10.

1 Body Systems

*introduction*

Unit 10 - Human Body

 Every organ is in at least one system!
The Human Body: Overview
Urinary System

~11 systems work together to maintain homeostasis

Body Cavities:
large, fluid-filled spaces
house + protect internal
organs
Positive Feedback Loops Negative Feedback Loops
Summary: amplifies Summary: counteracts
Result: moves further away from Result: maintains homeostasis
homeostasis
Examples: blood glucose, body
Examples: childbirth, blood clotting, etc. temperature, etc.
Tissue Types
 Epithelial Tissue
Main Function(s):
protection, selective
transport, secretion

- thin, tightly packed sheets

- lines surfaces
- polar
- high repair/regen speed
- many nerves
 Nervous Tissue
Main Function(s):
communication, coordination

- neurons: signals
- action potentials: electrical impulses
- synapses: neurotransmitters (chemicals)

- glia: support
 Connective Tissue
Main Function(s):
Support, protect, transport, insulate

- cells + extracellular matrix

 Skeletal Muscle Cardiac Muscle Smooth Muscle
Muscle Tissue
Main Function(s):
Movement

Voluntary Involuntary Involuntary

 or Circulatory

& Immune!
 10.2 - Digestive
Unit 10 - Human Body
&
Urinary Systems
Overview of Digestion
Process of breaking down food into
molecules the body can use

Uses physical and chemical processes!

Digestive Tract =
● Alimentary Canal
● Accessory Structures
Main Digestion Steps
Mouth Both mechanical & chemical digestion!

★ Teeth
■ Breaks down food into smaller pieces
■ Incisors - bite/cut
■ Canines - shred
■ Molars - crush/grind
★ Tongue
■ Helps with food movement & swallowing
★ Saliva
■ Lubrication & enzymes
Salivary Glands 3 pairs:
- Sublingual
- Submandibular
- Parotid

Saliva = mucous & enzymes

Amylase
Enzyme that breaks down
carbohydrates

Bolus
Food that’s been chewed
up/mixed with saliva/amylase
 Swallowing Food
Bolus triggers swallow response
after passing pharynx
- Passageway for food/air

Epiglottis - flap of tissue over

opening of trachea (tube to lungs)
- Prevents food/water from entering
trachea
Esophagus
Tube connecting mouth to stomach

➔ No digestion occurs here

➔ Main function = secrete mucus, move food to
stomach
➔ ~10 in. long
➔ Skeletal and smooth muscle
◆ Upper ~1/3 = skeletal
◆ Then transitions to smooth
➔ Peristalsis
Peristalsis
Wave-like muscle contractions that move
food along digestive tract
 Stomach Mechanical Digestion

- Peristaltic waves

Chemical Digestion

- Pepsin: proteins → amino acids

- HCl: activates enzymes, kills bacteria,
lowers pH

Sphincter prevents stomach acid from entering

esophagus

Mucosal barrier protects lining of stomach

- Mucus, epithelial cells, bicarbonate ions
Bolus becomes chyme
 Pancreas - The “Powerhouse of Digestion”
Produces many important digestive enzymes!
- Lipase (fats), Amylase (carbohydrates), Protease (proteins),

Both pancreas and gallbladder release into beginning

portion of small intestine

Gallbladder - stores bile produced by liver

- Helps digest fats!

 Pyloric sphincter - between stomach &
small intestine
Small Intestine
3 sections - duodenum, jejunum, ileum

Digestion
- Most chemical digestion actually occurs here!
- Enzymes from pancreas & bile from gallbladder!
Absorption (of Nutrients & Water)
- Villi & microvilli greatly increase surface area
available for nutrient absorption
 Large Intestine (Colon)
Indigestible materials enter
- Dried out by absorbing remaining water
- Bacteria help break down some (and
provide some nutrients for us - Vitamin
K, Vitamin B12)

~5 ft long, three main segments:

