DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT AND
FLOW CONTROL STRUCTURES
By
G. A. Mavima
Faculty of Agricultural Sciences
Department of Agricultural Engineering
Definitions
Streamflow is a general term used to represent
volumes or rates of flow in a river, creek, stream, or
channel.
Discharge is a term used primarily for flow rate
measurements.
Discharge, or rate of flow, is the volume of water that
passes a particular reference point in a unit of time
Why study discharge
PROBLEM?
FLOODING!
Why study discharge
PROBLEM?
Water deficit!
Zimbabwe, 1992
Why study discharge
PROBLEM?
Water deficit!
Mutare, 1992
Why study discharge
PROBLEM? Hydropower production!
Rio Shincata, Ecuador
$ $
Why study discharge
PROBLEM?
Dam design!
Ngezi dam, Zimbabwe
Muturikwi dam, Zimbabwe
Classification of flow measurement methods
Stage (water surface elevation)
• Visual observation
• Float
• Pressure sensor
• Electric resistance
Discharge (non-structural)
• Current meter
• Dilution
• Float
• Indirect method using Manning’s equation
Discharge (structural)
• Direct volume collection
• Weirs, flumes and orifices
Stage (water surface elevation)
- Stage is the water surface elevation recorded relative
to some horizontal datum elevation, frequently mean
sea level
- Stage records are valuable for the definition of high
and low water tables. Areal extent of flooding, history
of flow rate fluctuations, and watershed hydrologic
characteristics can be documented.
Visual observation
- A stage recorder can be as simple as a ruler along a
bridge or other structure. It can be read periodically
but is usually automatically recorded.
- The automation is achieved using a water float,
pressure sensor, or change in electrical resistance
caused by water contact.
- The float and sensors are attached by wire or chain to
a chart that records all water level changes.
Discharge (non-structural)
CURRENT METER
- A current meter is a device for sensing velocity. Since
velocity varies with location and time in a flowing
stream, various areas and depths have to be used to
estimate flow rates. Velocities near the bottom will be
lower because of stream bed friction and higher
velocities at other depths.
- The flow rate can be determined using the equation
Q = AV
Where Q = Volumetric flow rate (cm3/s)
Discharge (non-structural)
(a) Propeller and (b) cup type CURRENT METERS
Discharge (non-structural)
CURRENT METERS
- A propeller current meter comprises a small propeller
mounted on a streamlined casing which is immersed
in the channel, facing directly into the stream (in the
cup type the propellers are replaced by a set of cups).
- The number of rotations of the propeller is transmitted
electrically by cable to a separate recording unit,
positioned well clear of the flowing water
Discharge (non) structural
CURRENT METERS
- Velocity measurements are then combined with data
on the cross-section of the channel through which
water is flowing.
- When the river is too fast or too slow to use a current
meter, velocity can be measured by recording the
time taken for a floating object (a float) to travel a
known distance along the channel
Discharge (non-structural)
CURRENT METER
- A member of the gauging team can stand safely on the
channel bed, holding the current meter.
- With large rivers, or swiftly flowing flooded smaller
ones, the current meter can be ballasted down by a
large weight and lowered into the river from a bridge,
or from a steel cable stretched across the river
Discharge (non-structural)
CURRENT METERS
Discharge (non-structural)
DILUTION
- In situations where conventional current meters are not
useful (shallow flows, high velocities, inaccessible areas),
the dilution method is used to estimate flow rates over a
reach of a stream.
- A known quantity of a substance is injected at a point and
water samples containing the substance withdrawn
downstream.
- Substances used should ideally be conservative, non-
polluting and be able to be detected in minute quantities.
Discharge (non-structural)
FLOAT
- During floods, there may be dangers to human life and
inaccuracies in measuring velocities. Specially prepared
floats are used to measure velocities.
- Two stations are marked and the distance between the
points are recorded. The time it takes for the float to pass
through the measured distance is recorded.
Discharge (non-structural)
INDIRECT METHOD USING MANNING’s EQUATION
- This method uses equations to estimate velocities and flow
rates given a measure of the physical characteristics of a
stream
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Discharge structural
STAFF GAUGE
STAGE READINGS
Staff gauges
- The simplest way of measuring river level stage is to
install vertical boards, clearly marked in units of length
(staff gauge).
