DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF A MOSFET BASED POWER INVERTER

ABSTRACT

This project is titled the design and construction of a MOSFET power inverter

system. It is designed to meet up with the power demand in the offices and in

homes in the absence of power supply from the national power grid. In order
words the device / item serves as a substitute for PHCN which almost

monopolises the power supply to people.

It is designed in such a way that it will take up 12v DC from battery and inverts it

to an output of 220v, 50Hz AC. It makes no noise during operation and no

hazardous carbon monoxide is generated in the surrounding. This is a feature that

makes it safe to use any where when compared to generator. Also, the circuit is

capable of charging the battery (i.e 12v source) when the power from the supply

authority is on. This greatly reduces the cost of operation of the system.

The aim of this work is build an inverter system that uses MOSFET as the

switching device.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
COVER PAGE
TITLE PAGE
APPROVAL PAGE
DEDICATION
ACKNOWELDGEMENT
ABSTRACT
CHAPTER ONE
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 AIM OF THE PROJECT
1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT
1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROJECT
1.5 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT
1.6 LIMITATION OF THE PROJECT
1.7 APPLICATION OF THE PROJECT
1.8 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CONVENTIONAL GENERATOR AND INVERTER

CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF AN INVERTER
2.2 REVIEW OF HOW TO CHOOSING THE RIGHT INVERTER
2.3 REVIEW OF THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SINE WAVE AND MODIFIED SINE

WAVE INVERTER

2.4 REVIEW OF INVERTER CAPACITY

2.5 SAFETY OF INVERTER

2.6 TYPES OF INVERTER

2.7 IGBTS VS. POWER MOSFETS

2.8 ENHANCED N-CHANNEL VS ENHANCED P-CHANNEL MOSFETS

2.9 MOSFETS CHARACTERISTIC

2.10 MOSFET DRIVER

CHAPTER THREE
3.0 CONSTRUCTION
3.1 BASIC DESIGNS OF AN INVERTER
3.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM
3.3 3KVA MODIFIED SINE WAVE INVERTER CIRCUIT USING IC 3525, WITH
REGULATED OUTPUT AND LOW BATTERY PROTECTION
3.4 PARTS LIST
3.5 DESCRIPTION OF COMPONENTS USED
3.6 HOW TO CHOOSE THE BEST INVERTER BATTERY
CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 RESULT ANALYSIS
4.2 CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE AND TESTING
4.3 CASING AND PACKAGING
4.4 ASSEMBLING OF SECTIONS
4.5 TESTING OF SYSTEM OPERATION
4.6 RESULT ANALYSIS
4.7 MOUNTING PROCEDURE
4.8 TESTING OF SYSTEM OPERATION
4.9 TESTING OF MOSFET

4.10 DEAD MOSFETS

4.11 FREQUENCY STABILITY

4.12 OPERATING TEMPERATURE

4.13 EFFICIENCY

CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 CONCLUSION
5.2 RECOMMENDATION
5.3 REFERENCES

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION
A power inverter is a device that converts DC power (also known as direct

current), to standard AC power (alternating current). Inverters are used to

operate electrical equipment from the power produced by a car or boat battery or

renewable energy sources, like solar panels or wind turbines. DC power is what

batteries store, while AC power is what most electrical appliances need to run so

an inverter is necessary to convert the power into a usable form. For example,

when a cell phone is plugged into a car cigarette lighter to recharge, it supplies DC

power; this must be converted to the required AC power by a power inverter to

charge the phone.

In modified sine wave, The waveform in commercially available modified-sine-

wave inverters is a square wave with a pause before the polarity transition, which

only needs to cycle through a three-position switch that outputs forward, off, and

reverse output at the pre-determined frequency. The peak voltage to RMS

voltage does not maintain the same relationship as for a sine wave. The DC bus

voltage may be actively regulated or the "on" and "off" times can be modified to

maintain the same RMS value output up to the DC bus voltage to compensate for

DC bus voltage variation.

The ratio of on to off time can be adjusted to vary the RMS voltage while

maintaining a constant frequency with a technique called PWM. Harmonic

spectrum in the output depends on the width of the pulses and the modulation

frequency. When operating induction motors, voltage harmonics is not of great

concern, however harmonic distortion in the current waveform introduces

additional heating, and can produce pulsating torques.

Most AC motors will run on MSW inverters with an efficiency reduction of about

20% due to the harmonic content.

1.1 AIM OF THE PROJECT

the main aim of this work is to build an inverter that uses MOSFETs as the

switching device. MOSFETS in an inverter are the output devices that generate

the ac voltage at the rated current. These MOSFETS are switched on/off by the

pulse width modulation (pwm).

1.1 OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT

This inverter is capable of operating a wide variety of loads; electronic and

household items including but not limited to TV, VCR, and satellite receiver,

computers, and printers. At the end of this work, the student will be able to

i. Design a circuit for power inverter system.

ii. understand different types of inverter system.

iii. pin-out connections of MOSFET

1.2 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROJECT

In the recent years, power inverter has become a major power source due to its

environmental and economic benefits and proven reliability. Since the power

inverter system does not have moving parts, virtually it does not require any kind

of maintenance once installed.

Power inverter is produced by connecting the device on the 12VDC battery as the

input to produce 220VAC as the required output. It can also be connected to solar

panel. Second, the whole energy conversion process is environmentally friendly. It

produces no noise, harmful emissions or polluting gases. The burning of natural

resources for energy can create smoke, cause acid rain and pollute water and air.

Carbon dioxide, CO2, a leading greenhouse gas, is also produced in the case of

burning fuels. Power inverter uses only the power of the battery as its fuel. It

creates no harmful by-product and contributes actively to the reduction of global

warming. In this work, MOSFET are used because: i Efficient switching, ii. Voltage

drop, iii. smaller than BJTs. iv. No continuous gate current.

Inverters use MOSFETs with a Vds of around 100V and an Rds(on) that is as low as

possible, usually in the tens of milliohms.

1.3 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT

A power inverter is a power conversion device. It converts fixed direct current

(DC) voltage to frequency sinusoidal alternating current (AC) voltage output.

The use of inverter has become prevalent in wide range of industrial applications;

from motion control applications to ventilation systems, waste water processing

facilities to machining areas, and many others. Though power inverters offer

lower operating costs and higher efficiency, they are not without their problems.

MOSFETs used in this work are used for the switching operation. These MOSFETs

or Transistors are connected to the primary winding of the inverter transformer.

When these switching devices receive the MOS drive signal from the driver circuit,

they start switching between ON & OFF states at a rate of 50 Hz. This switching

action of the MOSFETs or Transistors cause a 50Hz current to the primary of the

inverter transformer. This results in a 220V AC at the secondary of the inverter

transformer. This secondary voltage is made available at the output socket of the

inverter by a changeover relay.

1.4 LIMITATION OF THE PROJECT

 Expensive when compared to traditional generators

 There is no larger capacity inverter in the markets compared to power

generators.
  The inverter can power a few appliances for a short period

 The input is limited to 12VDC, output to 240VAC and the frequency to 50Hz

 The wave form is modified sine wave.

1.5 APPLICATION OF THE PROJECT

the applications and uses of a power inverter which are as follows:

DC power source utilization

Inverter designed to provide 240 VAC from the 12 VDC source provided in an

automobile. The unit shown provides more than 20 amperes of alternating

current, or enough to power more than 1KW load. An inverter converts the DC

electricity from sources such as batteries, solar panels, or fuel cells to AC

electricity. The electricity can be at any required voltage; in particular it can

operate AC equipment designed for mains operation, or rectified to produce DC

at any desired voltage.

Uninterruptible power supplies

An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) uses batteries and an inverter to supply AC

power when main power is not available. When main power is restored, a

rectifier supplies DC power to recharge the batteries.

