Sustainable management of

natural and urban

environments
Natural Environment:

Biomes ( Rainforests, Tundra, Deserts, Marine – any 2 biomes ) -

distribution, features, importance

Impact of climate change and human activity on the biomes – any 2 biomes

Sustainable management of the biomes – any 2 biomes

Urban Environment:

World Population distribution

Factors affecting population change ( birth rate, death rate migration)

Population policies ( anti natalist & pro natalist)

Relation between population and settlements with relation to settlement

Hierarchy:

Urban environments

Problems of urbanisation

Sustainable management of natural and urban environments 1

 Sustainable management of urban environment.

Biomes: Large community of plants and animals that occupies a distinct

region.

Urbanization: The increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas

compared to rural areas.

Theories:

Urban Ecology: Studies the relationship between urban environments and

ecological processes.

Smart Growth: Advocates for urban planning strategies that lead to

sustainable development, reducing sprawl and improving community
livability.

Biophilia Hypothesis: Suggests that humans have an innate desire to

connect with nature and other forms of life.

Facts:

Urban areas occupy only about 2% of the Earth’s land surface, but they
account for about 70% of carbon emissions and over 60% of resource use.

Studies show that green spaces in urban environments can reduce stress
and improve overall well-being.

Quotes:

"Cities are the greatest creations of humanity." – Daniel Libeskind, Architect

Facts:

Urban areas are expected to house 60% of people globally by 2030.

Theories:

Urban Systems Theory: Looks at the interrelationships between different

parts of an urban environment.

Glossary:

Climate Change: Long-term alteration of temperature and typical weather

patterns in a place.

Sustainable management of natural and urban environments 2

 A biome is a large geographical area characterized by specific climate
conditions, plant communities, and animal species.

Biomes are large ecological areas on Earth's surface, with adapted fauna
and flora.

Each biome supports unique life forms and maintains Earth's ecosystem
balance.

Biomes are essential for humans as they provide essential resources like
food, water, and medicine, regulate the climate, and support biodiversity.

Biomes provide a range of ecosystem services vital for human survival and
well-being, including provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting
services.

Biomes are a direct source of resources for daily life, such as timber, fruits,
nuts, fertile soil for crops, and fish and clean water.

Biomes play a critical role in regulating the Earth's climate and maintaining
environmental stability.

Biomes hold significant cultural, spiritual, and recreational value for human
societies, such as the Amazon rainforest and national parks.

Biomes underpin fundamental ecological processes, such as soil formation,

nutrient cycling, and primary production.

Importance of Biomes

Biodiversity: Biomes are crucial for maintaining the Earth's biodiversity.

Each biome supports unique species that contribute to the overall
ecological balance.

Climate Regulation: Different biomes play a significant role in regulating the

Earth's climate, such as forests acting as carbon sinks and oceans
regulating temperature.

Human Resources: Biomes provide resources essential for human survival,

including food, water, medicine, and raw materials.

Cultural Value: Many biomes have significant cultural importance for

indigenous and local communities, offering spiritual and recreational value.

Types of Biomes:

1. Tropical Rainforest

Sustainable management of natural and urban environments 3

 Climate: High temperatures (average 20-25°C) and significant rainfall
(2000-4500 mm annually), with little seasonal variation.

Vegetation: Dense, multi-layered forests with a variety of trees, shrubs,

and plants. Common trees include mahogany, teak, and kapok. Soil is not
very fertile. A thin layer of fertile soil is found at the surface where the
dead leave decomposes. It is red in colour because it is rich in iron. Due to
heavy rainfall, the nutrients in the soil get out of the soil.

Biodiversity: The highest biodiversity of any biome, with numerous

species of plants, animals, and insects. Common animals include
monkeys, jaguars, and numerous bird species. Species have adapted to
the conditions of the rainforest. E.g. Trees and plants have shallow-
reaching roots to absorb nutrients from the thin fertile layer in the soil.

Location: Near the equator, in regions like the Amazon Basin in South
America, Central Africa, and Southeast Asia.

Importance:

Biodiversity: Home to over half of the world’s species, making it crucial

for global biodiversity.

Carbon Storage: Tropical rainforests act as carbon sinks, helping to

mitigate climate change.

Oxygen Production: Often referred to as the "lungs of the Earth," they

produce a significant portion of the world’s oxygen.

2. Tundra

Characteristics:

Climate: Extremely cold, with long winters and short, cool summers. Low
precipitation (150-250 mm annually), mostly as snow.

Vegetation: Low-growing plants like mosses, lichens, and dwarf shrubs.

The ground is often permafrost (permanently frozen soil).

Biodiversity: Limited biodiversity, with animals adapted to extreme cold,

such as polar bears, arctic foxes, and caribou.

Location: Found in the Arctic and high mountain regions.

Importance:

Sustainable management of natural and urban environments 4

 Climate Regulation: The tundra plays a crucial role in regulating the Earth’s
climate by reflecting sunlight and storing carbon.

Indigenous Cultures: Home to indigenous peoples who have adapted to the

harsh environment.

3. Marine Biome

Characteristics:

Climate: Varies greatly depending on location, from warm tropical waters to

cold polar regions.

Vegetation: Includes a variety of algae, seaweeds, and underwater plants

like seagrasses.

Biodiversity: The most extensive biome, with diverse ecosystems such as

coral reefs, mangroves, and open oceans. Marine life includes fish, whales,
sharks, and countless other species.

Location: Covers around 70% of the Earth’s surface, including oceans,

seas, and coral reefs.

Importance:

Oxygen Production: Marine plants, especially phytoplankton, produce more

than half of the world’s oxygen.

Global Climate Regulation: Oceans regulate climate by absorbing heat and

carbon dioxide.

Food Source: Provides a significant portion of the world’s food through

fisheries and aquaculture.

Human Activity:

1. Tropical Rainforest: Amazon Rainforest Deforestation

Human Actions:

Deforestation: Large-scale deforestation in the Amazon rainforest is

primarily driven by agriculture (especially cattle ranching and soybean
production), logging, mining, and infrastructure development.

Illegal Logging: Logging, often illegal, contributes to the loss of vast areas
of forest, impacting biodiversity and indigenous communities.

Impact on the Biome:

Sustainable management of natural and urban environments 5

 Biodiversity Loss: The Amazon rainforest is one of the most biodiverse
regions on Earth. Deforestation leads to habitat loss and species extinction,
with many species still undiscovered and at risk of extinction before they
are even identified.

Climate Change: The Amazon acts as a significant carbon sink, absorbing

CO2 from the atmosphere. Deforestation reduces this capacity, contributing
to global climate change by increasing greenhouse gas emissions.

Impact on Humans:

Climate Regulation: The loss of the Amazon could lead to changes in global
weather patterns, affecting agriculture, water supply, and livelihoods
worldwide.

Indigenous Communities: Indigenous peoples who rely on the forest for

their way of life face displacement, loss of resources, and cultural erosion.

2. Tundra: Melting Permafrost in Siberia

Human Actions:

Global Warming: Human-induced climate change is leading to rising

temperatures, particularly in the Arctic and sub-Arctic regions, causing
permafrost to thaw.

Industrial Activities: Oil and gas extraction in the tundra regions, along with
infrastructure development, contribute to the disruption of the delicate
tundra ecosystem.

Impact on the Biome:

Thawing Permafrost: The melting of permafrost releases stored

greenhouse gases like methane and carbon dioxide, further accelerating
global warming.

Habitat Alteration: As the permafrost thaws, the landscape changes,

leading to the loss of habitats for species adapted to cold environments.

Impact on Humans:

Infrastructure Damage: Thawing permafrost destabilizes the ground,

causing damage to buildings, roads, and pipelines in Arctic communities.

Global Climate Impact: The release of greenhouse gases from thawing

permafrost could lead to more rapid global warming, affecting weather
patterns, sea levels, and agricultural productivity worldwide.

