Plant Growth Regulators

● Plant growth regulators (PGRs) or phytohormones are organic

compounds that signal, regulate, and control the growth of plants.
● Every plant cell can produce these hormones under appropriate conditions.

Types of PGRs

Carotenoid Adenine Indole

Terpenes Gases
derivatives derivatives compounds

E.g. - E.g. - E.g. - E.g. – E.g. –

Abscisic N6 - Gibberellic Indole-3- Ethylene
acid (ABA) furfurylamino acid- GA3 acetic acid (C2H4)
purine, kinetin (IAA0

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 Auxin
Discovery of auxin - Darwin’s experiment
● Auxin originated from the Greek word “Auxein”
meaning “to grow”.
Coleoptile:
● It is an indole derivative plant growth regulator.
Protects the
● Presence of a growth stimulator in the tip of the emerging young
stem was discovered by Charles Darwin and his shoot and leaves
son Francis Darwin. during germination
● Experiment was performed using canary grass
(Phalaris canariensis).

Hypothesis
● The site of transmittable influence that caused
the bending of the entire coleoptile in response
to unilateral illumination by growing towards
the light source (phototropism).
● Eventually, auxin was isolated by F.W. Went
from tips of coleoptile of oat seedlings.
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 Auxin

Types of auxins

Natural auxins Synthetic auxins

● These are produced naturally by ● These are synthesised artificially.

the growing apices of the stems ● Example:
and roots, from where they o Naphthalene acetic acid (NAA)
migrate to the region of their o 2, 4-dichlorophenoxyacetic
action. acid (2, 4-D)
● Example: o 2, 4, 5-trichlorophenoxy acetic
o Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) acid (2,4,5-T)
o Indole-3-butyric acid (IBA)
o 4-chloroindole-3-acetic acid

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 Auxin
Function of
auxins

Tropical
Developmental effects
movements

Phototropism Root initiation Apical

● Phenomenon of plants dominance
bending towards light Promotes flowering
Prevention of
Geotropism abscission
Parthenocarpy
● Phenomenon of Vascular
coordinated growth of differentiation
plants in response to
gravity

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 Auxin

Developmental effects

Root initiation Prevention of abscission

● Promotes lateral and adventitious roots. ● Auxin delays abscission (shedding

of young leaves, flowers, fruits).
● Initiates rooting in stem cuttings
o Plant propagation. ● But it also helps in shedding of old
fruits and old leaves.

Flower initiation Parthenocarpy

● Promotes flowering, e.g. pineapples. ● Production of seedless fruits, e.g.

tomatoes.
o Indole acetic acid can be used.
Vascular differentiation

● Helps in differentiation of xylem and

phloem and cell division and elongation.

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 Auxin
Developmental effects - Apical dominance
● Adaptive features seen in plants where the ● Importance of apical dominance:
auxin produced in the apical buds More access to light to perform
prevents the growth of the lateral buds. photosynthesis as they are taller.
o Growth of plants is observed at the tip o Adaptive mechanism of some plants.
of the shoot. o Get dominance over other nearby
o Growth of the main stem (central) is plants.
dominated over the lateral stems. o Helps them to become more fit than
the others.
● Growth is vertical.

Apical bud Apical bud

present removed
Lateral bud
growth
inhibited Lateral bud
grows

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 Gibberellins
● More than 100 gibberellins have been identified in a variety of plants and fungi.
● They are denoted as GA1, GA2, and GA3.
o GA3 was one of the first gibberellins to be discovered.
● Characteristics
o All GAs are acidic.

Discovery

● Rice farmers in Asia had long known of a disease.

● It makes the rice plants grow tall but declines seed production.
● This is called the “foolish seedling” or bakanae ('baka’ means fool) in Japan.
● E. Kurosawa in 1926 reported the symptoms of this disease.
● He reported that the symptoms appeared in seedlings on treatment with sterile
filtrate of the fungus.
● The chemical obtained from the sterile filtrate of those tall parts was named as
gibberellin (after Gibberella fujikuroi, the name of the fungus).
o The chemical compound was identified to be gibberellic acid which induces
tallness.
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 Gibberellins

Functions

Stimulates stem growth

Functions Promotes seed germination

Delays senescence

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 Gibberellins

Functions - Stimulation of stem growth

● Gibberellin induces rapid cell division and cell elongation.

