Dissatisfaction with reforms of 1919, national movement during 1920-27,
Delhi proposals by Muslim league, Nehru report by congress party, White paper by British
government.
● Sources: Simon commission report, report of All Parties conference (Nehru report), discussions at
round table conferences, white paper, joint select committee report and Lothian report.
● Main Features
o All India Federation - comprising British Indian Provinces, chief commissioner’s Provinces and
Indian states (Princely states).
▪ Its formation was conditional on: States with allotment of 52 seats in Council of states to
agree to join the federation; Aggregate population of states in the above category should be
50% of total population in all Indian states.
▪ Since these conditions were not fulfilled-> proposed federation never came up.
▪ Government of India continued under Government of India Act 1919 till 1946.
o Provincial legislatures expanded- Bicameral legislature introduced in 6 Provinces- Bengal,
Madras, Bombay, United Provinces, Bihar and Assam.
Executive Legislature
• Governor- General→pivot of the • Bicameral leg: Council of States was
entire constitution. direct and Federal Assembly was
• Reserved subjects - foreign affairs, indirect.
defense, tribal areas, ecclesiastical • Council of States: permanent body
affairs- administered by GG on (1/3 retire 3rd year); Federal Assembly
advice of executive councilors (not = 5yrs
Federal
Level
responsible to central legislature). • Extended religious-based and class-
• Tranf. Subjects – all other: based electorates 80% budget= non-
administered by GG on advice of votable.
ministers elected by legislature. • GG = residuary powers -> Could
• Discretionary for GG —security restore cuts in grants, certify bills
and tranquility of India. rejected by legislature, issue
ordinances and exercise his veto.
● Provincial autonomy replaced dyarchy: Provinces freed from superintendence,
Provincial direction of Secretary of state.
Level ● Provinces given independent financial powers and resources.
● Provincial governments could borrow money on their own security.

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● Governor = crown’s nominee. ● Separate electorates based on communal
● Governor has special powers award.
with regarding minorities, rights ● Directly elected members.
of civil servants, law and order, ● Women got the right on the same basis as
British business interests, men.
partially excluded areas, ● Council of Ministers under premier to
prINCely states, etc. administer Provincial subjects.
● Ministers were made answerable to and
removable by adverse vote of legislature.
● 40% budget still non-votable.
● Governor could refuse assent, promulgate
ordinance, enact government Act.
● Nationalists response: Unanimously rejected by Congress; Hindu Mahasabha and National Liberal
Foundation declared in favour of working of 1935 act in central as well as at the Provincial level.
4. The Second Stage
● Nehru, Subhas, Congress and Socialists opposed office acceptance
● Leftists proposed entry into the councils with an aim to crease deadlocks
● Gandhi, in the beginning opposed for office acceptance, but later gave approval
● Congress sessions at Lucknow (1936) and Faizapur (1937) decided to contest elections.
5. Congress rule in Provinces
● Gandhi’s Advice to Office-bearers: use it in a way not expected/ intended by the Brits; hold offices
lightly, not tightly
● Work under Congress Ministries: Eased curbs on civil liberties, Restrictions on press lifted,
Political prisoners and revolutionaries released, lifted ban from several illegal organizations, books
and journals and Restoration of pensions of officials associated with the CDM.
● Reforms regarding Agrarian structure :
o The Congress could not attempt a complete overhaul of the agrarian structure by completely
eliminating the zamindari system. This, for two reasons.
▪ Lack of powers, according to the constitutional structure of the 1935 Act,
▪ Lack of financial resources (lion’s share of India’s revenues was appropriated by the
Government of India)
o In U.P. a tenancy act was passed in October 1939 which gave all statutory tenants both in Agra
and Oudh full hereditary rights in their holdings while taking away the landlord’s right to prevent
the growth of occupancy.
● Note :- In 1937, Yusuf Meherally, a Socialist leader, was prosecuted by the Madras Government for
making an inflammatory speech in Malabar. In 1937, the Madras Government prosecuted S.S.
Batliwala, another Congress Social leader, for making a seditious speech.
● Develop planning through National Planning Committee set up under Congress President Subhash
Bose in 1938.

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 PRELIMS – 2025 | MODERN INDIAN HISTORY

NATIONALIST RESPONSE IN THE WAKE OF

CHAPTER – 22 SECOND WORLD WAR

1. Introduction: The outbreak of 2nd WW (1939) evoked a variety of responses among Indian people,
which was reflected in the Congress as well. After prolonged debate, individual Satyagraha (1940-41)
was launched by Gandhi, but it evoked a lukewarm response. It was in 1942, the Congress launched Quit
India Movement also known as August revolution.
2. Haripura and Tripuri sessions
● Subhash Chandra Bose was president of the Bengal Provincial Congress Committee. He announced
formation of Independence League; fully endorsed ‘Poorna Swaraj’ decision.
● Haripura session (1938)
o Bose was unanimously elected President of the session; instrumental in setting up of a National
planning committee later.
o Adopted a resolution that Congress would give moral support to those who were agitating against
the governance in Princely states.
o Haripura had been chosen for the convention by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel.
o Nandalal Bose, a well-known painter, created a set of seven posters for the Haripura Session at
Mahatma Gandhi's request.
● Tripuri session (1939)
o Bose decided to stand again for President of congress; Gandhi was not happy with his ideology.
o Sardar Patel, Rajendra Prasad and JB Kriplani favoured candidate supported by Gandhi, namely
Pattabhi Sitaramaya.
o The working committee is not elected, but nominated by the president; the election of the
president is thus a constitutional opportunity through which the membership expressed the nature
of leadership of the Congress.
o Subhas Chandra Bose was re-elected but had to resign.
o A resolution was moved by Govind Ballabh Pant, reaffirming faith in Gandhian policies and
asking Bose to nominate the working committee “in accordance with the wishes of Gandhiji”; it
was passed without opposition from the socialists or the communists.
o Rajendra Prasad was appointed in his place.
o Subhash Chandra Bose formed Forward Bloc at Makur, Unnao as a new party within congress.
o Bose called for an all-India protest against an AICC resolution
o Working Committee removed him from his position as president of the Bengal Provincial
Congress Committee and barred him from holding any Congress office for three years.
3. Congress Stand on WW2
● It would cooperate in war effort if: Freedom was given after the war; Some form of genuinely
responsible government was immediately set-up
● Sep 1, 1939: WW2 broke out and Britsh declared India’s support for war
● Sep 10-14, 1939: At CWC meeting at Wardha:
o Gandhi- for unconditional support for British efforts
o Bose- take advantage of British difficulties and start a mass movement
o Nehru- Believed that Justice was on the side of Britain but he also believed that Britain was
imperialist power; advocated no Indian participation till India itself was free; no advantage of
Britain’s difficulty by starting an immediate CDM.
o CWC Resolution: No Indian Participation unless freedom is granted; Government should
declare its war aims soon; if Britain was fighting for democracy and freedom, it should be proved
by ending imperialism in its colonies and establishing full democracy in India.
4. Linlithgow’s statement (Oct 17, 1939)
● Tried to use the Muslim League and PrINCes against the congress.
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● British war aim is to resist aggression.
● All interest groups are to be consulted to modify 1935 Act for future.
● Immediately a “consultative committee” is to be formed for advising functions.
● Congress Response: No Indian support to war, Congress ministries in Provinces to resign and no
immediate mass struggle to be launched.
5. Ramgarh Congress session (1940, Presided by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad)- Civil Disobedience
movement to be launched at appropriate time and circumstances.
6. Pakistan Resolution (Lahore, March 1940): Grouping of geographically contiguous areas where
Muslims were in majority i.e, Northwest and East + Jinnah propounded two-nation theory that India
comprised of two nations – a Hindu nation and a Muslim nation.
7. August Offer (1940)
● Dominion status of Westminster variety to be the long-term objective
● After the war, Constituent assembly to be formed comprising mainly Indians
● Formation of a war advisory council
● Minorities’ consent to be essential for any future settlement.
● Congress rejected the offer
● Acceptability of new constitution subject to fulfilment of British obligations such as Defence,
Minority rights, treaties with native states and position of All India services.
● For first time, inherent right of Indians to frame their own constitution was recognized; congress
demand for a constituent assembly was conceded.
● National Defence council set up which was purely advisory in function.
8. Individual Satyagraha
● Vinoba Bhave (First Satyagrahi, 17th October 1940): Anti-war speech, ‘Delhi Chalo’
movement, inaugurated at Paunar village near Wardha.
● Jawaharlal Nehru (Second Satyagrahi); By May 1941, more than 25,000 Satyagrahis had been
arrested for offering individual satyagraha.
● Brahma Dutt, an ashram inmate, was the third person chosen to offer an individual satyagraha.
9. Cripps Mission (March 1942)- Headed by Stafford Cripps; sent to India with constitutional
proposals to seek Indian support for the war.
● An Indian Union with dominion status, with right to withdraw from the Commonwealth.
● After war, a Constituent assembly elected by Provincial assemblies to frame the constitution.
● Freedom to any province unwilling to join the Union to have a separate agreement with Britain
(Right of Non-accession of Provinces).
● Right of secession of Provinces
● Protection of racial and linguistic minorities- treaty be signed between His Majesty’s Government
and the constitution-making body that will cover all matters arising out of complete transfer of
responsibility from British to Indian hands.
● Meanwhile, defence of India will remain in British hands.
● Congress objections: Dominion status, right of Provinces to secede, No immediate transfer of
power and Retention of governor-general’s supremacy.
● Muslim League objections: Pakistan not explicitly offered, machinery for creation of
Constituent assembly.
10. Immediate context to QIM: Failure of Cripps mission, war time shortages, allied reverses and an
imminent British collapse, demoralisation among Indians.