Sustainable management of natural and urban environments 6

 Sustainable Biome4:
-
Sustainability is the capacity of an environment to continue to support our
lives and lives of other living creatures into the future.
-
The problem is that the global population is increasing heading towards 10
billion by 2100 (7.9 billion in 2021). Most of the growth is in developing
countries. Food security is already an issue. We will need to produce more
food to feed the additional people, without further damaging the environment
or exacerbating climate change. This will require sustainable and innovative
new agricultural methods.
- Food Security
exists when all people at all times have physical and economic access to
sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food
preferences for an active and healthy life.
-
In 2019, close to 750 million (one in 10 people in the world) - were exposed to
severe levels of food insecurity.
-
An estimated 2 billion people in the world did not have regular access to safe
nutritious and sufficient food in 2019.
-
The world is not on track to meet sustainable development goal (SDG) 2.
Biome Conservation and Protection:
• Conservation efforts, legal and policy interventions, sustainable practices,
public awareness, and technological innovations are crucial for protecting
biomes.
• Protecting and restoring natural habitats is vital for preserving biodiversity
and maintaining ecosystem services.
• Promoting sustainable agriculture and forestry practices, such as
agroforestry and selective logging, can reduce pressure on natural ecosystems
and support local livelihoods.
• Habitat restoration projects like reforestation and wetland rehabilitation can
recover degraded lands and restore ecosystem functions.

• Governments and international organizations play a crucial role in protecting

biomes through the enactment and enforcement of environmental laws and

Sustainable management of natural and urban environments 7

 policies.

• Sustainable resource management practices like eco-friendly tourism,

sustainable fishing practices, and reducing deforestation can contribute to the
protection of biomes.
• Public awareness about the importance of biomes and the threats they face is
crucial for promoting environmental stewardship.
• Advances in technology, such as precision agriculture and renewable energy
sources, can support conservation efforts and reduce the impact of human
activities on biomes.
• Biomes are indispensable to human existence, providing essential resources,
regulating the climate, and supporting biodiversity.

Sustainable biome for Coastal and marine protected regions:

India’s coastline is home to 250 million people. It provides livelihood for 20
million people. This generates over 10% of India’s GDP. India’s ecosystem
provides an abundance of vital ecosystems. It is home more than 15000
different species. Industrialization is a threat to coastal region’s agriculture
and tourism.

There are no. of fires ravaging the Brazilian amazon rainforest this year.
Manmade fires are a cause of to clear land for agriculture. 74 thousand fires
in Brazilian amazon rainforest. Norway has donated 1.2 billion dollars to help
conserve the amazon and Germany has contributed up to 68 million dollars.
In Brazil, cattle ranching is the leading cause of deforestation. In DRC it’s
because of timber.
Sustainable use of deforestation in amazon rainforest: It encompasses of a
natural preservation centre and while giving palm oil their lands. It also includes
forest fragments.
Sustainable Management of Rainforest Biomes

Rainforest Biomes are among the most biodiverse and ecologically vital
ecosystems on Earth. They play a critical role in maintaining global climate
stability, storing vast amounts of carbon, regulating the water cycle, and
supporting millions of species, including many that are not found anywhere
else. However, rainforests are under severe threat due to deforestation, illegal
logging, mining, agricultural expansion, and climate change. Sustainable
management of rainforest biomes aims to balance ecological preservation
with the economic and social needs of human populations.

Sustainable management of natural and urban environments 8

 Key Principles of Sustainable Management of Rainforest Biomes

1. Conservation of Biodiversity: Protecting the rich variety of species and

ecosystems within rainforests is crucial. This includes preserving both the
flora and fauna that contribute to the ecological balance and resilience of
these biomes.

2. Sustainable Resource Use: It is important to ensure that any extraction or

use of resources, such as timber, medicinal plants, or non-timber forest
products, does not deplete the rainforest or cause irreversible damage.
Sustainable practices aim to use resources in a way that meets present
needs without compromising future generations' ability to use them.

3. Community Involvement and Benefit-Sharing: Local communities who live

in or near rainforests often depend on them for their livelihoods. Sustainable
management strategies should include these communities as active
participants and ensure that they benefit economically and socially from
conservation efforts.

4. Legal and Policy Frameworks: Strong governance, effective law

enforcement, and clear policies are needed to manage rainforest resources
sustainably. These frameworks should deter illegal activities, regulate land
use, and promote conservation.

5. Scientific Research and Monitoring: Ongoing research and monitoring are

essential to understanding the rainforest’s dynamics, including species
populations, ecological processes, and the impact of human activities. This
information helps in making informed management decisions.

Strategies for Sustainable Management:

1. Protected Areas and National Parks: Establishing protected areas is a

common strategy for conserving rainforest ecosystems. These areas
restrict human activity to various degrees, from complete exclusion to
sustainable use zones where limited resource extraction is allowed under
strict management.

Example: The Amazon Rainforest has numerous protected areas, such

as the Central Amazon Conservation Complex in Brazil, which is a
UNESCO World Heritage site. This area helps preserve biodiversity and
maintains ecological processes while allowing for sustainable tourism
and research.

Sustainable management of natural and urban environments 9

 2. Sustainable Logging Practices: Rather than clear-cutting, sustainable
logging involves selective logging, reduced-impact logging techniques,
and longer rotation periods between harvests. This helps maintain the
forest structure and biodiversity.

Example: In Costa Rica, sustainable forestry management practices

are implemented through government regulations that encourage
reduced-impact logging, reforestation, and maintaining forest cover.
These practices have contributed to the country’s success in reducing
deforestation rates and promoting forest recovery.

3. Agroforestry and Sustainable Agriculture: Integrating crops and trees in

agroforestry systems can reduce pressure on rainforests by providing
sustainable livelihoods for local communities. These systems improve
soil fertility, reduce erosion, and provide habitat for wildlife.

Example: In Indonesia, the agroforestry approach in the rainforest

regions involves growing cocoa and coffee under the canopy of native
rainforest trees. This system supports local economies while
maintaining biodiversity and minimizing deforestation.

4. Eco-Tourism: Promoting eco-tourism can provide a sustainable economic

incentive for conserving rainforests. Eco-tourism relies on natural
landscapes and wildlife, encouraging local communities to protect and
manage their natural resources responsibly.

Example: Ecuador’s Yasuni National Park is a model of eco-tourism,

where tourists can experience the rich biodiversity of the Amazon
Rainforest while funding conservation efforts and supporting local
indigenous communities.

5. Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES): PES programs provide financial

incentives to landowners or communities for managing their land
sustainably to provide ecosystem services like carbon sequestration, water
purification, and biodiversity conservation.

Example: The REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and

Forest Degradation) program is a global initiative that provides
financial compensation to tropical countries to reduce deforestation
and invest in low-carbon development. Countries like Brazil and Peru
have implemented REDD+ projects to protect rainforests while
promoting sustainable development.

Sustainable management of natural and urban environments 10

 Case Study: The Sustainable Management of the Amazon Rainforest

Background: The Amazon Rainforest, the world's largest tropical rainforest,

spans across nine countries, with Brazil containing about 60% of it. It is home
to an unparalleled diversity of species and provides critical ecosystem
services, including carbon storage and climate regulation. However, it faces
significant threats from deforestation due to logging, cattle ranching,
agriculture, and infrastructure development.

Sustainable Management Initiatives:

1. Amazon Region Protected Areas (ARPA) Program: The ARPA program,

initiated by the Brazilian government with support from international
organizations, aims to create and manage a network of protected areas
covering 150 million acres of the Amazon Rainforest. The program
focuses on:

Establishing new protected areas and strengthening existing ones.

Developing sustainable management plans that include local

communities in decision-making processes.

Promoting sustainable resource use and eco-tourism within these

protected areas to provide economic benefits while conserving
biodiversity.