Induction heating
Modified Sine wave Inverters convert low frequency main AC power to higher

frequency for use in induction heating. To do this, AC power is first rectified to

provide DC power. The inverter then changes the DC power to high frequency AC

power.

HVDC power transmission

With HVDC power transmission, AC power is rectified and high voltage DC power

is transmitted to another location. At the receiving location, an inverter in a static

inverter plant converts the power back to AC. The inverter must be synchronized

with grid frequency and phase and minimize harmonic generation.

Variable-frequency drives

A variable-frequency drive controls the operating speed of an AC motor by

controlling the frequency and voltage of the power supplied to the motor. An

inverter provides the controlled power. In most cases, the variable-frequency

drive includes a rectifier so that DC power for the inverter can be provided from

main AC power. Since an inverter is the key component, variable-frequency drives

are sometimes called inverter drives or just inverters.

Electric vehicle drives

Adjustable speed motor control inverters are currently used to power the traction

motors in some electric and diesel-electric rail vehicles as well as some battery

electric vehicles and hybrid electric highway vehicles.

Air conditioning

An inverter air conditioner uses a variable-frequency drive to control the speed of

the motor and thus the compressor.

Electroshock weapons

Electroshock weapons and tasters have a DC/AC inverter to generate several tens

of thousands of V AC out of a small 12V DC battery.

1.8 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CONVENTIONAL GENERATOR AND INVERTER

CONVENTIONAL GENERATOR INVERTER GENERATOR

Conventional generators have been Inverter generators are a relatively

around for quite a while, and the basic recent development, made possible by

concept behind them has remained advanced electronic circuitry. It

essentially unchanged. They consist of inverter draws power from a fixed DC

an energy source, usually a fossil fuel source (typically a comparatively fixed

such as diesel, propane or gasoline, source like a car battery or a solar

which powers a motor attached to an panel), and uses electronic circuitry to

alternator that produces electricity. “invert” the DC power into the AC

The motor must run at a constant power. The converted AC can be at

speed (usually 3600 rpm) to produce any required voltage and frequency

the standard current that most with the use of appropriate

household uses require (in Nigeria, equipment, but for consumer-level

typically 220 Volts AC @ 50 Hertz). If applications in Nigeria, the most

the engine’s rpm fluctuates, so will the common combination is probably

frequency (Hertz) of electrical output. taking the 12V DC power from car,

boat or RV batteries and making it into

the 220V AC power required for most

everyday uses.

Conventional generators always bigger The compact size, relatively light

and heavier than inverter weight and resulting portability of

inverter generators make them the

clear winner in this category.

Conventional generators always noisy Inverter generators are often designed

 from the ground up to be

comparatively quiet

Conventional generators are often Inverter generator draws power from

designed simply to get a certain DC source, either from battery or solar

amount of power where it is needed, panel.

and to keep the power on. Factors like

the size of the unit have not been a

major consideration. This has meant

that conventional designs can often

accommodate sizeable fuel tanks, with

the obvious result being relatively long

run times. This means that it uses fuel

for it to operate.

Conventional generators emit smoke Inverter produces no smoke

which causes pollution

A conventional generator is nothing With an inverter generator, a rectifier

more than an engine connected to an is used to convert the AC power to DC

alternator and run at a speed that and capacitors are used to smooth it

produces the desired AC frequency, out to a certain degree. The DC power

regardless of the load on it (as the load is then “inverted” back into clean AC

increases the engine throttles up to power of the desired frequency and

keep the engine speed the same). The voltage

output of the alternator is connected

directly to the load, without any

processing.

Many inverters can be paired with Conventional units simply can’t offer

another identical unit to double your this feature. Note that you will need a

power capacity. This type of parallel special cable to connect your

capability means you can use two generators, which is generally not

smaller, lighter generators to provide

the same wattage and amperage of

one much larger generator – without

sacrificing all the benefits of the

smaller, lighter, quieter, more portable

inverter units.
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF AN INVERTER

Early inverters

From the late nineteenth century through the middle of the twentieth century,

DC-to-AC power conversion was accomplished using rotary converters or motor-

generator sets (M-G sets). In the early twentieth century, vacuum tubes and gas

filled tubes began to be used as switches in inverter circuits. The most widely

used type of tube was the thyratron.

The origins of electromechanical inverters explain the source of the term inverter.

Early AC-to-DC converters used an induction or synchronous AC motor direct-

connected to a generator (dynamo) so that the generator's commutator reversed

its connections at exactly the right moments to produce DC. A later development

is the synchronous converter, in which the motor and generator windings are

combined into one armature, with slip rings at one end and a commutator at the
other and only one field frame. The result with either is AC-in, DC-out. With an M-

G set, the DC can be considered to be separately generated from the AC; with a

synchronous converter, in a certain sense it can be considered to be

"mechanically rectified AC". Given the right auxiliary and control equipment, an

M-G set or rotary converter can be "run backwards", converting DC to AC. Hence

an inverter is an inverted converter.

Controlled rectifier inverters

Since early transistors were not available with sufficient voltage and current

ratings for most inverter applications, it was the 1957 introduction of the thyristor

or silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR) that initiated the transition to solid state

inverter circuits.

The commutation requirements of SCRs are a key consideration in SCR circuit

designs. SCRs do not turn off or commutate automatically when the gate control

signal is shut off. They only turn off when the forward current is reduced to below

the minimum holding current, which varies with each kind of SCR, through some

external process. For SCRs connected to an AC power source, commutation occurs

naturally every time the polarity of the source voltage reverses. SCRs connected

to a DC power source usually require a means of forced commutation that forces

the current to zero when commutation is required. The least complicated SCR
circuits employ natural commutation rather than forced commutation. With the

addition of forced commutation circuits, SCRs have been used in the types of

inverter circuits described above.

In applications where inverters transfer power from a DC power source to an AC

power source, it is possible to use AC-to-DC controlled rectifier circuits operating

in the inversion mode. In the inversion mode, a controlled rectifier circuit

operates as a line commutated inverter. This type of operation can be used in

HVDC power transmission systems and in regenerative braking operation of

motor control systems.

Another type of SCR inverter circuit is the current source input (CSI) inverter. A

CSI inverter is the dual of a six-step voltage source inverter. With a current source

inverter, the DC power supply is configured as a current source rather than a

voltage source. The inverter SCRs is switched in a six-step sequence to direct the

current to a three-phase AC load as a stepped current waveform. CSI inverter

commutation methods include load commutation and parallel capacitor

commutation. With both methods, the input current regulation assists the

commutation. With load commutation, the load is a synchronous motor operated

at a leading power factor.

As they have become available in higher voltage and current ratings,

semiconductors such as transistors or IGBTs that can be turned off by means of

control signals have become the preferred switching components for use in

inverter circuits.

Rectifier and inverter pulse numbers

Rectifier circuits are often classified by the number of current pulses that flow to

the DC side of the rectifier per cycle of AC input voltage. A single-phase half-wave

rectifier is a one-pulse circuit and a single-phase full-wave rectifier is a two-pulse

circuit. A three-phase half-wave rectifier is a three-pulse circuit and a three-phase

full-wave rectifier is a six-pulse circuit.

With three-phase rectifiers, two or more rectifiers are sometimes connected in

series or parallel to obtain higher voltage or current ratings. The rectifier inputs

are supplied from special transformers that provide phase shifted outputs. This

has the effect of phase multiplication. Six phases are obtained from two

transformers, twelve phases from three transformers and so on. The associated

rectifier circuits are 12-pulse rectifiers, 18-pulse rectifiers and so on

When controlled rectifier circuits are operated in the inversion mode, they would

be classified by pulse number also. Rectifier circuits that have a higher pulse

number have reduced harmonic content in the AC input current and reduced
ripple in the DC output voltage. In the inversion mode, circuits that have a higher

pulse number have lower harmonic content in the AC output voltage waveform.