- Staff gauges are fixed firmly to steel posts that have
been driven into the river bed or bank, or they are
attached to fixed structures such as bridge piers.
- The markings are designed for clear reading by the
observer, who may be on the bank some distance
away.
WATER LEVEL - structural
VERTICAL STAFF GAUGE
WATER LEVEL - structural
GAUGING STATION
(recording gauge with
stilling well)
WATER LEVEL - structural
GAUGING STATION (recording gauge with stilling well)
- These provide continuous records of river levels.
- Most are operated by a water level float which is attached to
a light wire cable (or metal tape), which is in turn wrapped
round a drum at the end of the shaft on the recorder
- The recorder is fixed at the top pf a vertical pipe known as a
stilling well, which is sited beside the river.
- The water level in the stilling well is the same level as that of
the river.
WATER LEVEL - structural
GAUGING STATION (recording gauge with stilling well)
- As the stage changes, the water level float moves up and
down, turning the shaft on the recorder.
- Depending on the design, different methods are used to
make permanent records by the turning of the shaft by the
float
1. Chart recording
2. Punched paper plate recording
3. Electronic recording
Water levels - structural
Chart recorder
WATER STAGE - structural
GAUGING STATION
(recording gauge with stilling well)
WATER LEVEL - structural
SILTING PROBLEMS
- Many tropical rivers carry heavy sediment loads, and
connecting pipes to recorder stilling wells frequently become
blocked with silt.
- A removable perforated cap over the end of the pipe in the
river may help to reduce blockage problems
WATER LEVEL - structural
WATER LEVEL GAUGING STATION FOR SHORT PERIODS
- For short period measurement, construction of a stilling well may
not be economical. A bubble or manometer-servo-water level
sensor is used.
- It uses dry nitrogen gas and battery power. The pressure
measured corresponds to the water head.
- The bubbler and recorder can be located several hundred
metres from the measuring point. Only tubing is required for
connection to the stream.
WATER LEVEL - structural
WATER LEVEL GAUGING STATION FOR SHORT PERIODS
Discharge (structural)
DIRECT MEASURE
- A direct measure of flow rates is done by the complete
capture of a volume of water passing a point of reference.
The time of the capture is known. Thus the flow rate is the
volume divided by the time.
- Care must be exercised to capture the total volume of water.
This limits the application of the direct measure to small
flow rates found in some street inlets or laboratory models.
DISCHARGE - Structural
WEIRS
- A weir is a low dam or overflow structure built across an open
channel. Materials are typically aluminum or stainless steel. It has a
specific size and shape with a unique free-flow, head-discharge
relationship.
- The edge or surface over which the water flows is called the crest.
Discharge rates are determined by measuring the vertical distance
from the crest to the water surface in the pool upstream from the
crest.
Weirs
Broad Crested Weir
Sharp Crested Weir
Weirs
Basic Weir Equation
Q = CLH3/2
Where:
Q is discharge in m3/s
L is Length of the Weir Crest (m)
H is the head of water above the crest measured at some
distance upstream (m)
C is a discharge coefficient for the weir.
C is difficult to determine for different type weirs so standard
weirs were developed
Weirs
- Weirs can be used for both high flows with the discharge
measured by the water stage in the pool behind the weir or
for volumetric flows in extremely low flow conditions that are
too small to measure by current meter.
- One disadvantage of using weirs is that in sediment laden
streams the weir will allow sediment depositions in the pool
above the weir.
- Many formulas and shapes and sizes of weirs are used to
compute the discharge rate.
Weirs
Weirs
Weirs
Weirs
Compound weir
DISCHARGE – structural
Flumes
- Flumes are primarily devices that constrict an open channel
flow for measurement. Once the flow is backed up behind the
constriction there is a defined relationship between the depth
upstream and the flow through the constriction. This relationship
can either be determined from an equation or a table.
Flumes
- A flume may be operated as a free-flow, single-head measuring
device, or operated under submerged-flow conditions where two
heads are measured.
- The level of flow can be measured by a staff gauge, float in an
adjacent stilling well, a submersible pressure transducer (SPT) or
by an ultrasonic sensor.
- A flume that is properly constructed has an accuracy of 2-3
percent under free-flow conditions, but is less accurate during
submerged flow.
Flumes
Trapezoidal and U flume
Flumes
Cut-throat flume
Flumes
Parshall flume
Flumes
Parshall flume
Thank you