2. Community-Based Forest Management (CBFM): Several community-

managed forests in the Brazilian Amazon have been established, where
local communities are granted the rights to manage and extract resources
sustainably. These initiatives focus on:

Training community members in sustainable forest management

practices, including reduced-impact logging and non-timber forest
product harvesting.

Implementing agroforestry systems that integrate crop production with

forest conservation.

Providing alternative income opportunities, such as sustainable

harvesting of Brazil nuts and açaí berries, which reduce the need for
destructive activities like illegal logging.

3. REDD+ Initiatives: Brazil has been a leading participant in the REDD+

program, which compensates tropical countries for reducing emissions
from deforestation and forest degradation. The program involves:

Sustainable management of natural and urban environments 11

 Monitoring and verifying deforestation rates through satellite imagery
and field surveys.

Implementing policies and measures to address the drivers of

deforestation, such as illegal logging and agricultural expansion.

Using funds from REDD+ to support sustainable development projects

in forest communities, such as improving infrastructure, education, and
healthcare.

Outcomes and Challenges:

Successes: The ARPA program has significantly expanded the area of

protected rainforests in Brazil, helping to reduce deforestation rates.
Community-based forest management initiatives have empowered local
communities, improved livelihoods, and conserved forest resources. REDD+
projects have provided financial incentives for sustainable practices and
contributed to a decline in deforestation in some regions.

Challenges: Despite these successes, the Amazon Rainforest continues to

face threats from illegal activities, weak enforcement of environmental
laws, and economic pressures for land conversion. Political changes and
economic crises have sometimes undermined conservation efforts,
highlighting the need for long-term commitment and international support.

Sustainable Development of Oceans and Maritime Biomes

Oceans and maritime biomes are vital to the planet’s ecological health,
supporting a vast array of marine life and providing crucial ecosystem services
such as climate regulation, oxygen production, carbon sequestration, and food
resources. However, these biomes face significant threats from overfishing,
pollution, climate change, and habitat destruction. Sustainable development of
oceans and maritime biomes involves balancing the use of marine resources
with the need to preserve these ecosystems for future generations.

Key Principles of Sustainable Development of Oceans and Maritime Biomes

1. Marine Conservation and Biodiversity Protection: Preserving the diverse

marine life and habitats is essential to maintaining the health and
productivity of ocean ecosystems. Conservation efforts should focus on
protecting coral reefs, mangroves, seagrasses, and marine species that are
threatened or endangered.

Sustainable management of natural and urban environments 12

 2. Sustainable Fishing Practices: Overfishing is a major threat to ocean
biodiversity and fish stocks. Sustainable fishing practices aim to maintain
fish populations at healthy levels, minimize bycatch (unintended catch of
non-target species), and protect critical habitats from destructive fishing
methods.

3. Pollution Control and Waste Management: Reducing pollution from plastic,

chemicals, and other waste is critical for ocean health. Sustainable
development requires better waste management practices, reduction of
single-use plastics, and minimizing agricultural runoff and industrial
pollutants that end up in the oceans.

4. Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation: Oceans absorb a significant

amount of the Earth’s heat and carbon dioxide, leading to ocean
acidification, sea level rise, and temperature changes that affect marine life.
Sustainable development strategies should include measures to mitigate
climate change impacts and adapt marine ecosystems to changing
conditions.

5. Community Involvement and Inclusive Governance: Local communities,

especially those directly dependent on marine resources for their
livelihoods, should be involved in the decision-making process. Effective
governance frameworks must incorporate the interests and knowledge of
all stakeholders, including governments, NGOs, scientists, and indigenous
communities.

6. Marine Spatial Planning and Protected Areas: Proper management of

marine resources involves designating areas for conservation, sustainable
use, and restricted activities. Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) and the
creation of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) help balance conservation and
economic activities, like fishing and tourism.

Strategies for Sustainable Development

1. Establishing Marine Protected Areas (MPAs): MPAs are regions where

human activities are more strictly regulated than the surrounding waters to
conserve biodiversity and manage resources sustainably. MPAs can range
from fully protected reserves where all extractive activities are prohibited to
multiple-use areas where sustainable fishing and tourism are allowed under
strict guidelines.

Sustainable management of natural and urban environments 13

 Example: The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park in Australia is one of the
largest MPAs in the world, established to protect the coral reef
ecosystem while allowing sustainable tourism and fishing. Zoning within
the park restricts certain activities to preserve sensitive habitats and
maintain biodiversity.

2. Sustainable Fisheries Management: Implementing science-based catch

limits, enforcing no-take zones, regulating gear types to reduce bycatch,
and monitoring fish stocks are crucial for sustainable fisheries
management. International agreements and regional fisheries management
organizations also play a key role in managing fish stocks that migrate
across national boundaries.

Example: New Zealand’s Quota Management System (QMS) is a

successful example of sustainable fisheries management. It allocates
specific catch limits based on scientific assessments to ensure fish
stocks are harvested sustainably. This system has helped maintain
healthy fish populations while supporting the fishing industry.

3. Pollution Prevention Initiatives: Addressing ocean pollution involves

reducing plastic waste, minimizing agricultural runoff, improving
wastewater treatment, and regulating industrial discharges. International
agreements like the MARPOL Convention aim to prevent pollution from
ships, while national policies and community initiatives target land-based
sources.

Example: The "Plastic Bag Ban" in Kenya is a strong national initiative

aimed at reducing plastic pollution. By banning single-use plastic bags,
Kenya has significantly reduced plastic waste that could end up in the
ocean, protecting marine life and coastal environments.

4. Climate Change Mitigation and Blue Carbon Initiatives: Oceans are major
carbon sinks, and protecting blue carbon ecosystems like mangroves,
seagrasses, and salt marshes can help mitigate climate change. These
ecosystems store large amounts of carbon and also protect coastlines from
erosion and storm surges.

Example: The “Blue Carbon Initiative” is a global program that works to

protect and restore blue carbon ecosystems. Projects under this
initiative in countries like Indonesia and the Philippines focus on
restoring mangroves and seagrasses to sequester carbon and provide
coastal protection.

Sustainable management of natural and urban environments 14

 5. Community-Based Coastal Management: Involving local communities in
coastal and marine management ensures sustainable practices and helps
protect the rights and livelihoods of people dependent on marine resources.
Empowering communities through education, training, and co-management
agreements fosters stewardship of marine environments.

Example: Locally Managed Marine Areas (LMMAs) in Fiji are

community-managed areas where traditional knowledge and modern
conservation practices are combined to sustainably manage marine
resources. These LMMAs have successfully restored fish stocks,
protected coral reefs, and improved community livelihoods.

Case Study: Sustainable Management of the Coral Triangle

Background: The Coral Triangle is a marine area in the Western Pacific Ocean,
covering parts of Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Papua New Guinea,
Solomon Islands, and Timor-Leste. It is recognized as the global centre of
marine biodiversity, home to over 500 species of reef-building corals and a
wide array of marine life. However, the Coral Triangle faces numerous threats,
including overfishing, destructive fishing practices, pollution, and climate
change.
Sustainable Development Initiatives:

1. Coral Triangle Initiative on Coral Reefs, Fisheries, and Food Security (CTI-
CFF): The CTI-CFF is a multilateral partnership established in 2009 by the
six Coral Triangle countries to address the threats facing the region's
marine resources. The initiative focuses on:

Establishing a network of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) to protect

critical habitats and biodiversity.

Promoting sustainable fisheries through community-based

management and regional cooperation.

Enhancing climate change resilience by protecting and restoring

ecosystems that provide natural barriers against sea-level rise and
storms.

Strengthening governance and improving coordination among the six

countries to manage shared marine resources effectively.

2. Community-Based Management and Sustainable Livelihoods: Many coastal

communities within the Coral Triangle are engaged in community-based

Sustainable management of natural and urban environments 15

 management programs that promote sustainable fishing practices, such as
using fish aggregating devices, setting seasonal no-take zones, and
adopting traditional marine tenure systems.

