PERMEABILITY BEHAVIOUR OF RECYCLED SFRC AND ITS IMPLICATIONS IN THE

DURABILITY RESISTANCE OF RIGID PAVEMENTS

Angela Graeff, C. Lynsdale, K. Neocleous and K. Pilakoutas

Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, The University of Sheffield, UK
[email protected], [email protected], [email protected],
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
Recycled steel fibres obtained from post-consumer tyres can be used as reinforcement for
concrete pavements. They can improve the mechanical behaviour when compared to plain
concrete, especially the post-cracking compressive, tensile and flexural strengths. Recycled fibres
may also enhance shrinkage, fatigue and impact performance. However, it is important to
understand not only the mechanical behaviour, but also the durability performance of recycled
SFRC before applying it to large scale applications. This research was developed in an attempt to
join two important themes in civil engineering, sustainability and durability. This paper reports the
results of mechanical performance and permeability, as an important measure of durability, of
sixteen concrete mixtures. The scope of the study comprises of two types of mix, conventional
(CC) and roller compacted concrete (RCC); two types of cementitious materials, a binary
combination of CEM1 and PFA and a low energy cement; two amounts of recycled fibres, 2 and
6% by mass of concrete; and one type of industrially produced fibres (2% by mass of concrete) to
serve as control. Recycled fibre specimens of CC presented lower permeability than plain and
industrial SFRC, whilst the opposite was observed for RCC. CC reinforced with 6% recycled fibres
presented, in general, the lowest permeability values associated with the highest observed values
of flexural and compressive strength.

KEY WORDS:
STEEL TYRE-CORD FIBRES / PAVEMENT / RCC / PERMEABILITY / DURABILITY

1. INTRODUCTION

Concrete pavements can be used as a solution to places and situations where asphalt pavements
are not recommended (i.e. bus lanes, heavy traffic lanes, roads over deformable soils, etc). Rigid
pavements have lower temperature sensitivity than asphalt pavements thus they are less
susceptible to changes in temperatures. Rigid pavements are also an alternative to conventional
types of pavements when the life-cycle cost analysis is considered. This derives from the fact that
concrete pavements are more durable and require less maintenance work than flexible pavements,
even if the initial cost is higher.

However, it can be found in the literature that concrete pavements may suffer premature crack
damage or warping of concrete (Tsai et al., 2010), thus leading to extra costs. In an attempt to
improve the quality of concrete for pavements and to avoid premature damage, the benefits of
using steel fibres in concrete have been explored in this work.

Steel fibres in concrete contribute to better mechanical behaviour through improvement in the post-
cracking behaviour of flexural, compressive and tensile strengths. Steel fibres may also reduce
shrinkage in concrete and may enhance impact and fatigue performance. They may also be used
as a replacement to conventional reinforcement.

Fibres are randomly distributed inside concrete and usually a large amount of fibres is required to
achieve the same performance as conventional reinforced concrete, and this adds to the cost.
Recycled steel fibres obtained from post-consumer tyres may be used as a replacement to
industrial steel fibres. Their efficiency in terms of mechanical properties has already been proven
by studies undertaken in the University of Sheffield (Tlemat, 2004; Tlemat et al., 2006; Neocleous
et al., 2006; Angelakopoulos et al., 2008a and 2008b).
However, the durability of concrete reinforced with recycled steel fibres has not been studied
(expect some limited work on shrinkage behaviour by Wang et al., 2000) and only few studies can
be found on the durability of industrially produced SFRC, mainly focusing on the corrosion of steel
fibres (Mangat and Gurusamy, 1987 and 1988; Granju and Balouch, 2005; Kosa and Naaman,
1990).

To address the issue of long-term behaviour of SFRC and to provide means for the understanding
of the durability of recycled SFRC, this paper reports the findings of an experimental programme
studying the permeability of recycled and non recycled SFRC. Roller compacted concrete (RCC)
was also examined as an alternative to conventional concrete (CC). The findings on other aspects
of durability of these concretes, including freeze/thaw cycling, salt scaling and corrosion, will be
reported elsewhere.