- Ascending, Descending, Transverse

Solid waste product (feces) exits by moving

through rectum and out anus
Appendix - stores bacteria to help replenish rest of
From start to finish after eating = ~36 hours!
colon if needed ( + possible role in immune system!)
Accessory Organs
Secrete substances needed for
chemical digestion, but food
doesn’t actually pass through them

★ Salivary Glands
★ Liver
★ Gallbladder
★ Pancreas
Recap:
Digestive System
Urinary System
- Filters blood to remove waste (& stores/excretes urine)
- Regulates blood pressure, volume, and RBC production

Upper Urinary Tract

Kidneys, Ureters

Lower Urinary Tract

Bladder, Urethra
 Blood enters via renal arteries and exits via renal veins
Kidneys
Functional unit of kidney = nephron
- ~1+ million nephrons per kidney!
Ureters & Bladder
Narrow tubes carry urine from kidneys to bladder

- Via smooth muscle/peristalsis, gravity

Bladder
- Involuntary muscle
movements send signals,
makes control of urination
conscious
- Internal Sphincter
- INVOLUNTARY
- External Sphincter
- VOLUNTARY
- Waits to relax
- Urethra
- Tube urine is expelled through
Recap:
Urinary System
CIRCULATORY &
LYMPHATIC
SYSTEMS
Lesson 6.3
 TRANSPORT AND DISTRIBUTION
▪ The human cardiovascular system consists of the heart, blood
vessels, and blood.
1. Heart pumps blood
2. Blood vessels allow blood to circulate throughout the body
▪ What circulates throughout the cardiovascular system?
1. Nutrients from digested food
2. Oxygen from lungs
3. Metabolic wastes (e.g. CO2)
4. Hormones (chemical signals from endocrine system)
 HEART
● Located in the thoracic cavity in between the lungs
and is made up of cardiac muscle
● The heart has 4 chambers
○ Left and right atrium: receive blood
■ Right atrium: receives blood from the
body; high in CO2 and low in O2
■ Left atrium: receives blood from the
lungs; high in O2 low in CO2
○ Left and right ventricle: pump blood out
■ Right ventricle: receives blood from the
right atrium and pumps blood to the
lungs where it becomes oxygenated
■ Left ventricle: receives blood from left
atrium and pumps to all parts of the
body
●
HEART
● Heart walls
○ Epicardium
■ Outermost
layer of the
heart
○ Myocardium
■ Middle layer,
consists
primarily of
cardiac
muscle
○ Endocardium
■ Inner layer of
the heart
HEART
VALVES
● Valves are flaps of connective tissue between the atria and
ventricles
○ Moves blood through the heart in one
direction
○ Close to prevent backflow
● 4 valves
○ Atrioventricular valves
■ Between the atria and ventricles
● Left
atrium->bicuspid
valve->left ventricle
● Right
atrium->tricuspid
valve->right ventricle
○ Semilunar valves
■ Between ventricle and artery
● Right
ventricle->pulmonar
y semilunar valve->
pulmonary artery
● Left ventricle->aortic
valve->aorta
BLOOD VESSELS
▪ Blood
circulates through
the body through a
network of blood vessels
1. Arteries
2. Capillaries
3. Veins
 ARTERIES
▪ Arteries carry blood rich in oxygen and
nutrients away from the heart to the cells
of the body
1. Arteries face high levels of blood
pressure as they carry blood being
pushed from the heart under great
force.
• As a result, compared to other
blood vessels arteries are
thicker, more muscular, and
elastic.
▪ Arteries are made up of three layers of
tissue:
1. Epithelial: Innermost layer (called
endothelium)
2. Smooth muscle: Surrounds the
endothelium
3. Connective tissue: protective layer that
surrounds the smooth muscle