Training programs and capacity-building initiatives help local

communities improve their knowledge and skills in sustainable fisheries,
marine conservation, and alternative livelihoods such as eco-tourism
and aquaculture.

3. Public-Private Partnerships and International Cooperation: The CTI-CFF has

partnered with various international organizations, NGOs, and private
companies to support sustainable development in the region. These
partnerships focus on:

Funding conservation projects and sustainable livelihoods initiatives.

Promoting sustainable seafood through certification schemes and

market incentives.

Conducting research and monitoring to inform management decisions

and adapt to changing conditions.

Outcomes and Challenges:

Successes: The CTI-CFF has established numerous MPAs across the Coral
Triangle, helping protect vital coral reef ecosystems and improve fish
stocks. Community-based management programs have empowered local
communities to take an active role in conservation, leading to improved
fisheries management and increased resilience to climate change.

Challenges: Despite progress, the Coral Triangle still faces significant

threats from illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing, coastal
development, and climate change impacts. Effective enforcement, capacity
building, and continued international cooperation are necessary to address
these challenges and ensure the sustainable development of the region's
marine resources.

Ecological Relationships and Environmental Degradation

Ecosystem and Food Chains

Ecosystem consists of interactions between biotic and abiotic things.

Biotic (living things) and abiotic (non-living things) factors interact in a

biome.

Sustainable management of natural and urban environments 16

 Food chains show interconnectedness between different species.

Global Warming Effects

Deforestation, virus manifestation, floods, droughts, climate change, soil

toxicity, acid rain, air, soil, and water pollution, smog, and species
endangered/extinct.

Food chains broken, habitat loss.

Greenhouse Effect

Rising sea levels, flooding, soil erosion, burning fossil fuels, and acid rain.

Endangerment and extinction of food chains.

Soil Erosion

Process of moving soil particles due to weathering factors.

Factors affecting soil erosion include more plants, less rain, less steep
terrain, sand/silt mixture, soil treatment, and soil type.

Solutions for Environmental Problems

Implementing a price on carbon, giving companies carbon credit, buying

eco-friendly companies, afforestation, and removing carbon from the
atmosphere.

Sustainable Development

Economic growth and human development can lead to sustainable

development.

Sustainable development involves social, economic, and environmental

aspects.

Urban Stress

Urban stress can lead to congestion, air/land/noise/water pollution, overuse

of fossil fuels, crime, inequality, and mental health issues.

Biome vs. Ecosystem

Biome is a large ecological area with abiotic factors, not an ecosystem.

Biomes are defined by abiotic factors and consist of many ecosystems with
similar climatic conditions.

Sustainable management of natural and urban environments 17

 The environment can perform all its functions as long as nothing alters its
balance and things are within its carrying capacity.

Here are well-structured notes for Unit 5: Sustainable Management of Urban

Environments, along with a detailed case study on Singapore—chosen
because it effectively connects with all the subtopics below:

🏙️ Unit 5 – Urban Environments

🔹 1. World Population Distribution
Uneven globally: 90% live in Northern Hemisphere

Dense populations: East & South Asia (India, China), Western Europe,
Eastern USA

Sparse populations: Deserts (Sahara), mountains (Himalayas), rainforests

(Amazon)

High Population Density Low Population Density

River valleys (e.g., Ganges) Deserts (e.g., Sahara)

Coastal areas (e.g., Japan) Mountainous regions (e.g., Andes)

Urban/Industrial areas (e.g., London) Tropical rainforests (e.g., Amazon)

🔹 2. Factors Affecting Population Change

1. Birth Rate (BR)

Influenced by: culture, religion, economy, education, healthcare

High BR in LEDCs due to poor family planning, child labor, rural society

2. Death Rate (DR)

Affected by: healthcare quality, nutrition, sanitation

Low DR in MEDCs due to better medical systems

3. Migration

Push Factors: War, poverty, unemployment, natural disasters

Pull Factors: Safety, jobs, education, better quality of life

Sustainable management of natural and urban environments 18

 Types: Rural → Urban (urbanisation), International (voluntary or forced)

🔹 3. Population Policies
Anti-Natalist Policy (discourage births)

Example: China’s One Child Policy (1979–2015)

Fines for additional children

Led to ageing population & gender imbalance

Pro-Natalist Policy (encourage births)

Example: France

Childcare support, maternity benefits, paid leave

"Code de la Famille" promotes family growth

🔹 4. Population & Settlements: Settlement Hierarchy

Hierarchy: Hamlets → Villages → Towns → Cities → Metropolises →
Megacities

Higher up = more services and functions

Settlement Type Population Size Functions

Hamlet Few dozen Residential only

Village 100–2000 Local markets, schools

Town 2000–100,000 Hospitals, transport hubs

City 100,000–1 million Higher education, business

Megacity 10+ million International trade, finance

Urbanisation leads to rapid growth of cities due to industrialisation and rural-

urban migration.

🔹 5. Urban Environments
Urban area: Densely populated area with built infrastructure and services

Megacity: A city with a population over 10 million (e.g. Tokyo, Mumbai,

Lagos)

Sustainable management of natural and urban environments 19

 🔹 6. Problems of Urbanisation
Social Economic Environmental

Slums/shanty towns High unemployment Air & water pollution

Lack of sanitation Informal economy Traffic congestion

Crime and inequality High cost of living Deforestation

🔹 7. Sustainable Urban Management

Sustainable urban development ensures cities meet present needs without
harming future generations.
Strategies:

1. Public Transport – Metro, buses, cycling lanes

2. Green Spaces – Parks, urban forests (improve air quality, reduce heat
island effect)

3. Waste Management – Recycling, composting, waste-to-energy

4. Affordable Housing – Limits growth of informal settlements

5. Water Conservation – Rainwater harvesting, efficient plumbing

6. Smart Planning – Mixed land use, vertical development, zoning laws

📍Management
Case Study: Singapore – Sustainable Urban

Why Singapore?

One of the most sustainable cities globally

Densely populated but efficiently managed

Strong government planning and innovation

🧠 How Singapore Connects to Subtopics

Subtopic Singapore Case Study Link

World Population
High-density island nation; urban planning critical
Distribution

Population Change Factors Pro-natalist policies; immigration boosts workforce

Sustainable management of natural and urban environments 20

 Population Policies “Baby Bonus Scheme”, immigration for skilled workers

Settlement Hierarchy Global city with financial, industrial, and residential zones

Urban Environments Urbanised 100%, high-rise living and infrastructure

Problems of Urbanisation Tackles space, waste, and congestion through innovation

Leading in green buildings, waste recycling, public

Sustainable Management
transport

✅ Key Sustainable Strategies in Singapore

🏘️ Housing & Urban Planning
80% of residents live in public HDB housing

Mixed-use neighborhoods reduce commuting and support local economy

🚆 Transport
Efficient MRT & bus systems

Congestion pricing for cars

Emphasis on cycling and walkability

🌿 Green Infrastructure
"City in a Garden" strategy

Over 50% green cover

Vertical gardens, rooftop gardens, park connectors

🚮 Waste Management
Incineration plants generate energy

Zero-landfill target by 2030

Strict anti-littering laws

💧 Water Sustainability
NEWater (recycled water tech)

Rainwater harvesting

Desalination plants

Sustainable management of natural and urban environments 21

 ♻️ Circular Economy & SDG Connections
Circular Principle Singapore Example

Reduce Congestion charges, energy-efficient buildings

Reuse NEWater (used water recycled into drinking)

Recycle Waste-to-energy plants, recycling bins in housing estates

SDG Connection

SDG 11 – Sustainable Cities Urban planning, affordable housing, transit

SDG 6 – Clean Water NEWater, rainwater use

SDG 13 – Climate Action Green infrastructure, reduced emissions

SDG 12 – Responsible Consumption Recycling and waste reduction policies

🧠 Summary
Topic Key Idea Case Study (Singapore)

High population needs space Compact, vertical

Population Distribution
solutions development

Baby bonuses &

Population Policies Pro-natalist + skilled migration
immigration

Managed via tech and

Urban Challenges Pollution, traffic, waste
planning

Sustainable
Eco-friendly living & green space “City in a Garden” vision
Management

Would you like me to prepare a printable or illustrated version of these notes

too?