● Stem growth is increased by internodal elongation in a
wide range of species.
● Bolting: Internal nodal elongation prior to flowering is seen
in plants like beetroots, cabbages, and other plants with
rosette habit.
● Delays the aging process in plants.
o Fruits can be left on the tree longer which helps in
extending marketing period.

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 Gibberellins

Uses

Increasing the length of the grape stalk.

Increasing the stem length and aids in yield enhancement.

Helps in elongating, thus improving shape of apple.

Helps in speeding up the malting process.

Helps in hastening maturity in juvenile conifers, leading to

early seed production.

Spraying sugarcane crop with gibberellins increases the

length of the stem, thus increasing the yield by as much as
20 tonnes per acre.
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 Cytokinins
Discovery

● These plant hormones are called ● Cytokinin was discovered while

cytokinins as they promote cell F. Skoog was working on
division or cytokinesis. callus.
● Cytokinin along with auxin ● While working on tobacco
promotes cell division. proliferation, F. Skoog and his
● Naturally occurring cytokinin tends co-workers discovered that
to occur in regions of rapid cell along with auxins another
division. E.g. root apices, ‘material’ leads to rapid cell
developing shoot buds, young proliferation (callus).
fruits etc. ● Use of herring sperm DNA
● They are transported via xylem. showed the maximum growth.

● Some cytokinins (synthetic) have ● It was later identified and

been reported to work as isolated by Skoog and Miller
herbicides. and termed as Kinetin.

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 Cytokinin

Functions

Regulates cell division

● It is essential for cell division and it promotes meristem growth.

● Excessive cytokinin causes plants to grow tumors.

Overcomes apical dominance and promotes lateral growth

● Cytokinin helps plants overcome apical dominance.

● It also initiates growth of lateral buds.
● Cytokinin aids in producing bushy plants.

Delays senescence

● Leaf falling and yellowing can be prevented.

● Prevents loss of RNA, protein, and chlorophyll.
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 Cytokinins

Promotes nutrient mobilisation

● The nutrients move from one part to another part of the leaf.
● This is called cytokine induced nutrient mobilisation.
● It helps in delay of leaf senescence.

Promotes chloroplast development

● Leaf treated with cytokinins have:

o Chlorophyll.
o Extensive grana.
o Photosynthetic enzymes.

Helps to produce new leaves and shoots

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 Did You Know?
● Auxin and cytokinin ratio aids in morphogenesis.
● Auxins are also weed killers.
● Example: 2, 4-D is used as a dicotyledonous weed killer.
o It does not have any effect on mature monocots.

No Callus Initiates root Stimulates

growth growth growth shoot growth

Initial callus

Tissue
culture
medium

No auxin Intermediate auxin High auxin Low auxin

No cytokinin and cytokinin Low cytokinin High cytokinin

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 Ethylene
● Ethylene is a plant
Seeds and seedlings
hormone responsible for
the ripening of many fruits.
Shoot
● H. H. Cousins showed that
ripened oranges hastened
the ripening of stored Parts of Root
unripened bananas. plants
affected by
● The spoiled oranges Flowers
ethylene
released a volatile
substance, which was later
Fruits
identified as ethylene.
● Ethylene has a promoting Various organs
effect on all the stages of
plant life starting from
seed, the growth of the
stem, flower, fruit, their
maturation, and even
senescence (aging).
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 Ethylene

Effects on seeds and seedlings

Breaks seed dormancy

● Some seeds do not germinate as they undergo dormancy for

certain period.
● Ethylene breaks this dormancy and makes the seed ready for
germination.

Initiates germination

● Ethylene stimulates germination along with gibberellins in

some seeds. Example: peanut.

Horizontal growth of seedlings

● Ethylene promotes the horizontal growth of seedlings.

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 Ethylene

Swelling of embryonic axis

● Ethylene causes an increase in the girth of seedlings.

Apical hook formation

● Ethylene promotes the development of the apical hook in

dicot seeds that prevents damage to the growing tip.

Breaks bud dormancy

● Sometimes, buds in a plant become dormant due to

unfavourable environmental conditions.
● Ethylene helps to break this dormancy.

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 Ethylene

Sprouting of potato tubers

● It helps in sprouting of tubers.

Internode/petiole elongation

● Deepwater rice plants grow in Southeast Asia and India.