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QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT, DEMAND FOR PAKISTAN

CHAPTER – 23 & THE INA

1. Introduction: After Cripps’s departure, Gandhi framed a resolution calling for British withdrawal and a
non-violent non-cooperation movement against any Japanese invasion. The CWC meeting at Wardha
(July 1942) accepted the idea of struggle.
2. Reasons for struggle now- Failure of Cripps Mission + Rising prices, shortages of rice, etc.,
commandeering of boats in Odisha, Bengal + Brit reverses in SE Asia -> imminent collapse of British
empire + Leadership wanted to condition the masses for a possible Japanese invasion.
3. CWC Meeting at Wardha (14th July 1942)- adopted the Quit India resolution (Nehru proposed, Patel
seconded) which was to be later ratified by the AICC in its Bombay meeting (along with the meeting of
the All India State Peoples Conference (AISPC)
● The Quit India Movement made clear that now there was no distINCtion to be made between the
people of British India and the States: every Indian was to participate in this mass struggle
4. Quit India resolution
● 8th Aug 1942: AICC ratified the Quit India resolution at Gowalia Tank Maidan in Bombay.
● This meet resolved to: Demand immediate end of British rule + Commitment of free India to defend
itself against fascism and imperialism + Form provisional Government of India after British
withdrawal + Sanction a civil disobedience movement against British rule
● However, Congress did not give any concrete line of action to be adopted by the people but merely
appealed to them to remain completely non-violent at all times.
● Gandhi’s general instructions:
Government servants Don’t resign but declare allegiance to Congress
Soldiers Don’t leave army but don’t fire on compatriots
Students If confident, leave studies
Peasants Pay rent only if zamindar is anti-government
Princes Support masses+ accept sovereignty of your people
Princely states’ people Support only anti-government prINCes
● Spread of the Movement
o Aug 9: Leaders arrested; AICC, CWC and PCCs declared unlawful under Criminal Law
Amendment Act, 1908; assembly of public meetings banned under Defence of India Rules.
o Aruna Asaf Ali presided over congress and hoisted the flag on Aug 9 Public activity.
o Underground activity: Participants were Socialists, Forward Bloc members, Gandhi Ashramites,
revolutionary nationalists and local organizations. The main personalities are Rammanohar Lohia,
JP Narayan, Aruna Asaf Ali, Usha Mehta, Achyut Patwardhan, Sucheta Kriplani and RP Goenka.
o Usha Mehta started an underground radio in Bombay.
o Students from BHU decided to spread the movement in rural areas. They popularized the slogans
of ‘Station phoonk do’, ‘Thana jalao’ and ‘Angrez bhaag gaya’.
o Government repression: Severe repression (though no martial law declared).
o Who did not participate- Muslim league, Hindu Mahasabha, Communist Party of India.
o Many communists at local level participated despite official stand taken by communist party.
o Small zamindars also participated in significant numbers with one of the biggest zamindars- Raja
of Darbhanga supporting the movement.
o Congress leadership did not condemn violence and also refused to take any responsibility for
violence committed by the people.
o Gandhi commenced a fast in jail (Aga Khan Palace Poona) on 10th February 1943.
o Three Indian members of Viceroy’s executive council viz, MS Aney, NR Sarkar and HP Mody
resigned.
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● Women in QIM
o Aruna Asaf Ali: She fearlessly hoisted Indian national flag at Gowalia Tank maidan, Bombay on
August 9, 1942, kickstarting the QIM and earning the title ‘Heroine of the 1942 movement’.
o Matangini Hazra: Led over 6000 freedom fighters to Tamluk Police station, West Bengal. She
kept chanting “Vande Mataram” despite shot repeatedly.
o Kanaklata Barua: She was part of a death squad ‘Mrityu Bahini’ + she led a procession of
unarmed villagers in Assam aiming to hoist the tricolor at a local police station.
o Sucheta Kriplani: She founded All India Mahila congress in 1940.
o AV Kuttimalu Amma: When the government banned Mathrubhumi magazine for publishing an
article about British soldiers misbehaving with local women, Amma led a procession of women,
demanding the government lift the ban.
o Several women leaders like Sarojini Naidu, Meera Ben and Sushila Nayar were arrested along
with Gandhi on 9th August, 1942.
● Parallel governments
o Ballia under Chittu Pandey for a week
o Tamluk(Midnapore)- Jatiya Sarkar established under Satish Samant undertook cyclone relief
work, sanctioned grants to schools, supplied paddy from rich to poor, organized Vidyut Vahinis.
o Satara named Prati Sarkar under YB Chavan, Nana Patil, etc.
o Talcher, Orissa- Laxman Nayak emerged as an important tribal and rebel leader.
o Parallel governments also established at Azamgarh, Ghazipur, Monghyr, Muzzafarpur etc in UP
and Bihar.
● Muslim League observes ‘Pakistan Day’ on 23rd March 1943.
● Famine of 1943: worst affected: South West Bengal (Dacca, Faridpur Tippera, Noakhali); Causes ->
Diverted food to feed army, Rice imports from Burma and SE asia stopped, Gross mismanagement;
belated rationing- confined to big cities.
● Rajagopalachari Formula (1944)
o Muslim league to endorse Cong demand for Independence
o Muslim league to cooperate with Congress in forming provisional GoI
o After end of war, entire population of Muslim majority areas in NW, NE India to decide by a
plebiscite, whether or not to form sovereign state
o If partition, agreement to be made jointly for safeguarding defence, commerce, commn, etc.
o Above terms- operative only if England transferred full powers to India
o Objections: Jinnah wanted only Muslims of North West, North east India to vote + Hindu
leaders under Savarkar condemned CR Plan.
● Desai-Liaqat Pact: Bhulabhai Desai and Liaqat Ali Khan came up with the draft proposal for the
formation of an interim government at the centre, consisting of:
o Equal number of persons nominated by Muslim league and Congress in central legislature.
o 20% reserved seats for minorities
o No settlements could be reached but significance: parity between Congress and Muslim league.
● Wavell Plan (1945)
o Except Governor General and Commander-in-chief, all executive council members were to be
Indians.
o Caste Hindus and Muslims in equal number.
o In addition to low-caste Hindus, Sikhs, and Shudders, other minorities would also be represented
on the Council
o Reconstructed council was to function as an interim government within 1935 framework (not
responsible to Central Legislative Assembly)
o G-G was to ex his veto on advice of ministers
o Representatives of different parties were to submit joint list to viceroy for nominations to
executive council. If no joint list, then separate lists were to be submitted.