Great! Here's a complete and well-structured set of notes for:

🏙️Urban
Unit 5: Sustainable Management of Natural and
Environments
With one detailed case study — Singapore — that connects across all urban
environment subtopics:

Sustainable management of natural and urban environments 22

 🌍CaseUrban Environment: Core Concepts & Singapore
Study

📊 1. World Population Distribution

Definition: Describes how people are spread across the Earth.

Uneven Distribution: Some regions (e.g. East Asia, South Asia) are densely
populated, others (e.g. Sahara, Arctic) sparsely populated.

🔗 Case Study: Singapore

Singapore is highly urbanized and densely populated, with over 5.9
million people living in just 728 sq. km.

One of the world’s most densely populated countries (~7,800 people per
sq. km).

Well-planned infrastructure has enabled high-density urban living without

widespread slums or severe overcrowding.

🔁 2. Factors Affecting Population Change

Includes:

Birth Rate: Number of births per 1000 people per year.

Death Rate: Number of deaths per 1000 people per year.

Migration: Movement of people into (immigration) or out of (emigration) an

area.

🔗 Case Study: Singapore

Low birth rate (1.05 per woman) → below replacement level.

Ageing population → rising healthcare needs, shrinking workforce.

High immigration (foreign workers & skilled migrants) used to offset

population decline and maintain economic growth.

👶👵 3. Population Policies
Pro-Natalist Policies: Encourage higher birth rates.

Anti-Natalist Policies: Reduce birth rates.

Sustainable management of natural and urban environments 23

 🔗 Case Study: Singapore
Anti-Natalist (1960s–1980s): "Stop at Two" campaign to reduce
overpopulation.

Later reversed with Pro-Natalist (from 1987): Baby Bonus Scheme, housing
incentives, tax rebates.

Despite policies, birth rates remain low due to cost of living, career
priorities, and housing.

🏙️ 4. Population and Settlements (Settlement Hierarchy)

Settlement hierarchy: Classification of settlements by size and services
(hamlet → village → town → city → megacity).

Population distribution often reflects hierarchy.

🔗 Case Study: Singapore

Single-tier city-state: No rural-urban divide; entire nation is urban.

Central Business District (CBD): Marina Bay

Satellite towns: Housing and services in planned towns like Tampines,

Woodlands, Jurong

Highly planned urban hierarchy, reducing pressure on central areas.

🏘️ 5. Urban Environments
Urban areas: Densely built-up areas offering housing, employment, and
services.
Features:

High-rise buildings

Commercial, residential, industrial zones

Transport infrastructure

🔗 Case Study: Singapore

Singapore is a global city and a model for smart urban planning:

Zoning policies separate industrial, residential, and commercial land.

Green spaces, vertical gardens, and rooftop farms.

Sustainable management of natural and urban environments 24

 Efficient transport system (MRT, buses) minimizes congestion.

⚠️ 6. Problems of Urbanisation
1. Overcrowding

2. Traffic congestion

3. Pollution (air, water, noise)

4. Housing shortages

5. Waste disposal

6. Pressure on infrastructure

🔗 Case Study: Singapore

Faced severe issues in the 1960s–1970s: slums, traffic, water shortages.

Transformed through:

Mass housing via HDB (Housing Development Board)

MRT system (1987 onwards)

Land reclamation and vertical development

Strict vehicle ownership policies (COE - Certificate of Entitlement) to

reduce car usage

🌱 7. Sustainable Management of Urban Environments

Goals:

Balance environmental, economic, and social development

Promote green spaces, efficient transport, waste management, clean

energy

🔗 Case Study: Singapore

Strategy Implementation Outcome

Green Green Building Index; mandates Reduced urban heat, better

Architecture rooftop gardens, natural lighting air

Water NEWater (recycled water), Self-sufficient in water by

Management desalination, rainwater harvesting 2060

Sustainable management of natural and urban environments 25

 Waste ~60% waste recycled, ash
Incineration, strict recycling policies
Management used in construction

Extensive MRT and buses, reduced

Public Transport Low congestion, cleaner air
car ownership

Energy Solar incentives, smart grids, LED

Lower emissions per capita
Efficiency lighting

🌍 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) & Singapore

SDG Connection

SDG 11: Sustainable Cities Integrated planning, efficient transit, eco-buildings

SDG 13: Climate Action Low emissions, green innovation, waste control

SDG 6: Clean Water NEWater, water recycling, conservation

SDG 7: Clean Energy Solar power initiatives, reduced dependence on fossil fuels

✅ Key Takeaway
Singapore demonstrates how urban population challenges can be addressed
through proactive government policies, advanced planning, and circular
economy principles. It is a strong model for sustainable urban living, with
lessons applicable globally.

Let me know if you'd like a printable PDF version, or want to link this with
another unit like Globalization or Resource Management.
Urban Morphology Overview
Settlement Types:

Dispersed settlements: Places where people live.

Temporary camps: Camps of hunters/herders.

Permanent settlements: Large urban agglomerations.

Conurbation/Metropolitan Area:

Super-city: Comprises multiple cities and towns.

Large city: Large city with abundant services.

Large town: Urban area with a specific administration/legal/historical status.

Town: Population of 1000 to 20,000 people.

Sustainable management of natural and urban environments 26

 Village: Clustered human settlements/community.

Hamlet: Tiny population with few services and buildings.

Isolated Dwelling: Only 1-2 buildings or families, negligible services.

Site Factors:

Water Supply: Clean water for consumption and domestic use.

Relief: Area must be high enough to be safe from flooding and low enough
to be sheltered from strong winds.

Defense: Protection from attackers.

Transport: Site at crossroads, rivers, or coast gives easier access to other

settlements.

Soil: Deep fertile soil for farming and animal rearing.

Resources: Sources for building, heating, fuel etc.

Situation: Location of the settlement in relation to surrounding areas.

Settlement Patterns:

Dispersed: Far apart from each other.

Linear: Long and narrow settlements.

Nucleated: Clustered settlements.

Planned settlements have a regular pattern.

Types of Urban Growth:

Irregular: Unplanned urban growth, no particular order, narrow and winding

streets, few open spaces.

Grid Plan: Streets run at right angles to each other.

Radio-centric: Streets radiate out from a central point.

Functions of a Settlement:

Farming, markets and inns.

Industrial, residential.

Administrative, commercial.

Services (schools, libraries, hospitals).

Sustainable management of natural and urban environments 27

 Tourism.

Problems of Urban Growth:

Housing: Lack of housing, affordability of proper housing.

Water Supply: Shortage of water and poor piping system.

Transport: Too many cars, poor public transport system.

Pollution: Domestic and industrial waste contribution to land pollution.

Changes in Rural Settlements in LEDCs and MEDCs

Positive Changes:

Declining rural population and reducing resource pressure.

Reduction in unemployment due to migration.

Closed public and private services due to population decline.

Aging population and young migrated.

Reduced agricultural production and insufficient labor.

Development schemes based on urban areas, rural ones forgotten.

Exploitation of natural resources by MNCs and government.

Changes in Rural Areas of MEDCs:

Change in rural population character due to gentrification.

Transition from agriculture to mechanized farming.

Farm diversification and higher house prices.

Formation of metropolitan villages and rural depopulation.

Benefits of Urbanization:

Economic growth, social mobilization, empowerment of women.

Greater access to education and health services.

Decreased population growth and opportunities for sustainable urban living.

Disadvantages of Urbanization:

Increased separation of wealthy and poor.

Urban sprawl results in inefficient land and slum development.