Permeability is considered as the key property of the concrete regarding its durability performance.
It is basically characterised by the interconnection of the concrete pores which allows the transport
of water and other aggressive agents. It is the property that governs the rate of flow of a fluid
through a porous solid, applied by a differential pressure under steady conditions (Cabrera and
Lynsdale, 1988, Abbas et al., 1999 and Lydon and Mahawish, 1991). It is also important for
providing information about the resistance to the ingress of aggressive chemicals through the
concrete porous system (Carcasses et al., 2002). According to Hui-sheng et al. (2009),
permeability is responsible for governing the carbonation, sulphate attack, acid attack, corrosion of
steel rebar and alkali-silica aggregate reaction.

For this study, oxygen permeability test was adopted. This test was chosen due to the fact that it is
fast and also one of the most common used tests in the literature, thus allowing comparison among
existing databases. The results obtained from the permeability analysis were compared to
compressive and flexural strength in an attempt to correlate mechanical properties with durability
parameters.

2. MIX PROPORTIONS AND MATERIALS

2.1. Materials

Two types of cement were used to examine potential environmental benefits. Low energy cement
(LEC), with lower energy use and CO2 emissions during production (Holcim, 2009), was supplied
by Holcim as Cemroc®, which consists of granulated blastfurnace slag, calcium sulphate, additives
and secondary constituents. The second cement was a blend of 80% CEM1 (BS EN 197:1, 2000)
and 20% pulverised fly ash (PFA) in an attempt to use industrial by products as part of the
cementitious materials.
Cumulative % passing .
Cumulative % passing .

100 100

80 80

60 60
40 40

20 20

0 0
a) 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 b) 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Sieve - logarithmic scale [mm] Sieve - logarithmic scale [mm]
Sand 10 mm UK min UK max

Figure 1 – Gradation curves of aggregates.

Two types of aggregates were used in the work: a rounded fluvial dragged gravel for the CC mixes
(both fine and coarse) and a crushed one for RCC mixes. The gradation curve each of the
aggregates used is shown on Figure 1a (fine and coarse aggregate for CC mix) and Figure 1b
(crushed aggregate for RCC mix).

Recycled steel tyre-cord fibres obtained from post-consumer tyres were post processed in order to
remove most of the impregnated rubber and other residues. They were subjected to a sieving
phase in order to get the range of length that contributes with the good performance to concrete.
Figure 2 shows the length distribution of the recycled fibres used in the study, obtained by a
statistical analysis. The diameter of the fibres was constant and equal to 0.23 mm. Tensile strength
of fibres is around 2000 MPa.

200 100%
180 90%

Cumulative Distribution
160 80%
140 Frequency 70%
Frequency

120 60%
Cumulative by
100 50%
length
80 40%
Cumulative by
60 30%
mass
40 20%
20 10%
0 0%
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Length [mm]

Figure 2 – Statistical analysis for recycled fibres.

To act as control, proprietary fibres used in construction were studied for comparison. These
consisted of loose cold-drawn wire fibre with conical head at each end. The geometrical properties
of the fibre are 54 mm in length, 1.0 mm in diameter, with a tensile strength of around 1100 MPa.
The percentage of industrial fibres adopted in this research (2% by mass) came from the fact that
this is the average amount commonly used in industry. To compare both fibres in terms of
performance, this same amount of 2% was used for recycled fibres. The 6% content of recycled
fibres was adopted based on previous studies (Angelakopoulos, 2008a and 2008b) which showed
that this amount is the maximum content that gives good performance and does not create balling
of the fibres during the mixing of concrete.

2.2. Mix proportion

The mix proportions used to cast the specimens are shown in Table 1. One specific mix proportion
was used for the RCC mix and another for the CC mix.

The same mix proportion was used in all experiments for the CC mixes. The superplasticiser
content was the only variant in these mixes with content ranging from 0.7 to 1.6% of the
cementitious material. RCC mixes were designed with the same amount of cementitious material.
The amount of aggregates and water for these mixes is based on the optimum moisture content
test (BS 1377-4, 1990), which gives the percentage of water to be added to the mix based on the
highest density achieved in the test. For this reason Table 3 presents the range of aggregates and
water used in the experiments for RCC.
 Table 1 – Mix proportion used for CC and RCC.
Cementitious Sand Coarse or RCC
Type of Water Superplasti Air
material [kg/m3 Aggregate
concrete [kg/m3] cizer* entrainer*
[kg/m3] ] [kg/m3]
CC 380 833 1004 133 0.7 – 1.6 0.135%
RCC 300 - 2089 - 2147 135 - 153 - -
* amount in terms of percentage of cementitious material

A total of sixteen mixes were analysed based on a previously developed experimental programme
(Graeff, 2009). The variables studied are shown in Table 2.