● They have evolved to tolerate huge quantities of water.
● Ethylene in these plants promotes the growth of internodes
and petioles.
● The leaves and the upper parts of the plants remain above
water and do not allow them to suffocate.

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 Ethylene

Effects on shoot and root

Breaks seed dormancy

● Sometimes, buds in a plant get dormant due to unfavourable

environmental conditions.
● Ethylene helps to break this dormancy.

Sprouting of potato tubers

● Ethylene even breaks the dormancy of potato buds and

promotes their growth.

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 Ethylene

Internode/petiole elongation

● Deepwater rice plants grow in Southeast Asia and India.

● They have evolved to tolerate huge quantities of water.
● Ethylene in these plants promotes the growth of internodes
and petioles.
● The leaves and the upper parts of the plants remain above
water and do not allow them to suffocate.

Promotes root growth

Promotes root hair formation to increase the absorption

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 Ethylene

Effects on fruits

Ripening

● Ethylene is commercially used to ripen the foods.

o Ethephon or 2-chloroethylphosphonic acid is the
source of ethylene.
o The plants absorb ethephon and convert it to ethylene.
o It hastens ripening of tomatoes and apples.

● Ethylene leads to respiratory climacteric.

o Respiratory climacteric is the concluding stage of
ripening process.
o It is characterised by increased cellular respiration.
o It is also the time when the colour changes from green
to yellow, red, and more.

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 Ethylene

Effects on flowers

Flowering in mangoes
● It induces flowering in mangoes.

Promotes female flowers in cucumbers

● Cucumber has separate male and female flowers.
● Ethylene favours female over male flowers.
● It leads to an increase in cucumber yield.

Synchronises fruit set in pineapples

● Fruit set is the transition from flower to young fruit in the
development of seed.
● Natural flowering in a pineapple plant is variable.
● Ethylene is used to make all the plants flower at the same time.
● It also leads to the production of fruits at the same time.
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 Ethylene

Various organs

Induces senescence
● The process of aging and decay in a plant is known as
senescence.
● It can happen to any part of a plant.

Induces abscission
● It induces the process of shedding of the plant leaves, flowers,
seeds, and fruits.
● Ethylene is used for thinning in agriculture.
o Thinning means reducing the number of fruits or other
plant parts so that the remaining ones can grow better.
o Ethephon is usually applied to promote abscission of fruits,
flowers, and more, which results in thinning.

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 Ethylene

Mnemonic for effects of ethylene

An Absolutely Abscission
Rich Growth of root and root hair
Ripe Ripening of fruits
Old Aging/Senescence
German Germination
Spinster Sprouting of potato tubers
Hung Horizontal growth of seedlings
her Embroidered
Floral Swelling of embryonic axis
Sweater Flowering

Hook Synchronises fruit set

on a
Apical hook formation
behind a
Long Elongation of internodes/petioles

Door Dormancy breaks in seeds/buds

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 Abscisic Acid
● Abscisic acid (ABA) helps plants to
overcome situations of stress and
is, therefore, aptly known as the
stress hormone. Inhibitor β
● Discovery of ABA
o In the 1960’s, different groups of
scientists discovered various
growth inhibitors such as Abscisic
inhibitor β, abscisin II, and acid
dormin.
o Later, it was proved that all the Dormin Abscisin II
three growth inhibitors were
chemically identical and were
named abscisic acid.

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 Abscisic Acid
Effects of abscisic acid
● It increases the tolerance to stressful environmental conditions,
helping the plants to cope with stress.
● It acts as a growth inhibitor for plants by inhibiting the metabolic
activities during unfavourable environmental conditions.
o The rate of photosynthesis decreases during unfavourable
conditions (like low light and the non-availability of water), and
plants survive on stored food. In order to conserve energy, ABA acts
to decrease the rate of metabolic activities, which inhibits the
growth of the plant.
● It helps in seed development by the accumulation of reserved food,
helping in the maturation of the seed.
● It induces seed dormancy and inhibits germination during
unfavourable conditions.
● It stimulates the closure of stomata during unfavourable conditions,
helping to conserve water by minimising transpiration.
● It acts as an antagonist to gibberellins. Gibberellin is a growth
promoter and ABA is a growth inhibitor.
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 Seed Dormancy

● Seed dormancy means the lack of seed germination even during

favourable conditions.
● It is not controlled by the external environment but by conditions
within the seed itself (endogenous control).