Risky living conditions in slums.

Sustainable management of natural and urban environments 28

 Increase in slum dwellers.

Violence, unemployment, and pressure on resources and infrastructure.

Top 10 Issues Cities Face/ Must Overcome:

Economic Development, Infrastructure, Public Safety, Budgets, Education,

Housing, Data technology, Environment/energy, Demographics, and
Healthcare.

Great question — and yes, Singapore can cover most of the points you’ve
listed, especially those related to low birth rates, ageing population, migration,
and economic/political planning. However, because it’s a high-income MEDC
with low fertility, it does not effectively cover high birth rate trends in LEDCs
or Stage 1/2 of the DTM.
To answer your question directly:

✅ Singapore Covers These Points Well:

Point Coverage in Singapore

✅ Birth rate, death rate, net ✔ Low birth rate, ageing population, immigration-
migration driven population growth

✅ Population change ✔ Declining natural increase, offset by immigration

✅ Population trends ✔ Urbanisation, ageing, low fertility, pro-natalist
policies

✅ Migration ✔ Strong inflow of skilled/unskilled migrants

✅ Push & Pull factors ✔ Pull: jobs, safety, education; Push (from sending
countries)

✅ Political factors ✔ Strict immigration policy, pro-natalist strategies

✅ Socio-cultural factors ✔ Delayed marriages, career focus, high cost of
raising children

✅ Economic factors ✔ High GDP per capita, job market attracts

immigrants

✅ Geographical factors ✔ Island state, high-density urban planning

✅ Densely populated areas ✔ One of the most densely populated countries
globally

✅ Impacts of Ageing Population ✔ Shrinking workforce, healthcare demand,

pensions

Sustainable management of natural and urban environments 29

 ✅ Possible solutions to ageing ✔ Immigration, retirement age adjustment, fertility
incentives

✅ Low birth rate in MEDC ✔ Textbook example: education, cost, urban lifestyle
✅ Disadvantages of increasing ✔ Addressed in its early anti-natalist history (1960s–
population 70s)

✅ Advantages of increasing ✔ Now promoting growth for economic sustainability

population

❌ Points Singapore Alone Doesn't Cover Fully:

Point **Why Not Fully Covered?

❌ High birth rate in LEDC Singapore is a MEDC; opposite trend applies

❌ Early stages of DTM (1 & Singapore is in Stage 4–5 of the Demographic Transition
2) Model

🔁 Suggested Opposite/Complementary Case Study:

To provide contrast and cover all points:

📍 Niger (LEDC with High Birth Rate & Early DTM Stage)
Birth rate: One of the highest in the world (45+ per 1000)

Death rate: Also high, but falling

DTM Stage: Late Stage 2 / early Stage 3

High fertility: Due to early marriage, low education, poor access to

healthcare

Low GDP per capita, rural population, limited access to services

This contrasts perfectly with Singapore and helps fulfill the “compare MEDC
and LEDC population trends” requirement.

✅ Conclusion:
You can definitely use Singapore as your primary case study to cover most
urban and population change subtopics, especially those related to low birth
rate, ageing, urbanisation, and policy response.
But to fully answer comparative or DTM-based questions, add Niger or
another LEDC for contrast — only where necessary.

Sustainable management of natural and urban environments 30

 Want a mini case study for Niger or help combining both into a model answer or
essay?
Yes! ✅ Singapore is actually one of the best single case studies for
connecting urban environments, population change, policies, settlement
hierarchy, and sustainable management. Let’s go point-by-point and see how
Singapore checks every box, often better than traditional textbook case
studies like France or China:

✅ Population Policies (Pro- & Anti-Natalist)

Subtopic Singapore Example Details

After independence, Singapore feared

Anti-Natalist
✅ “Stop at Two” overpopulation and launched campaigns with
campaign (1970s– sterilization incentives, limited maternity
Policies
80s) leave after 2nd child, and housing/education
disincentives for larger families.

Due to declining fertility (1.04 as of 2023),

Pro-Natalist
✅ “Have Three or government shifted to pro-natalist measures:
More, if You Can baby bonus schemes, tax rebates,
Policies
Afford It” (since 1987) subsidized childcare, priority in housing for
larger families, parental leave.

✅ So yes — it can substitute both France and China case

studies in a more concise, nuanced way. Same country with
both policies across time.

✅Hierarchy)
Relation Between Population & Settlements (Settlement

Concept Singapore Connection

Singapore is a primate city and a city-state — all functions of

Settlement
villages to megacities are integrated in one continuous urban
Hierarchy
region.

One of the most densely populated countries (8,000+ people per

Population & sq. km). Settlement patterns are vertically structured (high-rise
Urban Density housing), planned into HDB towns with hierarchy of services
(hawker centres → malls → CBD).

Sustainable management of natural and urban environments 31

 Urban-Rural Almost no rural areas, but green spaces, satellite towns and park
Contrast connectors attempt to provide urban–nature balance.

Transport MRT (metro), expressways, and bus rapid transit efficiently link
Connectivity settlements from dormitory towns to the CBD.

✅ Urban Environments
Urban
Singapore Example
Characteristics

Master-planned by URA (Urban Redevelopment Authority),

Planned city
organized into self-sufficient towns

Smart Smart Nation initiative: sensors, facial recognition, real-time traffic

infrastructure and waste tracking

>80% of population lives in HDB (Housing Development Board)

Public Housing
flats — government-built, subsidized, well-maintained

✅ Problems of Urbanisation
Problem Singapore's Experience

Overcrowding Vertical housing & density management solves it

Has tackled waste via waste-to-energy plants, water via NEWater

Pollution
recycling

Ageing Shrinking workforce and growing elderly demand infrastructure

population (accessible lifts, eldercare)

Income Despite GDP per capita being among world’s highest, Singapore
inequality faces class disparity and foreign worker dependence

Innovating through underground roads, vertical farms, and artificial

Land scarcity
land (e.g. Marina Bay Sands built on reclaimed land)

✅ Sustainable Management of Urban Environment

Strategy Singapore Initiative

Water NEWater: recycled water program, desalination, rainwater

Sustainability harvesting, water pricing policy

Green Building
Mandatory Green Mark Certification for buildings
Policy

Sustainable management of natural and urban environments 32

 Congestion pricing (ERP), COE (Certificate of Entitlement) limits
Car Control
car ownership

Public Transport Expansive MRT system, buses, walkable urban spaces

Urban Greening “City in a Garden” initiative, rooftop gardens, park connectors

Waste 60%+ of waste recycled; Semakau Landfill is offshore and eco-

Management friendly

✅ Human Settlement
Point Singapore’s Model

Planned human
Model of high-density but high-quality urban living
settlement

Public-private State and private developers work together to balance

integration affordable housing with amenities

Every settlement includes access to parks, MRT, schools,

Sustainability focus
clinics (walkable neighborhoods)

✅ Verdict:
Yes, Singapore is a rare single case study that checks ALL the boxes, even
better than France, China, or India because it shows both sides of the issue
and has world-leading urban planning.
📌 Bonus Tip for Exams: You can mention Singapore as a primary case, and
quickly contrast with Niger or Bangladesh for high birth rate/LEDC side, but
90% of the essay or answer can just be Singapore.
Want a sample structured model answer using Singapore across all these
points?
Great! Here’s a structured, bullet-point summary showing how Singapore can
be used as a comprehensive case study that connects to all key topics under
the IBMYP Unit on Urban Environment and Population:

🌆CaseSingapore
Study
– Urban Environment & Population

📍 Location Context
Sustainable management of natural and urban environments 33
 Southeast Asia, island city-state

Land area: ~728 km²; Population: ~5.9 million

Highly urbanized, dense population with advanced infrastructure

👶 Population Policies: Pro- & Anti-Natalist

Anti-Natalist (1960s–70s):

“Stop at Two” campaign

Abortion legalised, sterilisation encouraged

Reasons: High birth rates post-independence, limited land/resources

Pro-Natalist (1980s–present):