▪ Aorta is the largest artery in the body

 VEINS
Veins carry oxygen poor blood back to the
heart; this blood contains waste materials
• Veins are located further away from the
heart pump and exposed to low
pressures
• Veins do not receive the pulsing pressure
that arteries do since other vessels
absorb most of the forces from
contractions (arteries)
• Veins have thinner, less elastic &
muscular walls than arteries, but have
a larger internal diameter
• To facilitate the movement of blood back
to the heart, some veins have valves
• These valves prevent blood from
 CAPILLARIES
▪ Smallest
and thinnest of the blood
vessels in the body & the most
common
▪ Connect arteries and veins
together!
▪ Found running throughout
almost every tissue of the body

▪ Capillariescarry blood close to the

cells of the tissues of the body in
order to exchange gases, nutrients,
and waste products.
CIRCULATION OF BLOOD IN THE BODY

• Goals
• Send oxygen poor blood to the lungs to pick up oxygen
• Pump oxygen rich blood from the heart to the body cells

• 2 primary circulation pathways

• Pulmonary circulation
• From heart to lungs
• Systemic circulation
• Heart to body
PULMONARY
CIRCULATION

● Transports deoxygenated blood to the

lungs to absorb oxygen and release
carbon dioxide.
○ Oxygenated blood then flows back to
the heart to enter systemic
circulation
● Pulmonary circulation pathway
○ Deoxygenated blood travels from
■ Body->inferior & superior vena
cava->right atrium->tricuspid
valve->right
ventricle->pulmonary semilunar
valve->pulmonary artery->lungs
○ It is at the lungs where gas
exchange occurs!
SYSTEMIC
CIRCULATION

● Transports oxygenated blood

between the heart and the rest of
the body
● Systemic circulation pathway
○ Oxygenated blood travels
from the lungs
■ Lungs->pulmonary
veins->left
atrium->bicuspid
valve->left
ventricle->aortic
valve->aorta->body
 BLOOD
▪ Blood is the transport tissue
in the body
1. About 5-6 L are in the
human body
2. pH between 7.35-7.45
▪ Composition
1. Blood plasma
2. Erythrocytes
3. White Blood Cells
(leukocytes):
4. Platelets
 COMPONENTS OF BLOOD: PLASMA
▪ About60 percent of
the total volume of the
blood is plasma, the
liquid portion of blood.

▪ Plasma= 90 percent
Water + 10 percent
Solutes
▪ Solutes = nutrients,
wastes, salts, proteins,
hormones, respiratory
gases
 COMPONENTS OF BLOOD: CELLS
▪ Thereare three principal
types of cells in human
blood:
1. Red Blood Cells
(erythrocytes)
• Cells that carry oxygen
via iron containing
protein hemoglobin
• Hemoglobin also gives
blood its color!
2. White Blood Cells
(leukocytes)
• Defends the body
against pathogens
3. Platelets:
• Play an important role
in the clotting of blood
 BLOOD TYPE
▪ Blood type is
genetically
determined by the
presence/absence of
a specific complex
carbohydrate
(antigen) found on
the surface of red
blood cells.
▪ ABO Blood Group
System
• A, B, AB, O
BLOOD
TRANSFUSIO
NS

● Can be done using the same

blood type of another type that will
NOT trigger an immune response
○ Type O is universal donor
○ Type AB is the universal
recipient
● Rh blood types
○ Rh factor is an inherited
protein found on the surface
of RBCs also used to
determine compatibility
■ Rh +, RBCs have protein
■ Rh -, RBCs lack protein
 LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
▪ Due to osmotic pressure, blood plasma remains in capillaries.
However, some fluids can be forced out in the surrounding area
due to pressure from whenever the heart pumps.
▪ The lymphatic system collects and recycles fluid leaked from
the cardiovascular system (lymphatic fluid) back to blood.
▪ Lymphatic fluid
• Excess water and molecules (electrolytes, proteins, fats,
etc)
▪ Transports potentially harmful substances (pathogens,
debris, cancer cells, etc) to lymph nodes to potentially
initiate an immune response.
 LYMPHATIC SYSTEM: LYMPH NODES