Advantages
● Seed dormancy that leads to delayed germination allows time for
the dispersal of seeds, preventing the overcrowding of seedlings.
● Seed dormancy prevents germination during unfavourable
environmental conditions (conditions such as drought, extreme
hot or cold, excessive water, and more).

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 Seed Dormancy

Causes

Impermeable or hard
Chemical inhibitors Immature embryos
seed coat

● The impermeable ● Chemical inhibitors ● Some seeds are

seed coat does not such as abscisic released by plants
allow the entry of acid and phenolic before the embryo
water and oxygen, acids present in has fully matured.
which leads to the seeds prevents ● These seeds remain
dormancy. germination. dormant until the
● The hard seed coat embryo matures
acts as a mechanical completely.
barrier to
germination.

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 Seed Dormancy

Methods to break seed dormancy

Natural
● Hard and impermeable seed coats are broken by the following
measures:
o Microbial action
o The passage through the digestive system of animals
weakens the seed coat and promotes germination.
● Chemical inhibitors that lead to seed dormancy are often
leached off from the seed by the action of rainwater.

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 Seed Dormancy

Artificial
● The seed coat can also be broken by a process known as
scarification (mechanical abrasion).
● Scarification can be done by using knives, sandpaper,
vigorous shaking, the actions of harsh chemicals like
strong acids and hot water.
● The effect of inhibitory substances can be removed by
subjecting the seeds to chilling conditions.
● The seed coat can be broken by the application of certain
chemicals like gibberellins, potassium nitrate, thiourea,
and others.
● Seed dormancy can be overcome by keeping them in the
refrigerator for several weeks. A certain wavelength of light
can also promote seed germination.

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 Photoperiodism

● Photoperiodism is the response

of plants to the relative length of
day and night. Light period
o It was first studied by Garner or
and Allard (1920). Photoperiod
Critical photoperiod
● Critical photoperiod is the
definite period of light 24 hours
exposure above or below which
a plant does not flower.
● This critical photoperiod is Dark period
different for different plants. or
Skotoperiod

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 Photoperiodism

Photoperiodic perception

● Leaves are the site of

perception of photoperiod.
● The hormones and
molecules responsible for
the photoperiodic response
migrate from leaves to shoot
apices.
● They, then, induce flowering
only when the plants are
exposed to the necessary
inductive photoperiod.

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 Types of Plants based on Photoperiod
Types of plants

Short day Long day Day neutral

● They flower when the ● These plants flower when ● There is no correlation
photoperiod or day length they receive long between light or dark
is below the critical photoperiods or light periods and flowering.
period. hours that are above the ● Plants blossom
● They are also known as critical length. throughout the year.
long-night plants. ● They are also known as
short-night plants.

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 Vernalisation
● Vernalisation is the phenomenon due to which
flowering depends either quantitatively or qualitatively
on the exposure to low temperature.
● It promotes vegetative growth.
o It ensures proper development of leaves, stems, and
the vascular system.
o It prevents premature development of
reproductive parts.

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 Types of Plants

Annuals Biennials Perennials

● Annual plants are ● These are ● These are the plants

those which monocarpic plants that live for more
germinate, that grow and flower than two years.
grow, bloom and die over two years. ● The winter varieties
in one year. ● Examples: Sugar beet show vernalisation.
● Some annual plants and cabbage.
like wheat, barley, ● Bi: Two, Annus: Years
and rye have two
varieties:
o Winter variety.
o Spring variety.

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 Types of Plants

Annuals Biennials

● They germinate in spring, undergo

vegetative growth in summer and
Spring varieties Autumn varieties once they reach winter, they enter a
period of dormancy.
● Planted in spring ● Planted in autumn
● In the second year, the plants
● Grow over spring ● Grow into small flower in spring, form seeds in
and some parts seedlings in winter summer and die in winter.
of summer. and continue their
growth in spring. ● The key is the exposure to cold in
● Do not require any winter, and this shows
exposure to cold ● Finally in mid- vernalisation.
conditions to summer, they
flower. flower and produce ● Subjecting the growth of a biennial
grain and can be plant to a cold treatment stimulates
harvested. a subsequent photoperiodic
flowering response.
● Need to go through o This speeds up the process of
the winter cold to flowering in biennials.
produce flowers.
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 Summary

Germination

Epigeal Hypogeal

Growth

Indeterminate growth Determinate growth

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 Summary

Meristematic phase
This phase is
responsible for the
growth of the roots
and shoot tips of the Maturation phase
plants. The cells completely lose
the ability to divide in this
Phases of phase. No new cells are
growth formed.
Structural and
Enlargement phase physiological
The cells are not differentiation occurs.
capable of dividing.
The new cells enlarge
and elongate.

