African American Psychology A Positive Psychology
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African American Psychology iii
A Positive Psychology Perspective
Stacie Craft DeFreitas, PhD
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Names: DeFreitas, Stacie Craft, author.
Title: African American psychology : a positive psychology perspective / Stacie Craft DeFreitas.
Description: New York : Springer Publishing Company, 2020 | Includes bibliographical references
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Identifiers: LCCN 2019029225 (print) | LCCN 2019029226 (ebook) | ISBN 9780826150059
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Contents v
Special Contributors
Preface
Share: African American Psychology: A Positive Psychology Perspective
Part I: Introduction to African American Psychology
1. Introduction to African American Psychology and Positive
Psychology
Objectives
Introduction
The Birth of African American Psychology
Problems With the Deficit Perspective
Important African Americans in Psychology
African-Centered Psychology
African American Psychology Today
The Development of Positive Psychology
Introduction to Resilience
Chapter Summary
Glossary
Discussion Questions
Additional Resources
References
2. Research and Theory in African American Psychology
Objectives
Introduction
General Research Issues With African American Populations
Theories Relevant to African Americans
Chapter Summary
Glossary
Discussion Questions
Additional Resources
References
3. The History of Racism and Oppression in the United States
Objectives
Introduction
Types of Racism
The History of Racism and Oppression in the United States
Slavery vi
Jim Crow Era
Education and Work
Civil Rights Era
Terminology Used for African Descendants in the United States
Current Racial Tensions
Racism and African Americans
Positive Impact of Racism
Overcoming the Impact of Racism
Chapter Summary
Glossary
Discussion Questions
Additional Resources
References
Part II: Relationships Among African Americans
4. Family Relationships Among African Americans
Objectives
Introduction
History of the African American Family
Strengths of African American Families
Single-Parent Families
Parenting Behavior
Further Needs in Family Research
Chapter Summary
Glossary
Discussion Questions
Additional Resources
References
5. Friendships and Romantic Relationships Among African Americans
Objectives
Introduction
Friendships
Romantic Relationships
Further Research Needs Concerning African American Relationships
Chapter Summary
Glossary
Discussion Questions
Additional Resources
References
6. Neighborhoods and Communities Among African Americans
Objectives
Introduction
Impact of Segregation
Impact of Poverty
Heterogeneity Within African American Communities vii
Factors in Neighborhood Environment
Community Programming
Future Needs in Community and Neighborhood Research
Chapter Summary
Glossary
Discussion Questions
Additional Resources
References
Part III: Culture, Achievement, and Identity Among African
Americans
7. Ethnic–Racial Socialization and Ethnic–Racial Identity in African
Americans
Objectives
Introduction
Ethnic–Racial Socialization
Ethnic–Racial Identity
Protective and Promotive Role of Ethnic–Racial Socialization and
Identity
Factors That Influence Ethnic–Racial Socialization and Identity
What Do We Still Need to Know About Ethnic–Racial Socialization
and Identity?
Chapter Summary
Glossary
Discussion Questions
Additional Resources
References
8. Religion and Spirituality in African Americans
Objectives
Introduction
History of Religion and Spirituality Among African Americans
Sexuality and Religion
Religious Coping
How Religion and Spirituality Can Continue to Support the African
American Community
Further Research Needs for Religion and Spirituality Among African
Americans
Chapter Summary
Glossary
Discussion Questions
Additional Resources
References
9. Education, Work, and Achievement in African Americans
Objectives
Introduction
Education Among African Americans
History
Current State of Education for African Americans viii
Factors Related to Academic Success Among African Americans
Work Among African Americans
Jim Crow Era
The Great Migration
The Great Recession
Current Work Issues
Social Class and Social Mobility
Factors Related to Positive Career and Work Outcomes
How Can We Improve Educational and Career Outcomes
Education
Work and Wealth
Chapter Summary
Glossary
Discussion Questions
Additional Resources
References
10. The Psychology of Hip-Hop
Objectives
Introduction
History of Hip-Hop
Rap Music
Positive Uses of Hip-Hop
The Future of Hip-Hop
Chapter Summary
Glossary
Discussion Questions
Additional Resources
References
Part IV: Health Among African Americans
11. Mental Health of African Americans
Objectives
Introduction
Rates of Mental Health Problems Among African Americans
Theories of Mental Health Among African Americans
Factors Impacting Mental Health for African Americans
What Strengths Can We Use to Improve Mental Health Among
African Americans?
Specific Mental Health Issues
The Future of Mental Health for African Americans
Chapter Summary
Glossary
Discussion Questions
Additional Resources
References
12. Physical Health Among African Americans ix
Objectives
Introduction
Health Disparities
Specific Health Issues for the African American Community
Programs to Improve Physical Health
How to Improve Physical Health Among African Americans
Chapter Summary
Glossary
Discussion Questions
Additional Resources
References
Part V: Change and Growth in the African American Community
13. African American Pro-Social Behavior and Civic Engagement
Objectives
Introduction
Pro-Social Behavior
Civic Engagement
Volunteering and Philanthropy
Factors Related to African American Participation in Pro-Social
Behavior and Civic Engagement
Further Needs Concerning Pro-Social Behavior and Civic
Engagement
Chapter Summary
Glossary
Discussion Questions
Additional Resources
References
14. The Future of African Americans
Objectives
Introduction
Heterogeneity Among African Americans
Utilization of African Americans’ Greatest Strengths
Areas in Which Growth Is Needed
How to Make Improvements in African American Outcomes
Chapter Summary
Glossary
Discussion Questions
Additional Resources
References
Index x
Special Contributors xi
Joshua Coto, BS , (Chapter 8) Alumni, University of Houston-Downtown
Houston, Texas
Valneshia Hines, BS , (Chapter 3) Master’s Degree Student, Lamar
University Beaumont, Texas xii
Preface xiii
There are several reasons that I endeavored to complete this book. The first
was that I felt that I was doing my students a disservice while teaching my
African American psychology course. As I was reading through the papers
written by my junior and senior level students on Issues in African
American Psychology, I got a sickening feeling in my stomach. As a Black
woman, I am proud to be Black. I can never remember wanting to be
anything but Black and have always been proud of my culture’s strength to
endure and prosper in spite of all that has been thrown at us in this country.