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o Possibilities were to be kept open for negotiations on new constitution once the war won finally.
o Muslim League wanted all Muslims to be its nominees and claimed a communal veto in the
executive council. Congress objected to being painted purely as caste Hindu party.
o The foreign affairs portfolio would be transferred from Governor-General to an Indian member.
o The defence would be handled by a British general until the full transfer of power was made.
● INA and Subhash Bose
o Subhash Bose political guru- Chittaranjan Das.
o In 1940, Bose convened an Anti-compromise conference at Ramgarh- Joint effort of the Forward
Bloc and Kisan Sabha.
o With the help of Hitler, Freedom Army (mukti sena) was formed which consisted of all prisoners
of war of Indian origin captured by Germany and Italy.
o Also known as the Azad Hind Fauj; armed force that was formed by imperial Japan and the
Indian Nationalists in the year 1942.
o The Indian Prisoners of War of the British Army that were captured by Japan first formed this
army under Mohan Singh in 1942.
o INA eventually disbanded but was formed again under guidance of Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose.
o Rashbehari Bose founded the Indian club of Tokyo.
o On October 21, 1943, Bose formed the Provisional government for Free India at Singapore with
HC Chatterjee (Finance portfolio), MA Aiyar (Broadcasting), Lakshmi Swaminathan (Women
department) etc. The famous slogan “Give me blood, I will give you freedom” in Malaya.
o Women’s regiment called Rani Jhansi regiment was formed.
o INA HQ shifted to Rangoon in 1944.
o On Novemeber 6, 1943, A&N islands were given by Japanese army to INA; islands were
renamed as Shahid Dweep and Swaraj deep respectively.
o INA battalion commanded by Shah Nawaz allowed to accompany Japanese Army to Indo-Burma
front and participate in Imphal campaign.
o On April 14, Colonel Malik of Bahadur group hoisted the INA flag for the first time on Indian
mainland at Moirang in Manipur.
o On August 18, 1945, Subhash Bose died in an air-crash at Taipei (Taiwan).
o Azad Hind Radio: To encourage countrymen to fight for freedom under the leadership of Subhas
Chandra Bose + Broadcasted news at weekly intervals in various languages like English, Hindi,
Tamil, Punjabi, Urdu, etc + The main aim of the formation of the Azad Hind Radio was to
counter the broadcast of allied radio stations and to fill Indian nationals with pride and motivation
to fight for freedom.

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CHAPTER – 24 POST-WAR NATIONAL SCENARIO

1. Introduction: The 2nd World war came to an end in Europe with the suicide of Hitler and subsequent
surrender of Germany (8th May 1945). The period during 1945-47 was a brief and crucial period of Indian
national movement.
2. Change in Government’s attitude
● July 1945: Labour government under Clement Atlee (Secretary of State is Pethick Lawrence).
● Aug 1945: Announced elections to central and Provincial assemblies
● Sep 1945: Announced Constituent assembly after elections; government working according to Cripps
mission.
3. Congress Election Campaign and the INA trials
● Election Campaign for nationalistic aims
o Nationalism; against repression of Quit India movement
o INA Prisoner of war trials
o Most celebrated one: Joint court martial of Colonel Prem Sahgal, Colonel Gurubaksh Singh
Dhillon.Major General Shah Nawaz Khan.
o Mass pressure against INA Trials described as "an edge of a volcano"
o Using Indian army to restore French, Dutch colonial rule in Vietnam and Indonesia.
● Congress Support for INA prisoners
o 1st post-war congress session (Bombay) (Sep ’45), resolution supporting INA cause
o Court defence by Bhulabhai Desai, Sapru, Nehru, KN Katju and Asaf Ali
o INA relief and enquiry committee distributed some money and food, helped in employment;
Organised fund collection
● INA Agitation
o Supported by INC, Muslim league, Communist Party, Unionists, Akalis, Justice Party, Ahrars in
Rawalpindi, RSS, Hindu MahaSabha and Sikh League.
o Opposed by Mahatma Gandhi
● Three Upsurges – Winter of 1945-6
o 21.11.45: Calcutta over the INA trials
o 11.02.46: Calcutta against 7year sentence to INA officer Rashid Ali
o 18.02.46: Bombay strike by Royal Indian Navy ratings (HMIS Talwar) + Naval Central Strike
committee a was elected (M.S Khan and Madan Singh were unanimously elected President and
Vice- President respectively)
● Reasons for Navy rebellion: Racial disc in pay, bad food, abuse by superiors, INA trials, use of
troops in Indonesia, arresting a rating for scrawling ‘Quit India’ on HMIS Talwar.
● Election results
Congress Muslim League
91% non-Muslim votes 86.6% Muslim votes
57/102 seats in Central assembly 30 reserved seats in Central
assembly
Majority in: all except Bengal Sind, Punjab; majority also Maj in BN, Sindh
in NWFP, Assam.
4. Cabinet Mission
● Feb 1946: Atlee government decided to send Pethick Lawrence (Secretary of state), Stafford Cripps
(President of Board of Trade) and AV Alexander (1st Lord of Admiralty) for peaceful transfer of
power to India. Pethick Lawrence was the chairman of the mission.
● Rejection of the demand for a full-fledged Pakistan because-
o 38% NW and 48% NE were non-Muslims

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o Bengal and Punjab had Hindu-majority areas; deep-seated ties in the region
o Division of armed forces would be dangerous
• Grouping Provincial assemblies into 3 Sections:
o Section A: Hindu Majority Provinces- Madras, Bombay, Central Province, United Province,
Bihar, Odisha.
o Section B: Muslim majority Provinces- Punjab, North west Frontier Province, Sindh
o Section C: Muslim majority Provinces- Bengal and Assam
• 3 tier executive and legislature at Provincial, Section and union levels
• Constituent Assembly elected by Provincial assemblies by proportional representation
• A common centre would control defence, communication, external affairs.
• Federal structure was envisaged for India
• Communal question in central legislature by simple majority of both communities Present and voting.
• Provinces—full autonomy and residual powers
• Lapse of paramountcy
• After 1st general elections, a province to be free to come out of group and after 10 years, a province
was to be free to call for a reconsideration of group or union constitution.
• Meanwhile interim government was to be formed from constituent assembly.
5. Analysis: Congress: Against creation of Pakistan; one constituent assembly and league no longer had a
veto + Muslim league: Pakistan implied in compulsory grouping.
6. Main Objections
• Congress
o Provinces should not have to wait till 1st general elections to leave a group.
o Compulsory grouping contradicts insistence on Provincial autonomy
o Absence of Provinces for elected members from princely states in Constituent assembly.
• Muslim League: Grouping to be compulsory with right to secede.
7. Acceptance and Rejection
• June 1946: Congress and Muslim league accepted the long-term plan of the Cabinet Mission
• July 1946: Elections in Provincial assemblies for Constituent assembly
• July 1946: Muslim league withdrew acceptance of the long-term plan and call for “direct action”.
8. Interim Government (September 2, 1946)
• Despite the title, the interim government was a continuation of the old exec (Wavell overruled
ministers on release of INA prisoners in March 1947— last cabinet meeting).
• Wavell quietly brought Muslim league into the interim government without giving up direct action,
despite rejection of cabinet mission, despite insistence on compulsory grouping.
Members Portfolios Held
Jawaharlal Nehru Vice President of Executive council, External Affairs and
Commonwealth Relations
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel Home, Information and Broadcasting
Dr. Rajendra Prasad Food and Agriculture
Dr. John Mathai Industries and Supplies
Jagjivan Ram Labour
Sardar Baldev Singh Defence
CH Bhabha Works, Mines and Power
Liaqat Ali Khan Finance
Abdur Rab nishtar Posts and Air
Asaf ali Railways and Transport
C Rajagopalachari Education and Arts

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Ibrahim Ismail Chundrigar Commerce
Gaznafar Ali Khan Health
Joginder Nath Mandal Law

9. Bombay Plan (1944-45)

● The capitalists such as G.L. Mehta who was the president of FICCI, argued in 1943, that ‘A
consistent programme of reforms’ was the most effective remedy against social upheavals.’
● ‘Post War Economic Development Committee,’ set up by the capitalists in 1942, which eventually
drafted the Bombay Plan, was to function.
● Drawn up by the big three of the Indian capitalist world -— J.R.D. Tata, G.D. Birla and Sri Ram. This
plan visualized far-reaching land reforms, a large public Sector and massive public and private
investment.
● The signatories of the plan were Purshottamdas Thakurdas, J.R.D. Tata, G.D. Birla, Ardeshir Dalal,
Sri Ram, Kasturbhai Lalbhai, A.D. Shroff and John Mathai.
● The basic assumption made by the Bombay planners was that the plan could be implemented only by
an independent national Government.
10. Birth and Spread of Communalism in India
• 1886 Congress session under Naoroji declared intention of not raising socio-religious questions.
• 1889 Congress decided not to take up issues opposed by Muslims
• All India Muslim league was founded by Aga Khan, Nawab Salimullah of Dacca, Nawab Mohsin ul-
Mulk and Nawab Waqar ul Mulk to preach loyalty to British government.
• Punjab Hindu Sabha formed in 1909 by UN Mukherjee and Lal Chand, opposed
• Congress for uniting one nation—Hindus should join government against Muslims.
• RSS in 1925.
• 1940- Pakistan resolution was passed at Lahore session of Muslim league- grouping of all
geographically contiguous Muslim majority areas into independent states.