Table 2 – Variables investigated.

Variable Value
Conventional concrete (CC)
Type of mix
Roller compacted concrete (RCC)
CEM1 + PFA
Type of cement
LEC
0%
2% industrial
Fibre content and type
2% recycled
6% recycled

Table 3 – Description of mixes.

Cement type Fibre type Fibre content (by
Mix CC/RCC
mass of concrete)
1 CC CEM1 + PFA - 0%
2 CC CEM1 + PFA Industrial 2%
3 CC CEM1 + PFA Recycled 2%
4 CC CEM1 + PFA Recycled 6%
5 CC LEC - 0%
6 CC LEC Industrial 2%
7 CC LEC Recycled 2%
8 CC LEC Recycled 6%
9 RCC CEM1 + PFA - 0%
10 RCC CEM1 + PFA Industrial 2%
11 RCC CEM1 + PFA Recycled 2%
12 RCC CEM1 + PFA Recycled 6%
13 RCC LEC - 0%
14 RCC LEC Industrial 2%
15 RCC LEC Recycled 2%
16 RCC LEC Recycled 6%

3. CASTING AND PRECONDITIONING OF SPECIMENS

Cylinders measuring 150mm diameter and 300mm height were cast for the tests. They were
further sliced into pieces of 150mm in diameter and 50 mm in height to accomplish with the
necessary size for the oxygen permeability test.
Specimens were cast following two different procedures: one for CC mix and another for RCC mix.
Specimens of CC mix were cast using standard procedures whereas the specimens of RCC mix
were cast through the use of a hydraulic hammer which ensures the compaction of the concrete. A
specific set-up was developed to compact the specimens (Figure 3).

Figure 3 – Hydraulic hammer to compact RCC samples.

After casting, specimens were left to cure for 21 days in a mist room with controlled temperature
and humidity (+ 20 C and RH ≥ 95 %). They were removed and sliced in smaller cylinders and
then left to be cured for another 7 days. Before performing the oxygen permeability test, they were
subjected to a preconditioning procedure which basically consists of drying the samples to remove
the water from the concrete pores. This procedure is important to avoid the blockage of the pores
by the water thus affecting the results.

There is a concern in the scientific literature about the best temperature to precondition the
specimens. The temperature of 105ºC is the most effective in terms of removing the total
evaporable water of specimens and it is the most used temperature for preconditioning the
samples. However, the use of such high temperature is not recommended due to the fact that this
may create cracks in the concrete leading to an increase of the permeability of the concrete
(Noumowe et al., 2009; Sanjuan and Munoz-Martialay, 1996; Abbas et al., 1999). Some authors
state that the temperature of 80ºC is the most recommended, since most of evaporable water is
removed by using this temperature and no cracks are formed in the concrete (Carcassez et al.,
2002; Garder et al., 2005). Some authors disagree with this noting that 80ºC also creates cracks
and affects the C–S–H structure of concrete. Finally, others state that 50ºC - 60 ºC can also be
used to precondition the specimens (Rilem, 1999; Abbas et al., 1999; Sanjuan and Munoz-
Martialay, 1996). The main disadvantages of the last method is that a considerable amount of
water remains in the concrete pores after drying the specimens until a constant mass is achieved
and also because a long time is required to achieve the constant mass. In this case it is known that
no cracks are formed in the concrete matrix, however the water that remains in the concrete will
probably block the pores contributing to reduce the permeability and the porosity of concrete.