But as I read the papers that my students wrote, I thought, “I don’t want to
be part of THIS people.” My students wrote about the struggles of single-
parent families, the psychological and physical effects of racism, the
negative impact of media portrayals on our youth, and the list goes on. In
the seven semesters that I have taught this course to nearly 250 students, I
cannot recall one paper that was on a positive topic or about something
African Americans are doing well. “How can this be?” “Is this my fault?”
The answer is resoundingly “YES.” As their professor, I had not given them
other options. I had not emphasized anything positive. I was horrified. As
the proud Black woman that I am, it is my responsibility to pass this on to
my students, so this book was born. I realized that I had to make a very
specific and purposeful change so that my students would begin to see
African Americans as the strong, resilient, talented, beautiful people that I
saw as I looked around me. I wanted others to see the African American
community as it really was and not as it is often painted to be.
The second reason why I felt that I should write this book was because I
can use two of my favorite professional skills, writing and researching. I am
a writer and I enjoy writing. I know that there are many who fear it or hate
it, but I find it to be pleasant and I have a feeling of satisfaction as I
complete a writing project. Further, I love finding out new information. As
a researcher, I took it upon myself to consider this a research project. I was
on the hunt for the more positive face of African Americans. I knew that
there would be less research on these topics than on those with more
negative outcomes—this was very clear to me from the work that my
students were doing and my own research examining African Americans—
but I knew that the strengths-based and positive perspective was out there. I
would find it and pull it together.
One thing that was particularly important to me as I worked on this
book was that I wanted to tell the truth. I was not going to pretend that there
were no problems among African Americans and that there were no
improvements to be made, but I intended to present a less biased
perspective than had previously been put forth. As I worked on this text, I
regularly had to check in with myself and make sure that I was providing
the right balance of positive psychology and problems or issues within the
African American community. I do hope that I have successfully balanced
the two.
As part of telling the truth, I want to be very careful about language, as
it conveys critical meaning and will influence how readers understand the
concepts and issues that I am addressing. For example, much research will
talk about at-risk or vulnerable African American youth. This language is
problematic for several reasons. One, it ignores the strengths that African
Americans have and suggests that their survival and thriving is against the
odds. This type of perspective gets conveyed throughout society xiv
and makes it seem that poor African American youth are the only
ones that we should be concerned about. It does not address that there are
other risks or vulnerabilities in other populations as well. Affluent youth are
likely to be at-risk due to poor coping skills as their privileged status keeps
them from practicing coping skills (Luthar, 2003). This means that they
may be at-risk for behaviors such as suicide or substance use due to poor
coping skills. We do not call them at-risk youth. As such, we should not call
poor African Americans at-risk as they have strengths too. There is nothing
wrong with talking about risk factors, but labeling a group is a profound
step that conveys meaning above and beyond the label—they are a drain on
the system, they will not be able to succeed, they will end up in jail. These
biased beliefs hurt our society and therefore, I put forth efforts to not
perpetuate them.
Another issue is using the term LGBTQ to refer to lesbian, gay,
bisexual, transgender, and queer individuals. Some African Americans who
might be considered part of this community have opted to use the term
same gender loving (SGL). Although this term does not encompass those
who are transgender or queer, it will be the one primarily used in the text
since it was chosen by African Americans for African Americans. Latinx, a
gender-neutral adaptation of Latino or Latina, is also in use to be respectful
of those who do not fit into the gender binary.
Further, I do not address the people of the United States as American or
the country of the United States as America. This is critical because there
are over 30 other countries across the Americas, and the U.S.-centered
prospective is alienating and part of the hegemony that this book seeks to
combat. I do use the terms African American, European American, and
Latinx American to refer to these specific groups of people because we do
not have reasonable alternatives.
Many people look back on the time of slavery and think, “I would have
never survived. I don’t know how they made it.” In 100 years, I wonder if
people will look back on this time and think the same thing. African
American people are more likely to be shot by police, go to prison,
experience negative outcomes as a result of drug use, drop out of school,
die of cancer, have diabetes, live through the foster care system, and so on
(Alexander, 2010; American Cancer Society [ACA], 2018; Egede et al.,
2013; Netherland & Hansen, 2016; Ross, 2015; Smith & Juarez, 2015).
These outcomes are a result of systematic racism in the United States and
other factors. Yet, African Americans persist and many thrive in this brutal
environment. That is to be celebrated. So while we are thinking that we
would not have survived slavery, we have to remember that what we endure
now is also more than should be put upon a human being as well.
To guide your learning through this text, I offer several special sections
that are present in most chapters.
• African Cultural Values connects the chapter ideas to values from
Western Africa and the African worldview.
• Current Events highlights recent occurrences that relate to the
chapter content to help readers understand how the concepts manifest
in the real world; this aids in comprehension and application.