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CHAPTER – 25 INDEPENDENCE WITH PARTITION

1. Introduction: Clement Atlee, British PM, sensing the trouble all around, made an announcement on
February 20, 1947. British House of commons declared the British intention of leaving the Indian
subcontinent.
2. Atlee’s statement (Feb 20, 1947)
● The British would withdraw from India by 30th June 1948.
● Wavell would be replaced by Lord Mountbatten as Viceroy.
● Power may be transferred to one centre or in some areas to existing Provincial governments
● British powers and obligations vis-à-vis princely states would lapse with transfer of power, but these
would not be transferred to any successor government in British India.
● Congress stand: The Provision of transfer of power to more than one centre was acceptable to
congress.
3. Mountbatten Plan (June 3, 1947)
● Punjab and Bengal assemblies to take decision partition
● Sindh to take its own decision
● Referendum in NWFP and Sylhet district
● Two dominions to be created if partition is to take place, with 2 constituent assemblies.
● Freedom to be granted on Aug 15, 1947
● July 18, 1947: The Indian Independence Act, 1947 got royal assent
● Sir Cyril Radcliff established the Boundary Commission to fix the International Boundaries.
4. Indian Independence Act (5th July 1947)
● It resulted in two new dominion states from the Indian Empire- India and Pakistan.
● East Bengal, West Punjab, Sind, and Province of Baluchistan constituted Pakistan and the remaining
portions were termed as India.
● Existing central legislative assembly and council of states were to be automatically dissolved.
● Until the introduction of new constitutions, the new dominions were also governed under the
Government of India Act, 1935
● Subject to the new constitutions of new dominions, Governor-General was supposed to be appointed.
● Further division of territories, powers, duties, assets, and liabilities were the responsibility of the
Governor-General.
● The act subsequently dissolved into Article 395 of the Constitution of India and Article 221 of the
Constitution of Pakistan.
● M.A Jinnah became the first Governor-General of Pakistan; India however decided to request Lord
Mountbatten to continue as GG of India.

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CONSTITUTIONAL, ADMINISTRATIVE AND

CHAPTER – 26 JUDICIAL DEVELOPMENTS

1. Introduction: The period between 1773 and 1858 under the company rule, and then under the British
crown till 1947, witnessed a plethora of constitutional and administrative changes.
2. Constitutional Development between 1773 and 1858-
● After Battle of Buxar (1764), East India Company got the Diwani (right to collect revenue) of Bengal,
Bihar and Orissa.
● 1767-The first intervention in Indian affairs by the British government came in 1767.
● 1765-72-This period was characterized by - rampant corruption among servants of the Company who
made full use of private trading to enrich themselves; excessive revenue collection and oppression of
peasantry; Company’s bankruptcy, while the servants were flourishing.
3. Regulating Act of 1773
• Recognized EIC’s role in political and administrative (beyond trading) and introduced element of
centralized administration.
• Directors of EIC to submit all correspondences with respect to revenue affairs and civil/mil
administration to government (British cabinet given right to control Indian affairs)
• In Bengal, Governor General with 4 council members- function according to majority rule.
• Warren Hastings named in the Act—successors appointed by company.
• SC established in Bengal but confusing jurisdiction
• Governor General could exercise some powers over Bombay and Madras.
• Amendment (1781): SC jurisdiction defined- within Calcutta + Government servants immune for
anything done during discharge of duties + Social and religious usages of subjects to be honoured,
4. Pitt’s India Act of 1784
● Company became a subordinate department of the state. The company’s territories in India were
termed ‘British Possessions’.
● Dual system of control: Board of Control (Chancellor of exchequer, Secretary of State, 4 members
of privy Council- appointed by Crown)—to control company’s civil, military, revenue affairs and
approve all dispatches.
● Governor General to have council of 3 (including Commander-in-chief), and presidencies of Bombay
and Madras were made subordinate to Governor General.
● General prohibition on aggressive wars and treaties (often breached)
● Despite these changes, Company was satisfied as act saved its monopoly over Indian and Chinese
trade. Its directors retained the profitable right of appointing and dismissing its officials in India.
5. The Act of 1786
● Cornwallis made Governor General as well as Commander-in-chief.
● Cornwallis allowed overriding council’s decision if he owned the responsibility for the decision.
● It provided that the King’s approval for selecting the Governor-General was not required anymore.
● If the Governor-General or Governor finally decided to act on his own, he would be personally liable
for any step taken without the Council's approval.
6. Charter Act of 1793
• Renewed EIC’s commercial privileges for next 20 years
• EIC shall pay necessary expenses, interest, dividends, salaries etc., from Indian revenues, was to pay 5L
pounds annually to British government
• Royal mandate required to appoint Governor General, Commander in chief, and governors.
• Senior officials of EIC debarred from leaving India without permission
• EIC empowered to give licenses (‘privilege’/ ‘country trade’) to individuals as well as Company’s
employees to trade in India—made way for opium trade to China.

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• Revenue administration separated from judicial functions—Maal Adaalats disappeared
• Home government members paid out of Indian revenues (this continued till 1919)
7. Charter Act of 1813
• Company’s monopoly over Indian trade ended (but retained China trade+ tea trade)
• Company’s shareholders given 10.5% dividend on revenue of India
• Company to retain possession of territories and revenue for 20 more years
• Powers of Board of Control enlarged
• ₹1L to be set aside for revival, promotion and encouragement of literature, learning and science among
natives, every year.
• Regulations by Councils of Madras, Bombay and Calcutta now to be laid in British Parliament.
• Separate accounts with respect to commercial transactions and territorial revenues.
• Christian missionaries allowed
• The Act gave more powers for the courts in India over European British subjects.
8. Charter Act of 1833
• 20-year lease to Company extended. Territories of India were to be governed in the name of Crown.
• Ended Company’s monopoly with China and Tea.
• Ended all restrictions on European immigration and acquisition of property in India.
• Financial, legislative and administrative centralization of government in India:
• G-G given power to superintend, control, direct all civil/military affairs of company.
• Bengal, Madras, Bombay, etc. under complete control of Governor General.
• All revenues raised under authority of Governor General—would completely control expenses too
• Madras and Bombay brought under Bengal
• A law member added to Governor General’s council
• Indian laws to be codified and consolidated
• Any law made in India was to be put before the British Parliament and was to be called ‘Act’.
• As per the act, an Indian Law Commission was established (Lord Macaulay as its chairman)
• No Indian citizen to be denied employment under the company based on religion, colour, birth, descent,
etc.
• Administration to ameliorate conditions of slaves and finally abolish it (abolished in 1843).
• Since the number of British residents in the country was increasing, the act allowed for having three
Bishops in India.
• It also sought to regulate the establishment of Christian institutions in India.
• The act provided for the mitigation of slavery existing in India.
• The British Parliament abolished slavery in Britain and all its possessions in 1833.
• Presidency of Bengal to be divided into Presidencies of Agra and Fort William. (But this never came into
effect)
9. Charter Act of 1853
• Company to continue possessing territories unless Parliament provided otherwise
• Court of Directors strength reduced to 18
• Services thrown open to competitve exams (no Company monopoly)
• Law member made full-time member of GG’s council
• Further separation of legislative and executive functions of Government of British India
• Local representation introduced in Indian legislature—Indian Legislative Council
• Governor General could veto any bill of the Legislative Council.
• The Governor-General could nominate a vice president to the council.
• The Governor-General’s assent was required for all legislative proposals.
• The Court of Directors could create a new presidency or province. This Act also led to the creation of
Assam, Burma and the Central Provinces.
• The Act provided for the appointment of a separate governor for the Bengal Presidency.
• The number of Board of Directors was reduced from 24 to 18 out of which 6 people were to be nominated