Modified Sine-Wave Inverter Enhanced

Altering the waveform produced by a modified sine-wave inverter reduces

distortion products, while still permitting use of efficient switching techniques.

Aug. 1, 2006 James H. Hahn, Associate Professor Emeritus, University of Missouri-

Rolla Engineering Education Center, St. Louis | Power Electronics

With the increasing popularity of alternate power sources, such as solar and wind,

the need for static inverters to convert dc energy stored in batteries to

conventional ac form has increased substantially. Most use the same basic

concept: a dc source of relatively low voltage and reasonably good stability is

converted by a high-frequency oscillator and step up transformer to a dc voltage

with magnitude corresponding to the peak of the desired ac voltage. A power

stage at the output then generates an ac voltage from the higher-voltage dc.

Implementation

As demonstrated here, the modified-sine-wave inverter can be modified further

to produce a much closer approximation to a sine wave, at a relatively small

increase in manufacturing costs, simply by incorporating another level into the

waveform. The design still uses switching technology in the power stage, assuring
high efficiency. A patent application has been submitted for the approach

described in this article.

The switching stage could be implemented with a combination of bridge and half-

bridge components commonly used in power switching applications. To produce

the proposed multiple-level waveform, several implementations are possible. In

general, they all involve connecting the output lead to a specific voltage level with

switches such as power MOSFETs capable of handling substantial current.

Appropriate digital logic and timing circuits will be used to activate each switch at

the correct time to achieve the α and β pulse widths. A table can be developed to

indicate which switches must be closed for each section of the output waveform.

Unlike conventional PWM-inverter designs, which switch at high frequencies, the

proposed inverter design switches at just three times the line frequency. As a

consequence, the proposed inverter design will reduce switching losses from that

of the PWM-controlled inverter and will save power regardless of the output

power level.

2.2 REVIEW OF HOW TO CHOOSING THE RIGHT INVERTER

Depending on how you use them, pure sign wave inverters have distinct

advantages over modified sign wave inverters. There are, however, some

instances when the latter are just as effective as the former, if not more so. For
example, if you need to power equipment that requires a single induction load, or

a resistive load, modified sine wave inverters are an ideal choice for two reasons:

they often cost less than pure sine wave inverters, and they use DC power quite

efficiently.

Choosing a DC to AC inverter is an important decision concerning the type of

equipment that will be powered; the amount of energy consumed by the inverter,

and the inverter’s cost.

2.3 REVIEW OF THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SINE WAVE AND MODIFIED SINE

WAVE INVERTER

As their names would suggest, the primary difference between pure sine wave

and modified sine wave inverters lies in the type of sign wave they exhibit. A

modified sign wave is similar to a square wave, which looks like a succession of

evenly spaced squares when it is expressed as a waveform. However, unlike a

square wave, a modified sine wave’s output rests at zero volts for a short time

before switching positive or negative.

Far from looking like a succession of blocks when viewed as a waveform, a pure

sine wave looks like a series of smooth, evenly spaced hills and valleys. Due to its

nearly perfect sine wave output, a pure sine wave inverter is compatible with all

types of electronics, even sensitive, specialized equipment such as laser printers

and audio equipment. A modified sine wave inverter, on the other hand, is not

compatible with these electronic devices. It can power most types of standard

electrical, but cannot be used for equipment whose performance requires refined

sine wave input.

Another difference between pure signs wave inverters and modified sine wave

inverters is the latter offer less energy efficiency than the former. For example,

while an AC motor will run off a modified sine wave, its operational efficiency is

nearly twenty percent less than it would be if a pure sine wave were present. For

companies whose green initiatives include energy efficiency, using an AC to DC

inverter that delivers a pure sine wave is typically the best choice. Using a

transformerless inverter will also boost efficiency.

2.5 REVIEW OF INVERTER CAPACITY

Different models of power inverters vary in how many watts of power they can

supply. The capacity of an inverter should equal the total number of watts

required by each device, plus at least a 50% addition to account for peaks or

spikes in the power draw. For example, if a DVD player draws 100 watts and a

small TV another 100 watts, a minimum 300-watt inverter is recommended.

Getting an inverter with more capacity than what is immediately needed is a good
idea for many people, as it means that different or new devices can be added

without the need for a new power inverter.

2.6 SAFETY OF INVERTER

When using a power inverter continuously inside a vehicle that is not turned on,

the engine should be started at least once an hour for 10 to 15 minutes to keep

the battery from running down. A vehicle should never be started in a closed

garage, as the carbon monoxide in the exhaust is fatal.

Power inverters should only be used with batteries that are in good condition and

fully charged. A weak battery will be drained easily if demand is too high. If used

in a car, this could leave a driver stranded, so the battery's condition should be

checked before using an inverter in a stationary vehicle. If the inverter is being

used while the vehicle is running, as in the case of a road trip, there should be no

problem with the extra draw as long as the battery is in good condition.

Working with large batteries can be dangerous, and when not done properly, can

result in serious injury. Improper use of a power inverter can even lead to

electrocution. For safety reasons, someone attempting to hook an inverter

directly to a battery should be sure to read and follow any and all safety

precautions listed in the inverter's instruction booklet.

It is important for people to always use a power inverter that is rated high enough

for the device that needs to be run. If a heavy-duty power saw is plugged into a

cigarette lighter, for example, the lightweight inverter might overheat and cause a

fire in the dashboard. Adapters that allow more outlets than the unit is designed

to accommodate should be avoided, and proper ventilation around the inverter is

required to prevent overheating.

2.7 TYPES OF INVERTER

There are different types of inverters for home and industries available which can

suit your various electricity needs. Following are the two basic types of inverters.

1. Modified Sine Wave Inverters

This type of home inverter obtains power from a battery of 12 volts and must be

recharged using a generator or a solar panel. Appliances like microwave ovens,

light bulbs, etc. can be run using these types of inverter.

 They can be rightly held as the best inverters for homes as they are efficient

enough to provide power to the normal home requirement.

 They are the home inverters that are most affordable too.

 You can run the daily used home appliances using the modified sine wave

home inverters.
 The electric appliances that involve motor speed controls or timers are not to

be run using these types of home inverters.

The wave form of a modified sine wave inverter is as below:

2. True sine wave inverters

This is one of the better types of inverters as they provide better power as

compared to the modified sine wave inverters for homes. These types of home

inverter are also run using a battery of a larger capacity.

 Technically speaking, the sine waves they produce are purer, thus the

efficiency.

 They are best inverters employed for the power sensitive appliances like

refrigerators, televisions, air conditioners, washing machines, etc.

 These types of inverters are extremely reliable. The only drawback is that they

are a bit expensive and cannot be afforded by the common man.

 There are various models available based on the electricity requirement of the

house.

The wave form of a sine wave inverter is as below:

3. Square wave inverter

This is the simplest form of output wave available in the cheapest form of

inverters. They can run simple appliances without problem but much else. Square

wave voltage can be easily generated using a simple oscillator. With the help of a

transformer, the generated square wave voltage can be transformed into a value

of 240VAC or higher.

The wave form of a square wave inverter is a below:

2.8 IGBTS VS. POWER MOSFETS

While designing this circuit, a choice had to be made between the two main

types of switches used in power electronics. One is the power MOSFET which

is much like a standard MOSFET but designed to handle relatively large

voltages and currents. The other is the insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT)

[5]. Each has its advantages, and there is a high degree of overlap in the

specifications of the two.

IGBTs tend to be used in very high voltage applications, nearly always above

200V, and generally above 600W. They do not have the high frequency

switching capability of MOSFETs, and tend to be used at frequencies lower

than 29 kHz. They can handle high currents, are able to output greater than

5kW, and have very good thermal operating ability, being able to operate

properly above 100 Celsius. One of the major disadvantages of IGBTs is their

unavoidable current tail when they turn off. Essentially, when the IGBT turns
off, the current of the gate transistor cannot dissipate immediately, which

causes a loss of power each time this occurs. This tail is due to the very design

of the IGBT and cannot be remedied.