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 Summary

Parameters of growth in plants

Surface Number of
Girth Weight Volume
area cells

Growth

Arithmetic growth: As plant Geometric growth: As plant

grows, new cells are produced. grows, new cells are produced.
The number of cells produced The number of cells produced
increases with respect to the increases exponentially up to a
constant time interval. certain limit.

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 Summary

Growth rate

Absolute growth rate Relative growth rate

● Growth per unit time ● Growth per unit time per initial parameter

AGR = Final parameter - Initial parameter RGR = Final parameter - Initial parameter x Initial
Time Time parameter

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 Summary

Meristematic cell

Differentiation

Permanent cell

Dedifferentiation

Meristematic cell

Redifferentiation

Permanent cell

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 Summary

Auxin Gibberellins Cytokinin

● Indole derivative plant growth ● All GAs are acidic. ● Plant hormones that
regulators. promote cell division or
● Formed in the plastids by the cytokinesis.
Discovery terpenoid pathway and then ● They are transported via
transformed into the endoplasmic xylem.
● Darwin: Discovered the reticulum and cytosol until they reach
presence of some growth ● Naturally occurring
their biologically active form.
stimulator in the tip of the stem. cytokinin - zeatin
● Went isolated auxins from ● Example: GA1, GA2, GA3.
coleoptile tip of oat seedlings . Discovery
Discovery
Types ● F. Skoog - Cytokinin was
● E. Kurosawa in 1926 reported the
● Natural phenomenon (the “foolish seedling” discovered while F. Skoog
o IAA or bakanae) in rice seedlings which was working on callus.
o IBA makes the rice plants grow tall. ● Miller- Identified another
chemical called zeatin
● Synthetic ● The chemical was later identified as which promotes cell
o NAA gibberellin (after Gibberella fujikuroi, division.
the name of the fungus).
o 2,4-D

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 Summary
Function of
auxins

Tropical
Developmental effects
movements

Phototropism Root initiation Feminising

effect
Geotropism Flower initiation
Prevention of
abscission
Parthenocarpy
Vascular
Apical dominance differentiation

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 Summary

Stimulates stem growth

Functions of
Promotes seed germination
gibberellin

Delays senescence

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 Summary

Functions of cytokinin

Regulates cell division

Overcomes apical dominance and promotes lateral

growth

Delays senescence

Promotes nutrient mobilisation

Promotes chloroplast development

Helps to produce new leaves and shoots

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 Summary
Breaks seed dormancy

Initiates germination

Stimulates horizontal growth of Breaks bud dormancy

seedlings
Helps sprouting of potato tubers
Causes swelling of embryonic axis
Promotes internode /petiole elongation
Promotes apical hook formation
Promotes root growth
Seeds and seedlings
Promotes root hair formation
Shoot

Root
Effects of ethylene
Flowers Induces flowering in mango
Fruits
Promotes female flowers in cucumber
Various organs
Synchronises fruit set in pineapples
Effects of ethylene
Induces senescence Helps in the ripening of fruits
Induces abscission
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 Summary

Effects of abscisic acid

● Increases the tolerance to stressful environmental conditions

● Acts as an inhibitor of plant metabolism
● Helps in the seed development and maturation
● Induces seed dormancy and inhibits germination
● Stimulates the closure of stomata
● Acts as an antagonist to gibberellins

● In the 1960s, different

● Abscisic acids help plants
groups of scientists
overcome situations of
discovered chemicals
stress and are thus known
such as inhibitor β,
as stress hormones.
dormin, abscisin II, which
● They are derived from
were later confirmed as
carotenoids.
abscisic acid.

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 Summary

Seed dormancy refers to the lack of seed germination even during favourable conditions.

Causes of seed dormancy

Impermeable or Chemical Immature

hard seed coat inhibitors embryos

Advantages of seed
dormancy

● Prevents germination
● Prevents the
during unfavourable
overcrowding of seedlings
environmental conditions

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