“Have Three or More (if you can afford it)”

Paid parental leave, baby bonuses, tax incentives

National Night Campaign, fertility clinics promoted

📊 Birth Rate, Death Rate, Net Migration

Low birth rate (~1.1 children/woman in 2024)

Death rate stable due to strong healthcare

Net migration positive – relies heavily on skilled immigrants and foreign

workers to support aging population and economy

🧓 Aging Population & Solutions

1 in 4 Singaporeans will be over 65 by 2030

Impacts: Shrinking workforce, healthcare costs, pension strain

Solutions:

Raising retirement age

Silver Support Scheme (pension support)

Lifelong learning & retraining

Encouraging active aging communities

Sustainable management of natural and urban environments 34

 📈 Population Change, Trends & DTM
Moved from Stage 2 to Stage 4/5 of DTM

Trend: Declining natural growth, increasing reliance on immigration

High population density (~8,000/km²)

🌍 Migration: Push & Pull Factors

Pull Factors:

High wages, safety, education, infrastructure

Job opportunities in finance, healthcare, tech

English-speaking environment, good healthcare

Push Factors (from other countries):

Poverty, conflict, lower quality of life

Brain drain from regional nations (e.g., Malaysia, Philippines)

🏘️ Settlement Hierarchy & Urban Planning

Entire country is urban, centralized hierarchy:

Central Business District (CBD) → Regional Centres (Tampines, Jurong)

→ Townships

HDB (Housing Development Board) flats – 80% of population live in public

housing

Efficient zoning – mixed land use: residential, commercial, green, and

industrial spaces

🌆 Urban Environment
Compact city model

High-rise, high-density development with integrated transport and utilities

Green spaces woven into urban fabric

🚧 Problems of Urbanisation
Limited land and over-reliance on imports

Sustainable management of natural and urban environments 35

 Traffic congestion (mitigated by ERP system)

High cost of living, housing demand

Environmental stress: energy consumption, water scarcity

✅ Sustainable Urban Management

Green Buildings: Mandatory energy-saving measures

Public transport investment: MRT, buses, cycling lanes

Vertical farming & rooftop gardens to reduce food imports

Water sustainability:

“Four National Taps”: Imported water, reservoirs, desalination, NEWater

(recycled)

Smart Nation Initiative: Data and tech used to manage traffic, energy, and
public services

Car quotas and COE (Certificate of Entitlement) to control vehicle

ownership

📌 Summary of Coverage
Topic Singapore Case Study

Population change & migration ✅

Birth rate, death rate ✅
Aging population impacts & solutions ✅
Population policies (Pro & Anti Natalist) ✅
Urbanisation problems & solutions ✅
Urban environment & sustainability ✅
Settlement hierarchy ✅
Would you like this turned into flashcards or printable notes too?
Demographics and Human Movements Overview
Demographic Characteristics:

Includes age, sex, education level, income level, marital status, occupation,
religion, birth rate, death rate, and average family size.

Sustainable management of natural and urban environments 36

 Socioeconomic refers to the interaction of social and economic factors.

Economic Growth:

An increase in the capacity of an economy to produce goods and services.

Economic Development: The process where low-income national

economies are transformed into modern industrial economies.

Demographic Model:

Economic Growth leads to economic development, and economic

development leads to economic growth.

Stages of economic development include low stagnant, rapid increase,

stable increase, slow decrease, and stable increase.

Water Demand Factors:

Size of the city, climatic condition, cost of water, distribution system, supply
system, industry, quality of water, and standard of living.

Water consumption has tripled in the last 50 years.

Human Movements:

Population Density, Birth rate, Death rate, growth rate, refugee, brain drain,
emigration, infant mortality rate, immigration, Gross National Income (GNI),
cohort, and age-dependency ratio.

Age-Sex structure: The composition of a population determined by the

number or proportion of males and females in each category.

Population Pyramid and Push-Pull Hypothesis

Population Pyramid: A vertical bar chart showing population distribution by

age and sex.

Push-Pull Hypothesis: A migration theory suggesting positive attraction or

pull at the place of origin.

Least Developed Countries

50 countries according to the UN’s definition, including Afghanistan,

Bangladesh, Cambodia, Cape Verde, Democratic Republic of Congo,
Maldives, Myanmar, Nepal, Somalia, Sudan, and Uganda.

Less Developed Countries: Countries in Africa, Asia (except Japan), Latin

America and the Caribbean, and Oceania.

Sustainable management of natural and urban environments 37

 More Developed Countries: Industrialized countries including Europe, the
United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Japan.

MENA Countries

Economically diverse region including oil-rich economies in the Gulf and

resource-scarce countries.

Influenced by the price of oil and legacy of economic policies emphasizing

state leadership.

Measurements and Trends

Infectious Diseases: Diseases caused by infectious agents, viruses,

bacteria, parasites, fungi, and a global problem.

Killers of Today: Advances in nutrition, antibiotics, immunity, food safety,

housing and sanitation, lower respiratory tract infections, HIV/AIDS,
diarrheal diseases, malaria & TB, Ebola & MERS-Col V.

Infectious Period: Time period where person who has the disease can
spread it.

Case fatality: Proportion of people who die from disease; how severe it is.

Basic Reproductive Rate: Average number of secondary cases that resulted

of one infected individual; how infectious the disease is.

Top 10 Worst Epidemics in History

Third Cholera Pandemic (Water), Asian Flu Pandemic of 1957 (Duck +

human gene), World War I Typhus Epidemic (Bacteria), Cocolitzli (like Ebola,
in Aztec community), Plague of Justinian (Byzantine empire by rats),
Antonine Plague (Roman Empire, smallpox & measles combo), Third Plague
pandemic (bubonic plague, entire country from far east to entire world),
HIV/AIDS (Primate to humans, first in Congo, lot of process in vaccines),
1918 Flu Pandemic (50 million people) AKA Influenza, Black death (Europe,
75-200 million people, bubonic plague by rats).

Endendemic: A disease that exists permanently in a particular region or

population.

Epidemic: An outbreak of disease that attacks many peoples at about the

same time and may spread through one or several communities.

Food Security –

Sustainable management of natural and urban environments 38

 Food security, occurs when all people, all the time, have access to sufficient,
safe, affordable and nutritious foods for a healthy diet.
Demand for food is increasing, driven by a range of population and
demographic changes ; population growth, changes in population structure,
consumption growth and urbanization.
Access to food is related to poverty, if you resolve poverty then you resolve
food insecurity.
Tomato problem in India - not enough methods for storing food in India.
Basically poor people will die of hunger and the rich one will not. Cold storage
is for perishable items that don’t last for long milk, fruits and vegetables) need
cold storage. But there is not enough storage, especially in developing
countries.
Food Insecurity has been defined as a lack of consistent access to enough
food for an active and healthy life.
Causes:

1. Lack of Access to Farming Lands

Food is grown or produced from the land. In doing so, income is also
generated. However many people do not have their own land, or cannot
afford to have access to farmland.

Land ownership strengthens agricultural productivity as it can be used to

produce a variety of food crops even at a small scale level. Without access
to farming land, however, it means the lack of a key resource for producing
food crops.

1. Land Grabbing

It is closely related to the point above. Land grabbing is when land,

traditionally owned or farmed by families or groups or communities, is taken
away from them by large investors or influential government officials.

They acquire the land to expand their expires, extract natural resources, or
even grow good for export. Land grabbing deprives local communities of
the resources they desperately require to grow food crops and vegetables
for survival. The ultimate outcome is poverty and social instability, which
further worsens food insecurity.