IGBTs also have no body diode, which can be good or bad depending on the

application. IGBTs tend to be used in high power applications, such as

uninterruptible power supplies of power higher than 5kW, welding, or low

power lighting [10].

Power MOSFETS have a much higher switching frequency capability than do

IGBTs, and can be switched at frequencies higher than 200 kHz. They do not

have as much capability for high voltage and high current applications, and

tend to be used at voltages lower than 250V and less than 500W. MOSFETs

do not have current tail power losses, which makes them more efficient than

IGBTs. Both MOSFETs and IGBTs have power losses due to the ramp up and

ramp down of the voltage when turning on and off (dV/dt losses). Unlike

IGBTs, MOSFETs have body diode.

Generally, IGBTs are the sure bet for high voltage, low frequency (>1000V,

<20 kHz) uses and MOSFETs are ideal for low voltage, high frequency

applications (<250V, >200 kHz). In between these two extremes is a large

grey area. In this area, other considerations such as power, percent duty
cycle, availability and cost tend to be the deciding factors. Since this project

is about design of a 600W inverter, with a 340VDC bus (ideally), and a

switching frequency of 5 kHz MOSFET is the ideal choice, in spite of MOSFET

switches having high ON state resistance and conduction losses [5]. Also

MOSFET being a voltage controlled device, it can be driven directly from

CMOS or TTL logic and the same gate signal can be applied to diagonally

opposite switches since the gate drive current required is very low [5]. If our

system was a larger, commercial application with a high power output, IGBTs

would be the choice.

2.9 ENHANCED N-CHANNEL VS ENHANCED P-CHANNEL MOSFETS

The use of P-Channel MOSFETs on the high side and N-Channel MOSFETs on

the low side is easier, but using all N-Channel MOSFETs and a FET driver,

lower “on” resistance can be obtained resulting in reduced power loss. This

requires a more complex circuit since the gate of the high side Mosfet must

be driven positive with respect to Vs bus voltage to turn on the Mosfet [9].

2.10 MOSFETs CHARACTERISTIC

In this project enhanced n-channel MOSFET was chosen for both high side

and low side switches of the h-bridge. For the MOSFET to carry drain current
Id (on state) a channel between the drain and source must be created. This

occurs when drain to source Vgs voltage exceeds the device threshold

(Vgs>Vth). Once the channel is induced the MOSFET can operate in either

triode region (drain current proportional to channel resistance) or the

saturation region (constant drain current). The gate to drain voltage Vgs

determines whether the induced channel enters pitch-off or remains in

triode region. When used as a switching device only triode and cut-off

region are utilized. The device will operate at cut-off (off state) when gate to

source voltage Vgs is less than threshold voltage Vth (Vgs<Vth) [15]. Fig 3.8a

shows schematic symbol, fig 3.8b shows its drain characteristic and fig3.8c

shows drain current flows only when Vgs exceeds threshold voltage.

1. Triode region; Vds<Vgs-Vth

2. Saturation region; Vds>Vgs-Vth

3. Cut-off region; Vgs<Vth

Figure 3.8 N channel Mosfet characteristic

2.11 MOSFET DRIVER

As stated in the previous section, it is beneficial to use N-channel MOSFETs as

the high side switches as well as the low side switches because they have a

lower ‘ON’ resistance and therefore less power loss. However, to do so, the

drain of the high side device is connected to 340V DC power which is to be

inverted into the 240V AC power. This is a problem because the 340V is the

highest voltage in the system and in order for the switch to be turned on the

voltage at the gate terminal must be 10V higher than the drain terminal

voltage [15, 16].

Therefore, to drive MOSFETs in the H-Bridge MOSFET driver IC is used with a

bootstrap capacitor specifically designed for driving a half-bridge. After

considering various IC options, the ideal choice was the IR2110, which is

rated at 600V, with a gate driving current of 2A and a gate driving voltage of

10-20V. The turn on and turn off times are 120ns and 94ns respectively [17].

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 CONSTRUCTION

3.1 BASIC DESIGNS OF AN INVERTER

In an inverter circuit, DC power is connected to a transformer through the centre

tap of the primary winding. A switch is rapidly switched back and forth to allow

current to flow back to the DC source following two alternate paths through one

end of the primary winding and then the other. The alternation of the direction of

current in the primary winding of the transformer produces alternating current

(AC) in the secondary circuit.

3.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM

The block diagram of a modified sine wave inverter is as below:

Pulse generator: this is the signal processing and control circuit that generates

the logic level control signals used to turn the power switch (semiconductor) ON

and OFF. There are many different circuits that one can adopt and use a pulse

generator or oscillator, in fact many ICs that need few external components to be

connected are available in the market for use. Such IC is SG3524. The output of

this circuit is either sent to the power switch (transistor) directly the or via the

driver circuit for amplification before it is sent to the power switch as the case

may be. Of course the choice depends on the designs and / or transistor used as

power switch.
Driver circuits : this circuits amplifies the signal from pulse generator to levels

required by the power switch and provides electrical isolation when required

between the power switch and the logic level signal processing circuit (pulse

generator).

Power switch: MOSFET is also known as switch. They are used here as the

switching devices. They should stand to withstand the high current of the primary

winding (low voltage side) of the transformer.

Transformer: transformer also belongs to output device. Transformers are of

various types: step up, step down, auto-transformer etc. They comprises of

primary and secondary windings which may not be isolated from each other. The

winding are electrically interlinked by a common magnetic circuit and operate

based on the principle of electromagnetic induction. The number of turns of the

primary and secondary winding is related to their voltages and current with the

following equation:

The size of the transformer is proportional to its power. For an ideal transformer,

the input power equals the output power; but in practice, there is no loseless

transformer.

3.3 3KVA MODIFIED SINE WAVE INVERTER CIRCUIT USING IC 3525, WITH

REGULATED OUTPUT AND LOW BATTERY PROTECTION

The post explains a simple modified sine wave inverter circuit using a single IC SG

3525. The circuit is equipped with low battery detection and cut off feature, and

an automatic output voltage regulation feature.

THE DESIGN

From the circuit diagram above, the ICSG3525 is rigged in its standard PWM

generator/oscillator mode where the frequency of oscillation is determined by C1,

R2 and P1.

P1 can be adjusted for acquiring accurate frequencies as per the required specs of

the application.

The range of P1 is from 50Hz to 100Hz, here we are interested in the 50 Hz value

which ultimately provides a 50Hz across the two outputs at pin#11 and Pin#14.

The above two outputs oscillate alternately in a push pull manner (totem pole),

driving the connected MOSFETS into saturation at the fixed frequency - 50 Hz.

The MOSFETS in response "push and Pull the battery voltage/current across the

two winding of the transformer which in turn generates the required mains AC at

the output winding of the transformer.

The peak voltage generated at the output would be anywhere around 300 Volts

which must adjusted to around 230V RMS using a good quality RMS meter and by

adjusting P2.

P2 actually adjusts the width of the pulses at pin#11/#14, which helps to provide

the required RMS at the output. This feature facilitates a PWM controlled

modified sine waveform at the output.

AUTOMATIC OUTPUT VOLTAGE REGULATION FEATURE

Since the IC facilitates a PWM control pin-out this pin-out can be exploited for

enabling an automatic output regulation of the system.

Pin#2 is the sensing input of the internal built in error Op-amp, normally the

voltage at this pin (non inv.) should not increase above the 5.1V mark by default,

because the inv pin#1 is fixed at 5.1V internally.

As long as pin#2 is within the specified voltage limit, the PWM correction feature

stays inactive, however the moment the voltage at pin#2 tends to rise above 5.1V
the output pulses are subsequently narrowed down in an attempt to correct and

balance the output voltage accordingly.