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by the British Crown.
• Indian Civil Services
• Macaulay Committee of 1854 gave India her first civil services.
• This act removed the right of patronage to appointments in civil service held by Court of Directors.
• The appointment was to be done only by open competition based on merit and was open to all.
• The report recommended that only the ‘fittest’ be selected to the ICS.
10. The Act for Better Government of India, 1858
• East India Company was liquidated-> Indian territories in Britain were to be governed in the name of the
British queen; it made India a direct British Colony.
• Ended doctrine of lapse as well as abolished the dual government.
• The powers of the company’s Court of directors were shifted to and vested in the Secretary of State for
India (First Secretary of State for India: Lord Stanley)
• The secretary of state was to be assisted by a Council of 15 members. The council had only an advisory
role.
• The Secretary of State would also act as a channel of communication between the British government and
the Indian Administration.
• Governor-General became the viceroy.
• The Viceroy and the governors of the various presidencies were appointed by the Crown.
• The Viceroy was to be assisted with an Executive Council.
• Pardon would be granted to all the Indians who participated in the mutiny except those who had killed
British subjects.
• First Secretary of State for India: Lord Stanley
• First Governor-General and Viceroy of India: Lord Canning
• This act also ended the doctrine of lapse.
11. Indian Councils Act 1861
• Principle of representatives of non-officials in legislative bodies accepted—law making by deliberations—
no longer only executive’s business
• Portfolio system by Lord Canning laid foundation of cabinet government in India
• Weak Legislative Councils- no financial matters without previous approval of government, no control over
budget, could not discuss executive action
• The Legislative Council of Calcutta had extensive power to pass laws for the whole of British India.
• This Act restored legislative powers of Governor-in-Councils of Presidencies of Madras and Bombay
• The Governor-General also had the power to promulgate ordinances without the council’s concurrence
during emergencies.
12. Indian Councils Act 1892
• Response to requests by INC
• Expanded Legislative Council
• Universities, district boards, municipalities, zamindars, trade bodies, and chambers of commerce could
recommend members to Provincial councils—principle of representation.
• Element of indirect election (‘election’ word NOT used)
• Members of legislature now entitled to express their views upon financial statements.
• Could put questions within certain limits to executive on matters of public interest after giving six-day
notice.
• They could not ask supplementary questions.
• Legislative Councils can make new laws and repeal old laws with permission of Governor-General.
• The elected members were permitted to discuss official and internal matters.
13. Indian Councils Act 1909
• 1st attempt to bring in popular representation
• Expanded Imperial Legislative Council as well as Provincial Legislatures
• 1st time: Indian in GG’s Exe Council (Satyendra Prasad Sinha as Law member)

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• Increased members of Provincial Executive Council
• Introduction of separate electorates for Muslims
• INCome qualification for Muslim voters was kept lower than that of Hindus.
• System of election was indirect
• In the Provincial councils, non-official members were in the majority.
• Indians were given membership to the Imperial Legislative Council for the first time.
• They could also ask supplementary questions.
• No discussions on foreign policy or on relations with the prINCely states were permitted.
14. GoI Act 1919/ Montague Chelmsford Reforms
• Indian Legislative Council replaced by bicameral system: majority in both houses= directly elected
(restricted franchise)
• Communal electorates extended to Sikhs, Christians, Anglo-Indian also.
• Dyarchy in prvINCes
o Two classes of administrators – Executive councillors and ministers.
o Two subject lists – reserved and transferred.
o The governor was in charge of the reserved list along with his executive councillors. The subjects
under this list were law and order, irrigation, finance, land revenue, etc.
o The ministers were in charge of subjects under the transferred list. The subjects INCluded were
education, local government, health, excise, industry, public works, religious endowments, etc.
o The executive councillors were not responsible to the legislature, unlike the ministers.
• Provinces—only one leg (council)
o The size of Provincial legislative assemblies was increased. Now about 70% of the members were
elected.
o There were communal and class electorates.
o Some women could also vote.
• Central Legislature: The legislators could ask questions and also vote a part of the budget. Only 25% of
the budget was subject to vote.
• 1st time—separate budget for Provinces and centre
• High Commissioner for India appointed in London for 6 years to look after trade of India with Europe
• Secretary of state to be paid out of British exchequer.
15. Government of India Act 1935
• Contemplated the establishment of an All-India Federation in which governors’ Provinces and Chief
commissioners’ Provinces and those Indian states which sign ‘instrument of accession’ were to be
INCluded.
• Dyarchy (rejected by Simon commission) was provided in Federal Executive
• The Governor-General had ‘special powers’ to interfere in the transferred subjects also.
• The Act gave more autonomy to the Provinces
• The British authorities could still suspend a Provincial government.
• Bicameral Federal Legislature
• No provision for joint sitting
• 3 lists- federal, Provincial, concurrent; residuary with Governor General.
• Dyarchy in Provinces was abolished and Provinces were given autonomy.
• Bicameral legislature in 6: Madras, Bombay, UP, Bihar, Assam, Bengal.
• Principles of communal electorates and weightage were further extended to depressed classes, women and
labour.
• Extended franchise to 10%
• Federal Court established in 1937 (1 Chief Justice + 6 judges)
• Abolished Indian Council of Secretary of State.
• Federal structure never actualized.
• A Federal Railway Authority was set up to control Indian railways.
• The act provided for the establishment of Reserve Bank of India.
• It also provided for establishment of federal, Provincial and joint Public Service Commissions.

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CHAPTER – 27 EVOLUTION OF CIVIL SERVICES IN INDIA

1. Cornwallis’ Role: checked corruption by raising civil servants’ salary; strict enforcement of rules against
private trade; Debarred civil servants from taking presents, bribes, etc. and Enforced promotions through
seniority.
2. Wellesley’s Role
• 1800: He established Fort William College to train new recruits
• 1806: Wellesley’s college disapproved by Court of Directors and East India College set up in United
Kingdom.
3. Charter Act 1853
• Ended company’s patronage, enjoining recruitment to be through open competition
• Indians barred from high posts
• 1833- threw open exams to Indians- but never implemented
• After 1857—Indians included
4. Indian Civil Services Act 1861
• Reserved certain offices for covenanted civil servants but exam in UK in English based on classical
learnings in Greek and Latin
• Max age: 23 (1859) -> 22 (1860) -> 21 (1866) -> 19 (1878)
• 1863: Satyendra Nath Tagore was the 1st Indian to qualify for ICS
5. Statutory Civil Service
• Introduced by Lytton in 1878-9: 1/6th of covenanted posts to be filled by Indians of high families
through nominations by local governments subject to approval by secretary of state and Viceroy.
6. Congress Demands and Aitchison Committee
• INC demanded: increase age limit for recruitment; hold exam in India as well.
• Aitchison committee on Public Service (1886): set up by Dufferin, it recommended:
• Drop the terms ‘covenanted’ and ‘uncovenanted’
• Classify civil service into Imperial Indian Civil Service (held in UK) and Provincial Civil Service (in
India) and Sub-Ordinate Civil Service (in India).
• Raise age limit to 23
• 1893: House of Commons supported simultaneous exams—but never implemented
7. Montford Reforms 1919
• Realistic policy— “if a responsible government is to be established in India, the more
Indians we can employ in public service, the better.”
• Hold simultaneous exams in India and England.
• 1/3rd recruits be made in India itself—to be raised annually by 1.5%
8. Lee Commission 1924
• Secretary of State to continue to recruit ICS, Irrigation branch of the Service of Engineers, IFoS, etc.
• Recruitments for transferred fields like education, civil medical service by Provincial governments.
• Direct recruitments to ICS on the basis 50:50 parity (Europeans: Indians) in 15 years
• Established Public Service Commission (as per GoI 1919)
9. Government of India Act 1935: Establishment of Federal Public service commission and Provincial
public service commission under their spheres.
10. Evolution of Police System in India
• Mughals: Faujdars (law and order); amils (revenue); kotwal (law and order in cities);
• Dual control: zamindars expected to maintain thanadar for law and order
• 1770: instn of faujdar and amil abolished