▪ Components
• Lymph nodes
• Concentrated in the armpits,
neck, and groin which
contain lymphocytes (white
blood cells) and filter
substances from lymphatic
fluid.
• Lymphatic vessels
• Transports lymph to the
heart
• Spleen
• Tonsils
• Intestinal lymphoid tissue
10.4 - Respiratory
& Nervous Systems

[assorted topics only]

Unit 10: Human Body
Breathing
Inhale Exhale

(compared to atmospheric) internal air pressure is: LOWER HIGHER

Both = part of peripheral nervous system yes, I obviously spent too long putting this together

Sympathetic Nervous System Parasympathetic Nervous System

“Fight or Flight” “Rest & Digest”
Signaling
Action Potential
Another explanation of sodium-potassium transport during an action potential (for review/study use!)
 Myelin Sheaths

Saltatory vs. Continuous Conduction

Synaptic Signaling
Neuroplasticity
Ability of brain/nervous system to
change itself in response to
different experiences

“Normal” Stroke Patient

10.4 - Respiratory &
Nervous Systems
Unit 6 - Human Body

[ extended slides ]
Respiratory System - Overview
Allows gas exchange to occur!
- Getting rid of CO2, and take in O2

External Respiration

Internal Respiration
The Path of Air
➔ Mouth
◆ Air enters
➔ Nose
◆ Hairs filter dust/particles
◆ Tissues moisten & warm air
➔ Pharynx
◆ Passes through
➔ Larynx
◆ Passes through
◆ Vocal chords!
➔ Trachea
◆ Tube to lungs
➔ Bronchi
◆ Branches leading to lungs
➔ Alveoli
◆ Clusters of air sacs where gas exchange
occurs
Lungs Double membrane
❖ Outer = attached to wall of
thoracic cavity
❖ Inner = attached to surface
of lungs
❖ Pleural Cavity between!
➢ fluid-filled

Diaphragm - muscle spanning rib cage under

lungs, aids in breathing
Breathing

- Intercostal muscles & diaphragm contract - Intercostal muscles & diaphragm relax
- Chest volume increases - Chest volume decreases
- Air pressure inside < air pressure outside - Air pressure inside > air pressure outside
Gas Exchange
 Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)

Hemoglobin - protein in RBCs that O2 binds to

Normal human RBCs live for ~120 days, stem cells in your bone marrow replenish them! (& white blood cells)

Carried by
hemoglobin!
CO2 is carried by the
blood in three forms:

Bicarbonate
ions (HCO3-)
How does the
human body know
when it needs to
breathe in more
O2?

➔ As CO2 levels increase, pH decreases

➔ Respiratory centers in brain measure pH of blood
◆ So - low pH = too much CO2 = not enough O2!
◆ Result = Increased respiratory rate!

While the human body can also sense oxygen levels (not in the brain, though), it doesn’t base
breathing rate off it! Instead, low oxygen levels cause increased RBC production.
The Nervous System
CNS + PNS

3 Types of Neurons:
Reflex Responses
 The Brain Learning, memory,
speech,
★ Main processing problem-solving,
center emotions, senses,
★ 100 billion+ movement, etc.
neurons Higher functions!

★ 3 main parts

Balance, posture coordinated

Breathing, blood pressure, heart movement, motor learning, etc.
rate, sleep, body temp, etc.
Relays info throughout CNS
Spinal Cord
★ Dense cable of nervous tissue running
through vertebral column
★ Links brain to PNS
★ Relays info + reflexes
Peripheral Nervous System
Neuron Structure & Signaling
“Nerve” = bundles of axons
Action Potential & Synaptic Signaling
- Action Potential - down an axon in a cell
- Synaptic Signaling - between cells
 Membrane Potential - Difference in
Action Potential electrical charge across membrane
Typical neuron resting potential = -70 mV

Action Potential - Local reversal of

polarity (to positive)
- Resets itself immediately afterward!
Another explanation of sodium-potassium transport during an action potential (for review/study use!)
Synaptic Signaling
Junction = synapse

Tiny gap = synaptic cleft

Neurotransmitters - Signaling
molecules, can be excitatory or inhibitory
- Ex. dopamine, serotonin, adrenaline
Myelin Sheaths

Saltatory Conduction - jumping impulse from node to node

- Without myelin sheath = “continuous conduction” (slower!)