A small sensing transformer TR2 is used here for acquiring a sample voltage of the

output, this voltage is appropriately rectified and fed to pin#2 of the IC1.

P3 is set such that the fed voltage stays well below the 5.1V limit when the output

voltage RMS is around 220V. This sets up the auto regulation feature of the

circuit. Now if due to any reason the output voltage tends to rise above the set

value, the PWM correction feature activates and the voltage gets reduced.

Ideally P3 should be set such that the output voltage RMS is fixed at 250V.

So if the above voltage drops below 250V, the PWM correction will try to pull it

upward, and vice versa, this will help to acquire a two way regulation of the

output,

A careful investigation will show that the inclusion of R3, R4, P2 are meaningless,

these may be removed from the circuit. P3 may be solely used for getting the

intended PWM control at the output.

LOW BATTERY CUT-OF FEATURE

The other handy feature of this circuit is the low battery cut off ability.

Again this introduction becomes possible due to the in built shut down feature of

the IC SG3525.

Pin#10 of the IC will respond to a positive signal and will shut down the output

until the signal is inhibited.

A 741 opamp here functions as the low voltage detector.

P5 should be set such that the output of 741 remains at logic low as long as the

battery voltage is above the low voltage threshold, this may be 11.5V. 11V or 10.5

as preferred by the user, ideally it shouldn't be less than 11V.

Once this is set, if the battery voltage tends to go below the low voltage mark,

the output of the IC instantly becomes high, activating the shut down feature of

IC1, inhibiting any further loss of battery voltage.

The feedback resistor R9 and P4 makes sure the position stays latched even if the

battery voltage tends to rise back to some higher levels after the shut down

operation is activated.
3.4 PARTS LIST

All resistors are 1/4 watt 1% MFR. unless otherwise stated.

R1, R7 = 22 Ohms

R2, R4, R8, R10 = 1K

R3 = 4K7

R5, R6 = 100 Ohms

R9 = 100K C1 = 1uF/50V MKT

C2, C3, C4, C5 = 100nF

C6, C7 = 4.7uF/25V

P1---P5 = 10 presets

T1, T2 = IRF540N

D1----D6 = 1N4007

IC1 = SG 3525

IC2 = LM741

TR1 = 8-0-8Vcurrent as per requirement

TR2 = 0-9V/100mA

Battery = 12V/25 to 100 AH

3.5 DESCRIPTION OF COMPONENTS USED

Components used in this work are described as below:

RECTIFYING DIODE

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which

periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one

direction. The process is known as rectification. Physically, rectifiers take a

number of forms, including vacuum tube diodes, mercury-arc valves, copper and

selenium oxide rectifiers, semiconductor diodes, silicon-controlled rectifiers and

other silicon-based semiconductor switches. Historically, even synchronous

electromechanical switches and motors have been used. Early radio receivers,

called crystal radios, used a "cat's whisker" of fine wire pressing on a crystal of

galena (lead sulphide) to serve as a point-contact rectifier or "crystal detector".

Rectifiers have many uses, but are often found serving as components of DC

power supplies and high-voltage direct current power transmission systems.

Rectification may serve in roles other than to generate direct current for use as a

source of power. As noted, detectors of radio signals serve as rectifiers. In gas

heating systems flame rectification is used to detect presence of flame.

Because of the alternating nature of the input AC sine wave, the process of

rectification alone produces a DC current which, although unidirectional, consists

of pulses of current. Many applications of rectifiers, such as power supplies for

radio, television and computer equipment, require a steady constant DC current

(as would by produced by a battery). In these applications the output of the

rectifier is smoothed by an electronic filter to produce a steady current.

BATTERY

An electric battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells that

convert stored chemical energy into electrical energy. Each battery consists of a

negative electrode (anode) that holds charged ions, a positive electrode (cathode)

that holds discharged ions, an electrolyte that allows ions to move from anode to
cathode during discharge (and return during recharge) and terminals that allow

current to flow out of the battery to perform work.

Batteries are either primary (single-use or "disposable") that are used once and

discarded or secondary (rechargeable batteries) that are discharged and

recharged multiple times.

A battery, which is actually an electric cell, is a device that produces electricity

from a chemical reaction. Strictly speaking, a battery consists of two or more cells

connected in series or parallel, but the term is generally used for a single cell. A

cell consists of a negative electrode; an electrolyte, which conducts ions; a

separator, also an ion conductor; and a positive electrode. The electrolyte may be

aqueous (composed of water) or non-aqueous (not composed of water), in liquid,

paste, or solid form. When the cell is connected to an external load, or device to

be powered, the negative electrode supplies a current of electrons that flow

through the load and are accepted by the positive electrode. When the external

load is removed the reaction ceases.

A primary battery is one that can convert its chemicals into electricity only once

and then must be discarded. A secondary battery has electrodes that can be

reconstituted by passing electricity back through it; also called a storage or

rechargeable battery, it can be reused many times.

Batteries are made from many materials including various metals, carbon,

polymers and even air. The most common are lead-acid batteries used in vehicles

and lithium ion batteries used for portable electronics. Batteries come in many

shapes and sizes, from miniature cells used to power hearing aids and

wristwatches to battery banks the size of rooms that provide standby power for

telephone exchanges and computer centres.

LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE (LED)

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as

indicator lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for general lighting.

Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, early LEDs emitted low-

intensity red light, but modern versions are available across the visible,

ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.

When a light-emitting diode is switched on, electrons are able to recombine with

holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is

called electroluminescence, and the color of the light (corresponding to the

energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the

semiconductor. An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated

optical components may be used to shape its radiation pattern.[9] LEDs have many

advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption,

longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching.

However, LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive, and

require more precise current and heat management than compact fluorescent

lamp sources of comparable output.

Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting,

automotive lighting, advertising, general lighting, and traffic signals. LEDs have

allowed new text, video displays, and sensors to be developed, while their high

switching rates are also useful in advanced communications technology. Infrared

LEDs are also used in the remote control units of many commercial products

including televisions, DVD players and other domestic appliances. LEDs are also

used in seven-segment display.

CAPACITORS

A capacitor essentially consists of two conducting surfaces separate by a layer of a

insulating medium called dielectric. The purpose of a capacitor is to store electric

energy or electrostatic stress in the dielectric.

A parallel palate capacitor as drawn below, are plate is connected to the positive

of the power supply and the other is connected to the negative of the power
supply. It sis experimentally found that in the presence of an earthed plate B, pate

A is capable of withholding more charge than when B is not here.

When such capacitor is put across a battery there is a momentary flow of

electrons from A to B. As negatively charged electrons are withdrawn from A, A

becomes positively charge and as negatively charged electrons are withdrawn

from B, becomes negative.

Hence a potential difference is established between A and B the transient flow of

electrons gives rise to charging current. The charging current is maximum when

two plates are uncharged but it decreases and finally leases when potential

difference across the plate, slowly equals and is opposite to eh battery emf.

Symbolic representation of ceramic capacitor

General representation

MOSFET

MOSFET (metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor, pronounced MAWS-

feht ) is a special type of field-effect transistor ( FET ) that works by electronically

varying the width of a channel along which charge carriers ( electron s or hole s)
flow. The wider the channel, the better the device conducts. The charge carriers

enter the channel at the source , and exit via the drain . The width of the channel

is controlled by the voltage on an electrode called the gate , which is located

physically between the source and the drain and is insulated from the channel by

an extremely thin layer of metal oxide.

There are two ways in which a MOSFET can function. The first is known as

depletion mode . When there is no voltage on the gate, the channel exhibits its

maximum conductance . As the voltage on the gate increases (either positively or

negatively, depending on whether the channel is made of P-type or N-type

semiconductor material), the channel conductivity decreases. The second way in

which a MOSFET can operate is called enhancement mode . When there is no

voltage on the gate, there is in effect no channel, and the device does not

conduct. A channel is produced by the application of a voltage to the gate. The

greater the gate voltage, the better the device conducts.