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• 1774: Hastings restored faujdar
• 1775: faujdar thanas established in major towns
• 1791: Cornwallis organized regular police force and modernized old thana system under Indian
daroga; SP for each city; relieved zamindars of their police duties
• 1808: Mayo appointed an SP for each division helped by spies (goyendas)
• 1814: Court of Directors abolished appointments to darogas and subordinates (except in Bengal)
• BentINCk abolished office of SP—collectorate/ DM to head police -> failed system
• 1855: The first inquiry into police torture is launched. In the Madras Presidency, a three-member
committee was constituted to investigate alleged cases of torture.
• Police Commission (1860 recommendations): Led to Indian Police Act 1861
• 1902: Police Commission recommended the establishment of CID in Provinces and IB at centre.
• 1917: The label Indian Police Service was first referred to in a report by the Islington Commission. In
1932, the name changed to just Indian Police.
• 1920: Indians were allowed to be a part of the Indian Imperial Police and the competitive exam for
the same was held in London and India.
11. Evolution of Judiciary in India
• Reforms under Warren Hastings (1772-85)
o District Diwani Adalats for civil disputes under collector and had Hindu law applicable for
Hindus and Muslim law for Muslims.
o Appeal lay to Sadar Diwani Adalat which functioned under the President and two members of the
Supreme council.
o District Fauzdari Adalats were set up to try criminal disputes and were placed under an Indian
officer assisted by qazis and muftis-> under general supervision of the collector.
o The approval for capital punishment and for acquisition of property lay to the Sadar Nizamat Adalat at
Murshidabad which was headed by a deputy nizam assisted by chief qazi and chief mufti.
o Regulating act 1773-> SC established at Calcutta- competent to try all British subjects within
Calcutta and subordinate factories, including Indians and Europeans.
• Reforms under Cornwallis (1786-93)- Separation of Powers
o District Fauzdari Courts were abolished and instead circuit courts established at Calcutta, Dacca,
Murshidabad, Patna. They had civil and criminal courts with Euro judges.
o Sadar Nizamat Adalat shifted to Calcutta and under Governor General and members of Supreme
Council assisted by chief qazi and chief mufti.
o District Diwani Adalat designated the district., city, zila court; placed under district judge
o Collector left with revenue admin with no magisterial functions
o Established gradation of civil courts (for both Hindu and Muslim laws)
▪ Munsiff’s Court under Indian officers
▪ Registrar’s Court under a European judge
▪ District Court under the district judge
▪ 4 circuit courts as Provincial courts of appeal
▪ Sadar Diwani Adalat as Provincial courts of appeal
▪ King-in-Council for appeals of 5000 pounds and above.
• Cornwallis Code:
o Separation of revenue and justice admin
o European subjects also brought under jurisdiction.
o Government officials answerable to civil courts for actions done in official capacity.
o Established principle of sovereignty of law.
• Reforms under William Bentinck (1828-33)
o The 4 circuit courts abolished and their functions transferred to collectors under supervision of
commissioner of revenue and circuit.

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o Sadar Diwani Adalat and a Sadar Nizamat Adalat at Allahabad for people of Upper Provinces.
o From Persian as court language TO Persian/ vernacular (English in SC)
o 1833: Law commission set up under Macaulay for codification of Indian laws. As a result, a Civil
Procedure Code (1859), IPC (1860) and CrPC (1861) were prepared.
• Later Developments
o 1860: Europeans can claim no special privileges except in criminal cases, no Indian-origin judge
could try them
o 1865: SC and Sadar Adalats merged into 3 HCs (Calcutta, Bombay, Madras)
o 1935: GoI Act—Federal Court (set up in 1937)—settle disputes between governments and could
hear limited appeals from High courts.
12. Local Bodies
• Mayo’s resolution (1870): Mayo’s resolution addressed financial decentralization, which was part of
the legislative devolution initiated by the Indian Council Act of 1861. Aside from the annual grant
from the imperial government, Provincial governments were allowed to balance their budgets through
local taxation.
• Ripon’s resolution (1882)
o Lord Ripon is called Father of local self-government in India.
o Main points of the resolution:
▪ Non-officials to be in majority in these bodies.
▪ Official executive sanction required in certain cases, such as raising of loans, alienation of
municipal property, imposition of new taxes, undertaking works costing more than prescribed
sum, framing rules and bye-laws.
▪ Limited franchise
▪ Elected members were in a minority in all district boards and in many of the municipalities.
▪ District boards and local boards were formed. Such boards in rural areas were known as
‘taluk’ or ‘tehsil’.
▪ These acts were applicable in the local bodies of Madras, Punjab, and Bengal Provinces.
▪ The government could suspend the Local bodies at any time.
▪ The government had the power to supersede these local self-governments too.
• Royal commission on Decentralization (1908)
o Village panchayats should be entrusted with more powers like judicial jurisdiction in petty cases.
o Sub-district boards to be established in every taluka or tehsil with separate spheres of duties and
separate sources of revenue.
13. Labour Legislations
• First ever demand for regulation of condition of workers in factories in India came from Lancashire
textile capitalist lobby.
• The first commission was appointed in 1875 although first factory act was not passed before 1881.
• Moderates opposed the factory acts
• Indian Factory Act (1881)
o Children between the ages of 7-12, were to work for 9 hours/ day maximum.
o Employment of Children below 7 years were prohibited.
o Mid-day meal interval, 4 holidays/ month, and fencing of machinery in the factory also provided.
o Dangerous machines should be fenced properly to avoid accidents.
o This act applies only to factories using mechanical powers, employing not less than 100 works
and working for not more than 4 months in a year limitation.
o To supervise the implementation of this act, inspectors are appointed.
• Indian Factory Act (1891)
o It increased the minimum age (from 7 to 9 years) and maximum (from 12 to 14 years) for
children.