Immune system attacks myelin sheaths

“Sclerosis” = scarring
 Parts of the Peripheral Nervous System yes, I spent too long putting this together

Sympathetic Nervous System Parasympathetic Nervous System

“Fight or Flight” “Rest & Digest”
Parts of the
Peripheral
Nervous
System
“Nerve” = bundle of axons
Bundle of axons
How do neurons communicate?
- Action Potential - down an axon in a cell
- Synaptic Signaling - between cells
 Membrane Potential - Difference in
Action Potential electrical charge across membrane
Typical neuron resting potential = -70 mV

Action Potential - Local reversal of

polarity (to positive)
- Resets itself immediately afterward!
Another explanation of sodium-potassium transport during an action potential (for review/study use!)
Synaptic Signaling
Junction = synapse

Tiny gap = synaptic cleft

Neurotransmitters - Signaling
molecules, can be excitatory or inhibitory
- Ex. dopamine, serotonin, adrenaline
Common Neurotransmitters
Myelin Sheaths

Saltatory Conduction - jumping impulse from node to node

- Without myelin sheath = “continuous conduction” (slower!)

Immune system attacks myelin sheaths

“Sclerosis” = scarring
Neuroplasticity
Ability of the brain/nervous
system to change itself in
response to different experiences

“Normal” Stroke Patient

10.5 - Skeletal, Muscular,
& Integumentary
[intro only]
Systems
Unit 10: Human Body
 Skeletal System Muscular System Integumentary System
Functions: Functions: Functions:
- Protects organs - Movement - 1st defense against disease
- Facilitates movement - Maintain body temp - Protects
- Supports the body - Protect organs, stabilize joints - Regulates temp, moisture
- Stores/releases fat & minerals - Senses, absorbs, secretes
- Produces blood cells Skeletal, smooth, & cardiac - Produces vitamin D

Baby = ~300 bones Includes skin, hair, nails, glands

Adult = ~206 bones (sweat, tears, milk, etc)
Skeletal System: Overview
Axial Skeleton Appendicular Skeleton
Skeletal System: Main Cell Types
Joints
Fibrous Cartilaginous Synovial

“Opposing Pairs”
Skeletal Muscle
Integumentary System: Overview
Main Layers:

Follicles & Glands:

 10.6 - Endocrine &
Immune Systems
includes slides from in-class as well as lots of extra slides! :)

Unit 10: Human Body

Endocrine System

- Produces hormones

-
 The Endocrine System
Regulates and coordinates many different
functions in your body through the
secretion of hormones from different glands

Endocrine glands secrete hormones into

the bloodstream and/or extracellular fluid
Hormone Signaling

Binds to the target cell via specific protein receptors, which causes some kind of
change to the cell
Types of Hormones

STEROID AMINO-ACID BASED

Feedback Loops

POSITIVE FEEDBACK NEGATIVE

FEEDBACK
Effects of Hormone Signaling
Can regulate physical functions: Can also affect behaviors:
- Respiration - Mood
- Growth - Stress
- Digestion - Sleep
- Reproductive cycles - Sexual functions
- Etc. - Etc.
 Hypothalamus
- In the brain
- Coordinates nervous & endocrine
systems
- Signals to pituitary gland
- Controls:
- Body temp
- Hunger/Thirst
- Mood
- Sex Drive
- Sleep
- Blood Pressure
 Pituitary Gland
“Master Gland”
- Controls other glands
Secretes:
- Growth hormones
- Muscles, bones, etc.
- Oxytocin
- Maternal bonding
- Uterine muscle + breast muscle
contraction, etc.
- Role in sperm movement/testosterone
levels
- Can trigger aggression toward
“out-group”
- Prolactin
- Stimulates breast milk production
- Other messengers to control other
glands!
Pineal Gland
- Helps regulate your circadian rhythm
- Produces melatonin!
- Affected by light on retina
Thyroid Gland
- In neck
- Influence metabolism & growth
- Releases:
- Thyroxin (T4) and T3
- Metabolism regulation
- Mood
- Body Temperature
- Digestive functions
- Bone health
Thyroid Disorders
HYPERTHYROIDISM (too much)
High temp, sweating, irritability, high
blood pressure, fast heart rate, anxiety,
etc.