The MOSFET has certain advantages over the conventional junction FET, or JFET.

Because the gate is insulated electrically from the channel, no current flows

between the gate and the channel, no matter what the gate voltage (as long as it

does not become so great that it causes physical breakdown of the metallic oxide

layer). Thus, the MOSFET has practically infinite impedance . This makes MOSFETs
useful for power amplifiers. The devices are also well suited to high-speed

switching applications. Some integrated circuits ( IC s) contain tiny MOSFETs and

are used in computers.

Because the oxide layer is so thin, the MOSFET is susceptible to permanent

damage by electrostatic charges. Even a small electrostatic buildup can destroy a

MOSFET permanently. In weak-signal radio-frequency ( RF ) work, MOSFET

devices do not generally perform as well as other types of FET.

Circuit symbols

A variety of symbols are used for the MOSFET. The basic design is generally a line

for the channel with the source and drain leaving it at right angles and then

bending back at right angles into the same direction as the channel. Sometimes

three line segments are used for enhancement mode and a solid line for depletion

mode.

The bulk connection, if shown, is shown connected to the back of the channel

with an arrow indicating PMOS or NMOS. Arrows always point from P to N, so an

NMOS (N-channel in P-well or P-substrate) has the arrow pointing in (from the

bulk to the channel). If the bulk is connected to the source (as is generally the

case with discrete devices) it is sometimes angled to meet up with the source

leaving the transistor. If the bulk is not shown (as is often the case in IC design as
they are generally common bulk) an inversion symbol is sometimes used to

indicate PMOS, alternatively an arrow on the source may be used in the same way

as for bipolar transistors (out for nMOS, in for pMOS).

Comparison of enhancement-mode and depletion-mode MOSFET symbols, along

with JFET symbols (drawn with source and drain ordered such that higher

voltages appear higher on the page than lower voltages):[4][5][6]

P-

channel

N-

channel

MOSFET MOSFET
JFET MOSFET enh (no bulk)
enh dep

For the symbols in which the bulk, or body, terminal is shown, it is here shown

internally connected to the source. This is a typical configuration, but by no

means the only important configuration. In general, the MOSFET is a four-

terminal device, and in integrated circuits many of the MOSFETs share a body
connection, not necessarily connected to the source terminals of all the

transistors.

CENTRE TAP TRANFORMER

In electronics, a centre tap is a contact made to a point halfway along a winding of

a transformer or inductor, or along the element of a resistor or a potentiometer.

Taps are sometimes used on inductors for the coupling of signals, and may not

necessarily be at the half-way point, but rather, closer to one end. A common

application of this is in the Hartley oscillator. Inductors with taps also permit the

transformation of the amplitude of alternating current (AC) voltages for the

purpose of power conversion, in which case, they are referred to as

autotransformers, since there is only one winding. An example of an

autotransformer is an automobile ignition coil. Potentiometer tapping provides

one or more connections along the device's element, along with the usual

connections at each of the two ends of the element, and the slider connection.

Potentiometer taps allow for circuit functions that would otherwise not be

available with the usual construction of just the two end connections and one

slider connection.

Volts centre tapped (VCT) describes the voltage output of a centre tapped

transformer. For example: A 24 VCT transformer will measure 24 VAC across the
outer two taps (winding as a whole), and 12 VAC from each outer tap to the

centre-tap (half winding). These two 12 VAC supplies are 180 degrees out of

phase with each other, thus making it easy to derive positive and negative 12 volt

DC power supplies from them. The circuit symbol of a centre tap transformer is as

below:

INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

The integrated circuits used in these work are as follow:

SG3525 IC : the pin out functions of the IC SG3525 which is a regulating pulse

width modulator IC. Let's understand in details:

The main features of the IC SG3525 may be understood with the following points:

 Operating voltage = 8 to 35V

 Error amp reference voltage internally regulated to 5.1V

 Oscillator frequency is variable through an external resistor within the

range of 50Hz to 500 kHz.

 Facilitates a separate oscillator sync pin out.

 Dead time control is also variable as per intended specs.

 Has an internal soft start feature

 Shut down facility features a pulse by pulse shutdown enhancement.

 Input under voltage shut down feature also is included.

 PWM pulses are controlled through latching for inhibiting multiple pulse

outputs or generation.

 Output supports a dual totem pole driver configuration.

 SG3525 PIN-OUT DESCRIPTION

A practical implementation of the following pin-out data may be understood

through this INVERTER CIRCUIT

The IC SG3525 is a single package multi function PWM generator IC, the main

operations of the respective pin outs are explained with the following points:

Pin#1 and #2 (EA inputs): These are inputs of the built-in error amplifier of the IC.

Pin#1 is the inverting input while pin#2 is the complementary non-inverting input.

It's a simple opamp arrangement inside the IC whose output controls the PWM of

the output. Thus these pin outs can be effectively used for correcting the output

voltage of a converter.

It may be done by applying a sample voltage from the output through a voltage

divider network to the non-inverting input of the opamp (pin#1). The fed voltage

should be adjusted to be just below the internal reference voltage value when the

output is normal.....now if the output voltage increases, the sample voltage would
also increase and at some point exceed the reference limit, prompting the IC to

take necessary corrective measures so that the voltage is restricted to the normal

level.

Pin#3 (Sync): This pin can be used for synchronizing the IC with an external

oscillator frequency. This is generally done when more than a single IC is used and

requires to be controlled with a common oscillator frequency.

Pin#4 (Osc. Out): It's the oscillator output of the IC, the frequency of the IC may

be confirmed at this pin out.

Pin#5 and #6(Ct, Rt): These are termed Ct, Rt respectively. Basically these pin outs

are connected with external resistors and capacitors for setting up

the frequency of the inbuilt oscillator stage or circuit. Ct must be attached with a

relevant capacitor while the Rt pin with a resistor for optimizing the frequency of

the IC.

Pin#7 (discharge): This pin out can be used for determining the dead time of the

IC, meaning the time gap between the switching of the two outputs of the IC (A

and B). A resistor connected across this pin and ground fixes the dead time of the

IC.

Pin#8 (Soft Start): This pin out as the name suggests is used for initiating the

operations of the IC in a soft manner instead of a sudden or abrupt jerk. The

capacitor connected across this pin and ground decides the level of soft

initialization of the output of the IC.

Pin#9 (Comp): This pin out is not so important, just needs to be connected with

the INV input of the error amplifier in order to keep the EA operations smooth

and without hiccups.

Pin#10 (Shutdown): As the name suggest this pin out may be used for shutting

down the outputs of the IC in an event of a circuit malfunction or some drastic

conditions. Logic high at this pin out will instantly narrow down te PWM pulses to

the maximum possible level making the output device's current go down to

minimal levels. However if the logic high persists for longer period of time, the IC

prompts the slow start capacitor to discharge, initiating a slow turn ON and

release. This pin out should not be kept unconnected for avoiding stray signal pick

ups.

Pin#11 and #14 (output A and output B): These are the two outputs of the IC

which operate in a totem pole configuration or simply in a flip flop or push pull

manner. External devices which are intended for controlling the converter

transformers are integrated with these pin outs for implementing the final

operations.

Pin#12 (ground): It's the ground pin of the IV or the Vss.

Pin#13(Vc): The output to A and B are switched via the supply applied to pin#13.

This is normally done via a resistor connected to the main DC supply. Thus this

resistor decides the magnitude of trigger current to the output devices.

Pin#15 (Vi): It's the Vcc of the IC, that is the supply input pin.

Pin#16: It provides the internal 5.1V reference for optional use. This pint must be

terminated with a low value capacitor to ground.