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o It provided weekly holidays for all workers.
o It fixed maximum working hours for women at 11 hours per day but the working hours of men
still left unregulated.
o The Act is not applied to British-owned tea and coffee plantation.
o A breach of contract was a criminal offence, with a planter having the right to get defaulting
labourer arrested.
14. Economic Impact of British Policies in India
• Economic Impact of British Rule: Deindustrialisation- ruin of artisans and handicraftsmen;
Impoverishment of peasantry- ruralisation of India; Emergence of new land relations- ruin of old
zamindars; Stagnation and deterioration of agriculture; Commercialisation of Indian agriculture; Rise
of Indian national bourgeoisie; Economic drain; Famine and poverty; development of Modern
industry (first cotton textile mill set up in 1853 in Bombay by Cowasjee Nanabhoy); first jute mill
came up in 1855 in Rishra (Bengal).
• Nationalist Critique
o India getting poorer due to colonial exploitation
o Problem of poverty- a national problem of raising productive capacities and energy
o Development equated with industrialisation, which should take place through Indian, not foreign
capital
o British policies on trade, infra, development, expenditure designed to serve imperialist interests
o Need for complete severance of India’s economic subservience to Britain and development of an
independent economy
15. Development of Education
• Under Company Rule- largely done nothing, but some exceptions:
o The Calcutta Madrasa by Warren Hastings in 1781 to study Muslim law, etc.
o Sanskrit College by Jonathan Duncan (resident at Benaras) in 1791 for study of Hindu law and
philosophy.
o Fort William College by Wellesley in 1800 to train Company civil servants (closed 1802)
• A humble beginning by Charter Act of 1813
o Encouraging learned Indians, promoting modern sciences
o Company to sanction Rs. 1 Lakh/yr
o Due to efforts of Raja Ram Mohan Roy Calcutta College set up in 1817.
o Government also set up 3 Sanskrit College in Calcutta, Agra, Delhi.
• Orientalist-Anglicist Controversy
o Within the General Committee on Public Instructions, the Anglicists argued that
government spending on education should be exclusively for modern studies.
o Although they were split between English-medium and vernacular
o Orientalists: modern education for jobs; but expand traditional knowledge too.
• Lord Macaulay’s Minute (1835)
o It settled the debate in favour of Anglicists- Western education in English medium
o Led to more focus on a few schools and colleges (not mass education)
o ‘Downward filtration theory’
o Macaulay was also named President of the General Committee of Public Instruction.
• Efforts of James Thompson (Lt Governor of NW Provinces, 1843-53)
o Developed comprehensive scheme of village education through vernacular language
o In these schools, useful subjects (mensuration, agri sciences) taught
o Purpose: train personnel for new Revenue and PWD.
• Wood’s Despatch (1854)- ‘The Magna Carta of English Education in India’
o Asked Government of India to assume responsibility of education of the masses (against
‘downward filtration theory, on paper).
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o Hierarchy: vernacular primary schools (village) < Anglo-vernacular High Schools and affiliated
college (district) < affiliating universities in presidency towns (Calcutta, Bombay, Madras)
o Recommended English as medium in higher studies and vernacular at school level
o Every district should have at least one government school.
o Stressed on female and vocational education, and on teachers’ training
o Secular education
o Recommended system of grant-in-aid to encourage private enterprise.
• Developments
o 1857: University of Calcutta, Bombay, Madras established.
o 1849: Bethune School by JED Bethune at Calcutta for girl’s education.
o Agriculture institute at Pusa (Bihar) and an Engineering Institute at Roorkee started.
• After the crown took over
o Hunter Education Commission (1882-3)
▪ To review state of education since 1854 Despatch. Hunter confined itself to primary and
secondary education.
▪ Transfer control to newly set up district and municipal boards
▪ Recommended 2 divisions in secondary education: literary (till university), vocational (for
commercial careers).
▪ Teaching-cum-examining universities were set up like Punjab University (1882) and
Allahabad University (1887).
▪ Encourage female education outside presidency towns also.
o Indian Universities Act 1904
▪ 1902 Raleigh Commission- To look into conditions and prospects of universities in India;
precluded from reporting on primary and secondary education.
▪ IUA 1904 (Based on recommendations of Raleigh):
➢ Universities to give more attention to study and research
➢ Number of fellows of universities+ their period of office reduced and most fellows to be
nominated by government
➢ Government can pass/ amend/ veto university’s senate regulations
➢ Stricter conditions for affiliations of private colleges
➢ ₹ 5 Lakh/ year sanctioned for 5 years to improve higher education and universities
o Government Resolution on Education Policy 1913
▪ In 1906 Baroda (progressive state) introduced compulsory primary education; Gokhale
advocated this for British India
▪ 1913 Resolution: Government refused compulsory primary education but accepted policy of
removal of illiteracy + urged Provincial governments to give free elementary education to
poor, backwards + Encourage private efforts+ universities in each province.
o Saddler University Commission 1917-19
▪ To study and report problems in Calcutta University; it reviewed school to university
education.
▪ 12 year school course. Students to enter college at intermediate stage (not matric) for 3-yr
degree course
▪ Separate board of secondary and intermediate education
▪ Less rigidity in framing university regulations
▪ University to function as centralized, unitary residential-teaching autonomous body
▪ Extend: female education, applied sciences, technical education, teachers’ training
▪ 1916-21: 7 new universities: Mysore, Patna, Benaras, Aligarh, Dacca, Lucknow, Osmania
▪ 1920: Government recommended Saddler report to the Provincial governments
o Education under Dyarchy (Montford reforms): Education shifted to Provincial ministries and
government stopped taking direct interest in educational matters; govt grants were stopped.

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o Hartog Committee (1929): It was set up to report on development of
education. Main recommendations:
▪ Emphasise primary education but no need for hasty expansion/ compulsion in education.
▪ Only deserving students for high school/ intermediate (average students to vocational schools
after 8th std.)
▪ Restrict admissions to universities for better standards.
o Sergeant Plan of Education
▪ 3-6year group- Pre-primary education
▪ 6-11year group- free, universal, compulsory elementary education
▪ 11-17year group- high school- for selected children (2 type- academic and
technical/vocational 3-year university course.
▪ Adequate technical, commercial and arts education
▪ Abolish intermediate course
▪ Liquidate adult illiteracy in 20 years
▪ Focus: teachers’ training, physical education, education for physically and mentally disabled.
▪ Objective: In 40 years, level of education same as England.
o Development of Vernacular Education
▪ 1835, 1836, 1838: William Adam’s report on vernacular education in BN, BR pointed out
defects in system of vernacular education.
▪ 1843-53: James Jonathan’s experiments in UP, as the lieutenant- governor there, INCluding
opening one government school as model school in each tehsildari and a normal school for
teachers’ training for vernacular schools.
▪ 1853: Dalhousie’s minute expressed strong opinion in favour of vernacular education.
▪ 1854: Wood’s dispatch
▪ 1854-71: Government paid some attention to secular and vernacular education.
▪ 1882: Hunter Commission- State should make special efforts to extend and improve
vernacular education.
▪ 1904: Education policy- Special emphasis on vernacular education and increased grants for
it.
▪ 1929: Hartog Committee presented gloomy picture of primary education
o Development of Technical Education
▪ 1847: Engineering College at Roorkee set up
▪ 1856: Calcutta College of Engineering set up
▪ 1858: Overseers’ School at Poona raised to status of Poona College of Engg and affiliated to
Bombay University
16. The Movement of Working of Working Class
• Early Efforts
o Early nationalists were indifferent to labour’s cause, differentiated between Indian and British
labour, believed that labour laws would affect the competitive edge of Indian-owned industries;
did not support Factories Act 1881, ‘91
o 1870: Sasipada Banerjea started workingmen’s club and newspaper Bharat Shramjeevi
o 1878: Sorabjee Shapoorji tried to get a labour bill passed in Bombay
o 1880: Narain Meghajee Lokhanday started newspaper Deenbandhu and set up Bombay Mill and
Millhands Association.
o The Brahmo Samaj formed the ‘Working Men’s Mission’ in Bengal in 1878 to impart moral
education among the workers. It also established the ‘Working Men’s Institution’ in 1905.
o Gandhi put forward the theory of trusteeship (the capitalist being the trustee of workers Interests)
o The Bombay Millhands Defence Association formed by Bal Gangadhar Tilak in 1908.
o 1899: 1st strike in Great Indian Peninsular Railways; Tilak supported
o Leaders demanding better conditions: Bipin Pal, G Subramaniya

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 PRELIMS – 2025 | MODERN INDIAN HISTORY
• During Swadeshi Upsurge
o Workers participated; strikes by Prabhat Kumar Roy, Premtosh Bose, Apurba Ghosh, etc;
Subramaniya Siva and Chidambaram Pillai arrested for strike
o Biggest strike after Tilak’s arrest
• During First World War and After
o Madras Labour Union, formed in 1918 formed by BP Wadia (first trade union in India)
o Ahmedabad Textile Labour Association (TLA), founded by Gandhiji in 1918
o Textile Labour Association (Majur Mahajan Sangh) was established in Ahmedabad in 1920.
o AITUC (All India Trade Union Congress) founded in 1920.
o 1st president- Lala Lajpat Rai (then Cong president) (Lajpat Rai was the first to link capitalism
with imperialism)
o In tenth of the AITUC held in Nagpur, the communists called for the dissociation from the ILO
and Association with the League against Imperialism
o 1st general secretary is Dewan Chaman Lal
o CR Das: President for 3rd, 4th session
o 1922 Gaya session of INC—welcomed formation of AITUC; committee formed to assist it
o 1926-27: the AITUC got divided into groups called the Geneva-Amsterdam group (the
reforming group) and the Moscovite group (revolutionary group).
▪ The former wanted AITUC to be affiliated to the International Federation of Trade
Unions (IFTU) with its headquarters at Amsterdam while the later group wanted affiliation
with the Red Labour Union (RILU), based at Moscow. The communist thinking ultimately
carried greater influence.
o Other leaders: Nehru, Bose, CF Andrews, JN Sengupta, VV Giri, Sarojini
o Gandhi helped organise Ahmedabad Textile Mill Assn (1918)
• The Trade Union Act 1926
o Recognized trade unions as legal associations
o Laid down conditions for registration and regulation of trade union activities
o Secured civil and criminal immunity for trade unions (restrictions on political activity)
• By 1927 : Various communist groups had organised themselves into Workers' and Peasants' Parties
(WPP) under the leadership SA Dange, Muzaffar Ahmed, PC Joshi and Sohan Singh Josh.
• Trade Disputes Act 1929
o Main objective: To make provisions for establishment of Courts of Inquiry and Boards of
Conciliation.
o Prohibited strikes or lock-outs without notice in public utility services unless each individual
worker planning to go on strike gave an advance notice of one month to the administration.
o It also made any strike or lock-out illegal which had any object other than the furtherance of a
trade dispute within the trade or industry.
• Meerut conspiracy case (1929)
o Government arrested 31 labour leaders; resulted in conviction of Muzzafar Ahmed, SA Dange,
Joglekar, Philip Spratt, Ben Bradley and others.
o The arrests were condemned by the Comintern, and British workers and communists formed a
strong solidarity campaign.
o Supporters: Bhagat Singh and his colleagues, Periyar EV Ramaswamy, the leader of the Madras
province's self-respect movement, Many Congress leaders, INCluding Gandhi.
o Corporatist trend led by NM Joshi broke away from AITUC to setup All India Trade Union
Federation.
o In 1935, the communists rejoined the AITUC.