HYPOTHYROIDISM (too little)

Weight gain, tired, cold intolerance, slow
heart rate, depression, etc.

GOITER (enlargement)
Commonly develops due to iodine
deficiency or inflammation
Swelling, cough, etc.
Parathyroid Glands
- Four glands, in neck
- Regulate calcium levels
Adrenal Glands
- Above kidneys, respond to stress
- Adrenal Cortex
- Long term stress (ACTH/Pituitary)
- Secretes corticosteroids
- Increases glucose production and kidney salt
retention, increases blood pressure
- Adrenal Medulla
- Short term stress
- Secretes epinephrine (adrenaline) and
norepinephrine
- Epinephrine + Norepinephrine
- ENERGY
- Glycogen breakdown, fat release, heart rate up,
divert blood to muscles
Fight or Flight Response
ACTH =
Adrenocorticotropic
hormone

Main glucocorticoid =
cortisol
Cortisol
Released regularly throughout the day, peaking
early but lower at night

Stress causes your body to release higher than

usual levels.
- Attempt to deal with stress: reduce inflammation,
increase blood glucose, etc.

Consistent high levels can lead to negative

physical consequences
 Pancreas
- Found by stomach
- ENDOCRINE
- Glucagon
- Alpha cells secrete
- Causes glycogen breakdown
- Raises blood sugar
- Insulin
- Beta cells secrete
- Store glucose as glycogen
- Decrease blood sugar

- EXOCRINE
- Bicarbonate & Digestive Enzymes
Gonad Glands
Testes
Mainly testosterone
- Before birth, causes development of male sex
characteristics
- Lack = female sex characteristics
- In adolescence, muscle + bone growth, and further
development of sex characteristics

Ovaries
Mainly estrogen & progesterone
- Estrogen
- female secondary sex characteristics
- regulate menstruation + libido + emotions/mood + memory
- Progesterone
- Works with estrogen to regulate same things
- Also - uterus prep + maintenance
The Human Immune System: Summary
- skin
- mucus membranes
- secretions
[ non-specific ]

- inflammatory response
- phagocytes
- fever

- antibodies
[ specific ] - B cells
- T cells
Immune Cells
Immune Cells

Phagocytes:
leukocytes that engulf & destroy

“leukocytes”
INNATE
Macrophages
Phagocytes / - in most tissues
- first line of defense
- can signal to recruit others

/ Neutrophils
- “first responders” (from bloodstream)
- engulfs & releases chemicals
- later → most of “pus”!

Dendritic Cells
- important Antigen-Presenting Cell
(APC)
INNATE

Other Innate Cells

Natural Killer (NK) Cells Mast Cells, Basophils, & Eosinophils
(oh my!)

- induce apoptosis in infected/cancerous cells (based - part of inflammatory response

on general markers)
- may produce histamine & respond to allergens
ADAPTIVE
B Cells T Cells
- produced & mature in bone marrow - produced in bone marrow, go to thymus to mature
- make antibodies antigens antibody - recognize presented antigens
- helper and cytotoxic/killer
In reality, it’s WAY more complicated…

….but we’re going to pretend it’s not :)

The Human
Immune
System
 = exposure to antigen X
Speed of Immune Response

First Time Second Time

 Vaccines
Contain antigens of a pathogen to stimulate immune
response
Herd Immunity
Antibiotic Resistance
Antibiotics: kill bacteria (NOT viruses)