LM 741 : another IC used in this work is LM741, an op-amp which has two inputs

and one output which also called a comparator was used because of its ability to

compare two input voltages to give out one output voltage. The type of an op-

amp used in this circuit is LM741. The schematic diagram of a typical IC is as

below:

RESISTORS
A resistor in its definition is an electrical and electronic component that offers

opposition to the flow of electrical current. It also acts as a pre-load on the

voltage supplies to a system i.e. causes an initial voltage drop across it this is a

pre-load component. It is often called a bleeder resistor because it provides the

following advantages.

1. It improves voltage regulation of he supply by acting as a pre-load on the

supply, thereby causing a initial voltage drop. In this way difference

between no-load and full-load is reduced hence improving the regulation of

the system.

2. It improves filtering action

3. It also provides safety to the technician handling the equipment when

power supply is switched off by providing a path for the filtering capacitor

to discharge through it, and that is why it is called bleeder resistor. Without

the resistor, the capacitor will retain its charges for quite a very long time

even when the power supply is switched off. This high voltage is always a

problem to electrical electronic engineers working on equipments.

TYPES OF RESISTOR

 variable resistor
  rheostat resistor

 potentiometer resistor

 fixed resistor

Table 1.0: A table showing the resistor colour code

COLOUR FIRST BAND SECOND THIRD BAND TOLERANCE

BAND

BLACK _ 0 X10

BROWN 1 0 ±1%

RED 2 00 ±2%

ORANGE 3 000

YELLOW 4 0000

GREEN 5 00000

BLUE 6 000000

VIOLET 7 0000000

GREY 8 00000000

WHITE 9 000000000

GOLD _ _ X0.1 ±5%

SILIVER _ _ X0.01 ±10%

 The symbol is as below:

3.4 HOW TO CHOOSE A RIGHT INVERTER AND BATTERY

Inverter is a type of electronic power generator which convert low voltage direct

current (DC) from a battery to a high voltage alternating current(AC).Power

failures can be really very frustrating at times, especially during the night time.

Inverters will help you to cope up with the blackout and do away with your

problems. Choosing a right inverter and battery is not very easy.

Load Calculation: First of all calculate your Power Consumption. This can be done

by adding up the Watts (W) of all loads(CFLs,TV..), to be powered by the inverter.

For example one 20W CFL + one 60W TV =20+60 =80W.

Inverter Capacity: Never select the Volt-Ampere (VA) rating of Inverter. VA=Watts

x Power Factor. Power factor value varies from 0.6 to 0.8.Note that a 600VA rated

inverter (with power factor 0.8) delivers approximately 480 Watts only!

Inverter Type: Square wave, Quasi- Sine wave and Pure Sine wave inverters are

now available. In practice, sine wave is the correct waveform on which all

electronic equipment, including televisions and computers are designed to run.

Battery Selection: Battery is the back bone of any inverter. Usually 12V battery is

used with home inverters. Tubular type storage batteries are recommended for

inverters because they are capable of long hours of guaranteed backup time.

Backup time is simply the number of hours for which an inverter will be able to

run the output electric load during power failure. Batteries are available in

different voltage and Ampere-Hour (Ah) ratings. Back up time is mainly

determined by this Ah rating of the battery. Tubular batteries have higher

capacity-to-size ratio. These types can be recharged faster and are energised to

deliver increased power and higher efficiency.

Backup Time: Formula to Calculate the backup time of Inverter is Ahx12V x

PFx0.9/Load VA hours. Where Ah is the ampere-hour capacity of the battery, PF

stands for the power factor of the inverter and load is the sum of VA ratings of the

electrical loads connected to the inverter.

Quick Selection: 800VA sine wave inverter with a 130 Ah tubular battery for a

maximum backup of near 3 hours @600Watts.

3.5 HOW TO CHOOSE THE BEST INVERTER BATTERY

Every inverter has a battery. There are 2 types of inverter batteries

 Sealed Maintenance-Free Battery (SMF)

  Lead- Acid Battery

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULT ANALYSIS

4.0 CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE AND TESTING

In building this project, the following procedures were properly considered,

I. Purposing of the entire materials / Components needed

ii. Resistance check of the components bought with the help of ohmmeter

before making the necessary connection with the components

iii. Drafting out a schematic diagram or how to arrange the materials /

components.

iv. Testing the completed system to see if the design works and

v. Finally, implementation of design of the project.

Having procured all the materials, I processed into the arrangement of the

components into the Vero board but we could not place the MOSFETs on the

bread board because the heat it emit when we load it, proper soldering of the
components then followed. The components were all soldered into the board

after which it was correctly confirmed done.

4.1 CASING AND PACKAGING

All the components were soldered onto the Vero Board. Then after that, a case

was gotten where the entire circuit was mounted follow by other external

components such as indicators, battery contacts and switch.

4.2 ASSEMBLING OF SECTIONS

Having provided the casing and having finished the construction of the sections of

this system, the assembling into the casing followed. The sections were properly

laid out and assembled into the casing where the general coupling and linkages

into the peripheral devices took place.

Finally; the indicator was brought out to indicate when the system is powered.

Switch was brought out for powering the system and battery contact was also

brought out where batteries are been connected.

4.3 TESTING OF SYSTEM OPERATION

In this stage, the system was due for testing and operation. The system operation

was tested where all its required performance was maintained.

First; batteries were connected and the system was powered through the switch

the LED displayed indicating ON. Then after we powered the system, load of up to

1KW was loaded on the system with a which was allowed to stay on the system

for more than 20mins in other to monitor the amount of heat MOSFETs will emit

and to see whether the system will be able to carry such load.

4.4 RESULT ANALYSIS

The results obtained during the construction states after necessary

troubleshooting were satisfactory. The system was able to respond to its

operation. Frequency meter was used to test for the frequency of the circuit.

During the test, the meter was seen reading 50Hz.

4.5 MOUNTING PROCEDURE

In this stage, all MOSFET were mounted on a heat sink for heat absorption. Heavy

duty aluminum heatsink specifically designed for passive cooling of the mosfets as

shown below:
And mica insulator were also used to fix mosfet on heatsink, containing the

washer itself, a nut, bolt, spring washer, and an insulating sleeve to isolate the

bolt from the metal tab:

Insulation is preferably done for each of the MOSFETs you are attaching to a heat-

sink, to avoid undesired short circuits.

You should also use a bit of heat-sink compound between the mica and the metal

tab, as well as between the mica and the heat sink itself.

4.6 TESTING OF SYSTEM OPERATION

Testing is one of the important stages in the development of any new product or

repair of existing ones. Because it is very difficult to trace a fault in a finished

work, especially when the work to be tested is too complex. For the purpose of

this project, two stages of testing are involved

i. Pre-implementation testing
ii. Post-implementation testing.

PRE-IMPLEMENTATION TESTING

It is carried out on the components before they are soldered to the veroboard.

This is to ensure that each component is in good working condition before they

are finally soldered to the board. The metallic side of the body of the MOSFETs

were fixed on heat sink while the pins of mosfet were soldered on the vero board.

POST-IMPLEMENTATION TESTING

After implementing the circuit on a project board, the different sections of the

complete system were tested to ensure that they were in good operating

condition. The continuity test carried out is to ensure that the circuit or

components are properly linked together. This test was carried out before power

was supplied to the circuit. Finally, after troubleshooting has been done on the

whole circuit, power was supplied to the circuit. Visual troubleshooting was also

carried out at this stage to ensure that the components do not burn out. In this

stage, the system was due for testing and operation. The system operation was

tested where all its required performance was maintained.

4.7 TESTING OF MOSFET

MOSFET consist of three pins – gate, drain and source as shown below:
A multi-meter is needed to test a MOSFET in any of these configurations. This

multimeter must be at least 3.3 volt over diode-under-test in order to be

effective. With the proper multimeter, it is possible to test the MOSFET:

1. Throughout this process, be sure not to touch the metal parts of the test probe

with clothing, skin, or plastics. There is a large amount of static produced, and

this can be dangerous.