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 PRELIMS – 2025 | MODERN INDIAN HISTORY
IMPORTANT COMMITTEES
Educational
Viceroy Committee/ Year Chairman Objectives
Commission
Lord Ripon Hunter Commission 1882 William Hunter To study the development in
education
Lord Curzon University Commission 1902 Thomas Raleigh To study Universities and
introduce reforms
Lord Calcutta University 1917 Micheal Sadler To study the condition of
Chelmsford Commission University
Lord Reading Indian Disbandment 1923 Lord Itchcap To discuss the central
Committee committee of education
Lord Wavell Sargeant Plan 1944 John Sargeant To raise the standard of
education like Britain
Famine
Lord Lytton Famine Commission 1880 Richard To give relief to famine
Strachey stricken
Lord Elgin Famine Commission 1897 James Lyall To give suggestion on earlier
reports
Lord Curzon Famine Commission 1900 Anthony To give the suggestion on
McDonnell famine reports
Lord Curzon Irrigation Commission 1901 Scott-Moncrieff To draw up comprehensive
irrigation plan for India
Lord Wavell Famine Inspection 1943-44 John Woodhood To investigate in the events of
Commission Bengal Famine
Economic
Lord Lansdown Harshell Committee 1893 Harshell To give suggestion regarding
currency
Lord Lansdown Opium Commission 1893 — To investigate about the effect
of opium on health
Lord Elgin Fowler Commission 1898 Henry Fowler To give suggestions on
currency
Lord Curzon Irrigation 1901 Sir Wolvin Scott To plan for the expenditure on
Commission Monkinj irrigation
Lord Hardinge Maclagon 1914-15 Maclagon To advise for cooperative
Commission finance
Lord Irwin Linlithgow 1928 – To study problems in
Commission agriculture
Lord Irwin Whitelay Commission 1929 JH Whitelay To study condition of labour
in industries and gardens
Lord Wellington Indian Measurement 1935 Lary Hamand To arrange for inclusion of
Committee labour in Federal Assembly
Lord Linlithgow National Planning 1938 Jawahar Lal To prepare economic plan
Committee Nehru
Administrative
Lord Dufferin Etkinson Commission 1886 Charles Etkinson To involve more Indians in
Civil service
Lord Curzon Fraser Commission 1902 Fraser To investigate the working
Commission of police
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 PRELIMS – 2025 | MODERN INDIAN HISTORY
Lord Hardinge Royal Commission on 1912 Lord Islington To give 25% high posts to
Civil Service Indian
Lord Reading Royal Commission 1924 Lord Lee To remove defects of civil
service
Lord Reading Sandhurst Committee 1926 Andrew Skeen To suggest Indianization of
Indian Army
Lord Irwin Butler Committee 1927 Hercourt Butler

Note :- The Lottery Committee (1817) assisted the government in the task of town planning in Calcutta. The
committee was named because funds for town improvement were raised through public lotteries. The Lottery
Committee commissioned a new city map to provide a comprehensive picture of Calcutta.

IMPORTANT SESSIONS OF INC

Session President Significance

1885 Bombay W C Banerjee • 1st session attended by 72 delegates
1886 Calcutta Dadabhai Naoroji • The Congress decided to set up Provincial Congress
Committees across the country.
1887 Madras Badruddin Tyabji • Appeal to Muslims to join INC
• First Muslim president
1888 Allahabad George Yule • 1st non-Indian to be President of INC
1905 Benaras Gopal Krishna • Expressed resentment against Bengal partition boycott of
Gokhale foreign goods
• Promotion of swadeshi goods and Indian industries-
Public meetings and processions
• Corps of Volunteers or ‘Samitis’- Swadesh Bandhab
Samiti of Ashwini Kumar Dutta
• Use of Traditional Popular Festivals and Melas-
Ganpatifestival, traditional folk theatre
• Nationalist song- Amar Sonar Bangla, Sudesha
Geetham- Subramania Bharati
• Painting- Abanindranath Tagore
• Scientific research- Jadish Chandra Bose
• National Education in vernacular medium. Bengal
National College, National Council of Education.
1906 Calcutta Dadabhai Naoroji • Word “swaraj” mentioned for the first time
1907 Surat Rash Behari Ghosh • Congress extremists split between moderates and
1908 Madras Rash Ghosh Behari • Constitution of INC drawn
1909 Lahore Madan Mohan • Expressed disapproval over formation of separate
Malviya electorates based on religion (Indian Councils Act, 1909)
1916 Lucknow A C Majumdar • Reunification of the two factions in INC i.e., moderates
and extremists. Reunification of the two factions in INC
i.e., moderates and Extremists.
• Death of Gokhale and Pherozshah Mehta
• Lucknow pact between Muslim league and INC
• INC accepted Muslim league demand of separate
electorate
1917 Calcutta Annie Besant • First women to preside the congress session

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 PRELIMS – 2025 | MODERN INDIAN HISTORY
1919 Amritsar Motilal Nehru • New constitution of INC framed
• Condemned the Jallianwala Bagh massacre
• Approved the Khilafat movement
1920 (Special Lala Lajpat Rai • NCM moved and adopted
Session) Calcutta
1920 Nagpur Viraraghvachari • Reconstitution of congress committees on linguistic
grounds.
• Jinnah left the INC
1922 Gaya C R Das • CR Das & other leaders broke away from INC and
formed Swaraj party.
• C R Das presided session when he was in Jail.
1924 Belgaum M K Gandhi • Only session where Gandhi ji presided
1925 Kanpur Sarojini Naidu • First Indian women president of INC
1927 Madras M A Ansari • Resolution against using Indian troops in Mesopotamia,
Iran and China
• Resolution to boycott Simon Comission
• Adopted resolution for Purna Swaraj
1928 Calcutta Motilal Nehru • 1st All India Youth Congress Formed
1929 Lahore J L Nehru • Passed Purna Swaraj Resolution
• Authorized the Working Committee to launch civil
disobedience including non-payment of taxes.
• It had also called upon all members of legislatures to
resign their seats.
• 26th Jan observed as Independence Day
• Civil disobedience to be launched
1931 Karachi Vallabh Bhai Patel • Endorsed Gandhi Irwin pact
• Resolution of Fundamental rights and National
Economic Programme
• Gandhi nominated to represent INC in the 2nd RTC
1934 Bombay Rajendra Prasad • INC constitution amended
1936 Lucknow Jawahar Lal Nehru • Push towards socialist ideas by Nehru
1937 Faizpur J L Nehru • 1st session in a village
1938 Haripura S C Bose • National Planning Committee set under Nehru
1939 Tripuri Rajendra Prasad • Bose was re-elected as president but resign when Gandhi
supported P. Sitarammaiah.
• Rajendra Prasad was made president of the session
• All India Forward Bloca faction within Congress in
Bengal was formed by Bose in 1939.
1940 Ramgarh Abul Kalam Azad • Decision Movement to Launch Civil Disobedience
1946 Meerut J B Kriplani • Last session before independence

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