In this study two temperatures were used, 80ºC and 105ºC. The temperature of 105ºC was used
due to a large amount of studies in the literature adopting this temperature while the 80ºC was
used for comparison purposes, as the one providing a less severe drying regime. Specimens were
preconditioned at 80ºC and 105ºC until constant mass was reached, which is obtained when the
difference between the consecutive measurements in 24h is less than 0.5%. Both methods were
compared to check whether temperature influences measured permeability.
4. TESTING AGAINST OXYGEN PERMEABILITY

Oxygen permeability test was performed according to the technical recommendation of RILEM TC
116-PCD (1999), named as the Cembureau Method. The test involves subjecting one side of a
concrete cylinder 150 mm in diameter and 50 mm in height to oxygen under pressure and
measuring the rate of flow of oxygen through the sample. The intrinsic permeability Ki [m2] of the
sample can be calculated from the following equation (Cabrera and Lynsdale, 1988):

4.04 PaQi L  10 16

Ki  (1)
A( Pi 2  Pa2 )

Where Pa is the atmospheric pressure [Bar], Qi is the flow rate [cm 3/s], L is the thickness of the
specimen [m], A is the cross-section of the specimen [m2], and Pi is the total applied pressure
[Bar].

The test involves placing the sample in the permeability cell as shown in Figure 4. When the top lid
is in place, inflating the inner tube ensures a seal around the sample allowing oxygen to flow only
through the specimen. Oxygen is applied at 1 Bar above atmospheric pressure and the flow rate of
oxygen on exiting the sample is determined using a volumetric flow meter (Figure 5).

Steel container

Concrete specimen

Rubber ring

Inner tube

Figure 4 – Specimen placed inside the steel container for the permeability test.

Figure 5 – Volumetric pipette connected to the permeability setup to measure the flow rate.

A certain period of time is required for oxygen flow to stabilise, which is especially necessary for
concrete of low permeability. The flow is checked at every 5 minutes to verify if the stabilisation has
been achieved and usually a period of 30 minutes is found to be adequate for this.
5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The permeability results for 80ºC drying temperature are shown in Figure 6a and 6b for CC and
RCC mixes, respectively. Results for 105ºC drying temperature are shown in Figure 7a and 7b.
The permeability results presented for 80 ºC and 105 ºC represent average values obtained for 5
and 3 samples, respectively. Standard deviation for each mix is also shown as error bars on the
top of each column.

Considering the results for 80ºC, all data obtained for CC mixes are close to each other. Mixes with
CEM1 + PFA (i.e. mixes 1 to 4) presented lower permeability results than LEC mixes. Addition of
recycled steel tyre-cord fibres resulted in reduced permeability.

RCC mixes 12 and 16 (Figure 6) with 6% recycled fibres (shown truncated) presented very high
permeability, which could not be measured with the flow meter used. This high permeability is
probably due to inadequate compaction resulting from such high fibre content. RCC mixes with
LEC presented very high permeability values, more than 100 times the values for the same mix
with CEM1 + PFA (a different vertical axis scale was used for these – mixes 13-16).

a) CC Mixes b) Truncated

Figure 6 – Results of permeability for 80ºC (no data available for mix 10).

By analysing the results for samples dried at 105ºC (Figure 7), it can be seen that the results for all
CC mixes are close to each other, similar to the trend found for samples dried at 80ºC. Mixes with
6% recycled fibres for both types of cement presented slightly lower permeability values.

For the RCC mixes subjected to 105ºC preconditioning temperature, there is a considerable
change in the performance when CEM1 + PFA is compared against LEC, the same observed for
the lower preconditioning temperature. RCC mixes with CEM1 + PFA presented similar
performance (or even better) than corresponding CC mixes.
 Truncated

a) b)

Figure 7 – Permeability results for specimens dried at 105ºC.

Results for temperatures of 80ºC were compared to results of 105ºC, as shown in Figure 8. They
were plotted in a logarithmic scale due to the considerable high permeability values of mixes 13, 14
and 15. An equality line was drawn to permit an easy interpretation of the results. Most of the
results are above the equality line thus showing that the temperature of 105ºC gives higher
permeability than 80ºC, this is especially the case for the low permeability mixes. This is probably
because the higher temperature was more effective in removing the water in the pores thus
eliminating blockage of the oxygen flow. This correlates well with observed residual moisture in
samples after drying. The higher temperature may also have caused small cracks in the concrete
thus contributing to the higher permeability values.

Figure 8 – Comparison of permeability results for 80ºC and 105ºC drying temperatures.