2. Always hold the MOSFET by its case or tab.

3. Find the source pin on the MOSFET, and connect this to the multimeter’s

negative lead.

4. Touch the multimeter’s positive lead to the gate.

5. Move the positive probe away from the gate to the drain. Connecting the drain

should produce a low reading, and the device is now “on.”

6. Keep the positive probe connected to the drain.

7. Use a finger to touch between the source and the gate. This will discharge the

gate through the finger, and the multimeter reading should become high.

8. If this change in the reading occurs, it confirms that the MOSFET is working

correctly

4.8 DEAD MOSFETS

Dying MOSFETs often emit flames - especially in home-built electronics. One wag

on a use group said that the FET in MOSFET stood for Fire Emitting Transistor. In

commercial equipment where the MOSFETs are protected from gross abuse,

'gentle' failure can occur and the MOSFET may look OK but be dud: however,

usually if they look OK, they are!

When MOSFETs fail they often go short-circuit drain to gate. This can put the

drain voltage back onto the gate where of course if feeds (via the gate resistors)

into the drive circuitry, maybe blowing that. It also will get to any other paralleled

MOSFET gates, blowing them. So - if the MOSFETs are deceased, check the drivers

as well! This is probably the best reason for adding a source-gate zener: zeners

fail short circuit and a properly connected zener can limit the damage in a failure!

4QD also use sub-miniature gate resistors - which tend to fail open circuit under

this overload, disconnecting the dud MOSFET's gate.

4.9 FREQUENCY STABILITY

Most appliances and tools designed for mains power can tolerate a small

variation in supply frequency, but they can malfunction, overheat or even be

damaged if the frequency changes significantly. To avoid such problems, inverter

can use PIC microcontroller programmed to use quartz crystal oscillator and

divider system to generate the master timing for the MOSFET drive pulses. These

ensures that the output voltage remains at 50Hz frequency.

4.10 OPERATING TEMPERATURE

Rise in temperature is brought by high frequency switching of MOSFET which

dramatically decreases the power output the inverter. In order to maintain a low

temperature all MOSFETS and voltage regulators are mounted with heat sinks

however for commercial design it is recommended to incorporate fan to circulate

air within the closed box.

4.11 EFFICIENCY

Power in the inverter is lost in the form of heat therefore it is not possible to

convert power without losing some of it. Efficiency is the ratio of power out to
power in, expressed as a percentage.

Efficiency = Po *100% / Pi

In this inverter it is not possible to calculate the overall efficiency of the inverter

because its only one part of it is implemented so the efficient which is calculated

below will be of high dc voltage conversion to ac only. Rated output power of the

Mosfet is 125W which is also the rated power of the inverter. Large amount of

power losses can be considered to be at the H- bridge and therefore contributed

by the Mosfets because they are operating at high voltage and high frequency

also a substantial amount of power is lost at the filter and generally in the

inductor because of its copper resistance. Mosfet conducting resistance Rm is

0.85 and that of inductance Rl was measured to be 80. At either positive pulse or

negative pulse total resistance in series will be Rm+Rl = 80.85.if we assume the

inverter to be operating at rated = 0.37A.

Power loss = 0.372 ∗ 80.85 = 11𝑊

Hence power output = 125-11 = 114W

Efficiency = 114/125 *100% =91.2%

The efficiency of an inverter varies with the load. Typically, it will be highest at
about two thirds of the inverter's capacity. This is called its "peak efficiency." The

inverter requires some power just to run itself, so the efficiency of a large inverter

will below when running very small loads in a typical home, there are many hours

of the day when the electrical load is very low. Under these conditions, an

inverter's efficiency may be around 50 percent or less.

CHAPTER FIVE

5.1 CONCLUSION

The objective of the circuit was to invert power from high voltage DC sources or

an output voltage of DC to DC boost into AC power similar to one available in our

wall sockets for any load and of which was partially met using MOSFET as the

switching circuit. This inverter power output is usable for any load although not

practically tested. Almost 90% of the project was completed within time line given

and by the time this report was being submitted. The fact that I was able to

integrate the whole system and achieve a desired output of both the frequency

and voltage with reverence to rail voltage supplied shows that much of key parts

of this project is practically achievable and with required DC voltage a complete

working inverter can be achieved. Some of the important conclusion that can be

drawn from this work are;

 Output waveform frequency was found to be satisfactory at 50Hz equivalent

of standard Kenya power system.

 Sine pulse with modulation circuit is much simplified by the use IC SG3525.

 In addition with the high programming flexibility the design of the switching

pulses can be altered without further changes on the hardware.

5.2 RECOMMENDATION

This project is designed to be used in our homes, offices and industries where the

need for 24hrs supply is needed. And should be used and maintain by a qualified

personnel.

There are a few changes that need to be worked on for future work. As

mentioned earlier, the inductor used in the filter is a transformer coil and

therefore not suitable for the amount of power required. Proper inductor is

recommended, iron core inductor that has small copper resistance which will

increase the efficiency of the inverter. In addition, I would recommend housing

even the prototype boards in enclosures to avoid unwanted contact with the high

power sources. Also hardware designed that isolates the load from the supply in

case of over voltages, under voltages and phase outs would be of great

importance if this project is to be commercially produced in large scale.

5.3REFERENCES

1. The Authoritative Dictionary of IEEE Standards Terms, Seventh Edition, IEEE

Press, 2000,ISBN 0-7381-2601-2, page 588

2. http://www05.abb.com/global/scot/scot271.nsf/veritydisplay/

369669d5dd6e8e6ec1257ba500293166/$file/70-78%202m315_EN_72dpi.pdf

3. http://web.eecs.utk.edu/~tolbert/publications/ecce_2011_bailu.pdf

4. http://www.wpi.edu/Pubs/E-project/Available/E-project-042507-092653/

unrestricted/MQP_D_1_2.pdf

5. Barnes, Malcolm (2003). Practical variable speed drives and power electronics.

Oxford: Newnes. p. 97. ISBN 0080473911.

6. James, Hahn. "Modifi ed Sine-Wave Inverter Enhanced". Power Electronics.

7. "Power Electronics: Energy Manager for Hybrid Electric Vehicles". Oak Ridge

National Laboratory Review (U.S. Department of Energy) 33 (3). 2000.

Retrieved 2006-11-08.

8. MIT open-courseware, Power Electronics, Spring 2007

9. Rodriguez, Jose; et al. (August 2002). "Multilevel Inverters: A Survey of

Topologies, Controls, and Applications". IEEE Transactions on Industrial

Electronics (IEEE) 49 (4): 724–738.

10.Owen, Edward L. (January/February 1996). "Origins of the Inverter". IEEE

Industry Applications Magazine: History Department (IEEE) 2 (1): 64–66.

11.D. R. Grafham and J. C. Hey, editors, ed. (1972). SCR Manual (Fifth ed.).

Syracuse, N.Y. USA: General Electric. pp. 236–239.

12. Bedford, B. D.; Hoft, R. G. et al. (1964). Principles of Inverter Circuits. New

York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 0-471-06134-4.

13.Mazda, F. F. (1973). Thyristor Control. New York: Halsted Press Div. of John

Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-470-58116-6.

14.Dr. Ulrich Nicolai, Dr. Tobias Reimann, Prof. Jürgen Petzoldt, Josef Lutz:

Application Manual IGBT and MOSFET Power Modules, 1. Edition, ISLE Verlag,

1998, ISBN 3-932633-24-5 PDF-Version

15.Yuhua Cheng, Chenming Hu (1999). " MOSFET classification and operation".

MOSFET modeling & BSIM3 user's guide. Springer. p. 13. ISBN 0-7923-8575-6.

16.U.A.Bakshi, A.P.Godse (2007). " The depletion mode MOSFET". Electronic

Circuits. Technical Publications. pp. 8–2. ISBN 978-81-8431-284-3.