1. Conflict, Violence and Wards

Sustainable management of natural and urban environments 39

 Conflicts, wars and violence impact food production and supplies. In most
countries

Exploitation of resources
UN doesn’t provide money
World bank, IMF provide money or countries take loan from other countries
Aid is also provided ; Conditional Aid, Unconditional aid
Tragedy of Commons - a concept; applies to people who want to do something
e.g. sustainability but they can’t due to lack of resources. Like LEDC’s want to
reduce pollution but pollution-efficient technology is expansive and they can’t
afford it. For example overexploitation of labour but government is not
intervening because if it intervenes the company will go back where they came
from and then the country they were in’s economic growth slows down.
Hunger and Famine

Food is one of the most important assets in life, you need it to survive.

Three degrees of hunger: acute, chronic, and hidden (nutrients etc.).

Famine: caused by the shortage of inability of people to obtain food.

Usually caused by the shortage

Alarming Facts About Hunger

The WHO estimates that one-third of the world population is well-fed, one
third is under-fed (hidden degree/form of hunger) and one-third is starving.

925 million people in the world do not have enough to eat.

Every 3.6 second someone dies of hunger.

Every year 15 million children die of hunger.

Children are more vulnerable. Why?

Reasons

Poverty (affecting individuals)

Food waste

Usually in MEDC’s

Wars and Conflicts

Population (more mouths to be fed)

Sustainable management of natural and urban environments 40

 Land being used for urbanisation because of greater urban sprawl.

Division of large farms into smaller farms for better management

Geographical location/limitations (drought/floods/infertile soil

Less arable land

Fallow land not utilised

Growing those crops for earning profit which may make the soil lose its
fertility (wheat and now Indigo)

Vagaries of monsoon

Steps to increase food production

Hybrid seeds (for quick yielding) - Innovation

A hybrid is created by crossing 2 different varieties of the same plant.

Crossing involves taking the pollen from male flower of one plant and
transferring it to the feamle flower parts of a different plant.

Hybrid varieties often feature traits like disease resistance, improved

flavour or productivity, earlier maturity, and so on. Different traits for
desirable types of crops.

Affect fertility of soils.

GM crops - genetic modified crops (to obtain good qualities from products
by combining them together) - Innovation.

Step Farming.

Crop rotation - the growing of different crops in succession on a piece of

land to avoid exhausting the soil to control weeds, pests, and diseases.

Aquaponics

Cloud Seeding

Vertical Farming

Better distribution of food

Better storage facilities

Government intervention (transportation, cost)

Free trade with fair pricing

Sustainable management of natural and urban environments 41

 Global organisations like UN world food program and food and agricultural
organisation.

Green Revolution:
The Green Revolution (a term used for rapid increases in wheat and rice yields
in developing countries brought about by improved varieties combined with the
expanded use of fertilizers and other chemical inputs) has had a dramatic
impact on incomes and food supplies in many developing countries.

The Green Revolution within India led to an increase in agricultural production,

especially in Haryana, Punjab, and Uttar Pradesh. Major milestones in this
undertaking were the development of a high-yielding variety of seeds of wheat
and rust-resistant strains of wheat.
To enhance farm productivity green revolution increased the availability and
use of fertilizers, weedicides, and pesticides to reduce any damage or loss to
the crops. It also helped in promoting commercial farming in the country with
the introduction of machinery and technology like harvesters, drills, tractors,
etc.
Case Study:
Bengal 1943 Famine
Causes

disruptions to the Bengal food supply, primarily as the result of the

Japanese invasion of neighbouring Burma

October 1942 cyclone that devastated rice crops

Impacts

An estimated 0.8–3.8 million people died, in the Bengal region (present-day

Bangladesh and West Bengal), from starvation, malaria and other diseases

Aggravated by malnutrition, population displacement, unsanitary conditions

and lack of health care

Relief

It was only in November 1943, one year after the first signs of famine had
shown, that the colonial government eventually launched a relief mission to
render food and medical care to Bengal's dying population.

Circular Economy –

Sustainable management of natural and urban environments 42

 Principles:

Avoid waste and pollution - where it can’t be avoided you want to minimize
it as much as possible.

Keep using things

Help nature

Benefits of circular economy

Good for the planet: It cuts down on waste, reduces pollution and saves
natural resources like water and minerals.

Good for the Economy: It can create new jobs and new ways of making
money because we are fixing, recycling, and finding new uses for things.
Might also reduce existing costs of production.

Saves Resources: By recycling and reusing, we use fewer new materials,

which helps save resources for the future.

Encourages New Ideas: It makes people think creatively about how to

design products and services that are better for the environment.

Benefits of circular economy

Good for the planet: It cuts down on waste, reduces pollution and saves
natural resources like water and minerals.

Good for the Economy: It can create new jobs and new ways of making
money because we are fixing, recycling, and finding new uses for things.
Might also reduce existing costs of production.

Saves Resources: By recycling and reusing, we use fewer new materials,

which helps save resources for the future.

Encourages New Ideas: It makes people think creatively about how to

design products and services that are better for the environment.

Consequences of the Circular Economy on Resource Management

1. Land Management

Reduced Waste: By minimising waste production, the circular economy

lessens the need for landfills, preserving land for nature, agriculture or
recreation. An innovative example is the construction of the Circle House in
Denmark, which uses recycled materials like cork, old newspapers, and
eelgrass to build environmentally friendly social housing. This approach is

Sustainable management of natural and urban environments 43

 projected to significantly reduce CO2 emissions from construction
materials by 2050, for e.g. transport emissions are significantly less
because everything is situated close together.

1. Enhanced Land Quality

The circular economy supports soil health by reducing harmful chemical

use and promoting the use of organic materials. For instance, old bricks are
recycled and reused in new construction, saving energy and reducing
emissions compared to producing new bricks.

1. Water Management

Lower Water Pollution: Circular economy practices reduce water pollution

by improving recycling methods and reducing the use of harmful chemicals.
This leads to clean rivers and oceans.

Conservation of Water: Water systems are designed to be more efficient,

such as reusing water in Industrial processes or collecting rainwater. For
example, the Water in Circular Economy and Resilience (WICER) initiative
aims to implement circular and resilience principles in urban water
management, which helps cities maange water more sustainably and
inclusively.

1. Energy Management

Increased Use of Renewable Energy: The circular economy encourages the

use of renewable energy sources like solar and wind, reducing dependence
on fossil fuels. For example, water utilities have begun producing renewable
energy, achieving energy neutrality in some cases.

Energy Efficiency: Products and processes are designed to use less energy,
which not only saves energy but also reduces environmental impact. An
example includes recycling artificial turf, where state-of-the-art technology,
allows for nearly 100% of the material to be reused or recycled, significantly
reducing the CO2 emissions compared to disposal methods like
incineration.

Companies and Industries with Circular Economy

Unilever
IKEA
Steel Industry

Sustainable management of natural and urban environments 44

 Here's a summary of the detailed notes you provided on economic resources,
industry sectors, resource management, and environmental issues:

Economic Resources
Human Resources: The workforce of a business sector.

Human-Made Resources: Infrastructure, technology, and machinery.

Natural Resources: Can be classified as actual/potential, abiotic/biotic, and

renewable/non-renewable.

Environmental Impact and Management

Extraction Methods: Include blasting, surface extraction, and underground
extraction, primarily used in mining.

Water Use in Mining: Essential for mineral processing, dust control, and
worker needs.

Impacts of Consumerism and Capitalism: Lead to inefficient resource use

and environmental degradation.

Environmental Challenges: Include global warming, deforestation,

pollution, and the loss of biodiversity.

Sustainable Practices
Renewable Energy Sources: Such as hydroelectric, solar, wind, tidal, and
nuclear power.

Ecosystems and Food Chains: Interactions between biotic (living) and

abiotic (non-living) factors, showing the flow and loss of energy through
different trophic levels.

Sustainable Development Goals: A balance of social, economic, and

environmental pillars to mitigate urban stress and promote human
development.

This summary encapsulates the essential concepts from your detailed

exposition, highlighting the interplay between resource management, industrial
activities, and sustainable development practices.

Sustainable management of natural and urban environments 45