Permeability results were compared to compressive and flexural strength of specimens obtained at
28 days. Compressive strength test was carried out using 150 mm cubes and flexural strength was
obtained by a four-point test arrangement on prisms measuring 150 mm x 150 mm cross section
and 550 mm long according to RILEM TC 162-TDF. Table 4 shows the values of compressive and
flexural strength (and the variance coefficient) for all sixteen mixes based on an average of 3
samples per mix. Figures 9 and 10 show a correlation between permeability and compressive
strength for specimens dried at 80 ºC and 105 ºC respectively. Logarithmic scale was used for the
permeability y-axis due to the high permeability results of mixes 13, 14 and 15.
 Table 4 – Compressive and flexural strength (and coefficient of variance).
Compressive Flexural Compressive Flexural
Mix Mix
strength [MPa] strength [MPa] strength [MPa] strength [MPa]
1 64.7 (0.04) 4.4 (0.06) 9 56.1 (0.02) 5.5 (0.01)
2 69.1 (0.04) 5.6 (0.00) 10 58.4 (0.03) 6.6 (0.06)
3 54.7 (0.06) 4.9 (0.03) 11 59.8 (0.04) 5.0 (0.17)
4 68.6 (0.02) 6.5 (0.12) 12 59.9 (0.02) 6.0 (0.02)
5 58.7 (0.06) 4.8 (0.05) 13 48.2 (0.02) 6.3 (0.06)
6 62.4 (0.01) 6.7 (0.06) 14 46.3 (0.02) 6.2 (0.06)
7 61.1 (0.02) 6.5 (0.07) 15 49.4 (0.03) 6.2 (0.02)
8 71.4 (0.02) 6.7 (0.11) 16 45.0 (0.05) 5.7 (0.01)

Figures 9 and 10 show that permeability reduces when compressive strength increases. Mixes 4
and 8 (CC with 6% recycled fibres for both types of cement) present the lowest permeability values
and the highest values for compressive strength. Mixes 13, 14 and 15 (RCC with 0%, 2% industrial
and 2% recycled fibres for LEC) are the most permeable specimens and also present the lowest
compressive strength.

However, the correlation between compressive strength and permeability is not well defined. For
the mixes analysed in this work, permeability results did not change considerable when the
compressive strength dropped from 75 to 55 MPa (Fig. 10) and for these mixes permeability
scattered over a wide range (Fig. 9). This suggests that more than one parameter should be taken
into consideration when attesting durability resistance of SFRC mixes and compressive strength
could not be used alone to predict permeability and hence durability satisfactorily.

Figure 9 – Comparison between permeability at 80ºC and compressive strength.

 Figure 10 – Comparison between permeability at 105ºC and compressive strength.

Flexural strength was correlated to compressive strength in Figure 11. It can be seen that no
correlation could be obtained from the results. As already reported by other authors (Xu and Shi,
2009; Furlan Jr and Hanai, 1997), poor correlations are usually obtained between compressive and
flexural strength for SFRC, especially when fibre content is equal or less than 2%.

Figure 11 – Comparison between compressive and flexural strengths.

Finally, Ffigure 12 show the permeability results plotted against flexural strength for the drying
temperature of 80ºC. It is not clear if flexural strength increases or decreases when permeability
increases. Similar behaviour was obtained for the drying temperature of 105ºC.
 Figure 12 – Comparison between permeability at 80ºC and flexural strength.

6. CONCLUSIONS

Recycled steel fibres from post-consumer tyres seem to be a good alternative as reinforcement for
concrete pavements. When used at higher content they can improve the performance of concrete
to the same extent found with industrial fibres and good performance in terms of compressive and
flexural strength is usually achieved.

Permeability behaviour has been investigated and two different preconditioning temperatures were
used, 80ºC and 105ºC. The first usually reflects lower permeability results which may be
associated with higher residual water in the pore structure of concrete or to fewer cracks formed
during drying when compared to 105ºC.

For both preconditioning temperatures, RCC is, in general, more permeable than CC mixes. CC
mixes with recycled fibres have lower permeability than with industrial fibres or plain concrete. LEC
mixes are usually more permeable than CEM1 + PFA. Mixes with 6% recycled fibres (mixes 4 and
8) presented the lowest permeability results for CC mixes.

When permeability results were compared to compressive strength, it could be noticed that there is
a tendency for permeability to increase as strength reduces. Mixes with 6% recycled fibres usually
presented the highest compressive strength values and the lowest permeability.

No trend was observed when flexural strength was correlated to permeability or to compressive
strength.

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