COORDINATION IN ANIMALS

➢ The process by which various organs interact and work together to adjust vital activities
of life is called Coordination.
➢ All living organisms must have a well organised system, which provides them with control
and coordination.
➢ The multicellular animals have specialized cells called nerve cells to respond to stimuli
and coordinate their activities.
Different living organisms have different mechanisms of control and coordination.
➢ In simple multicellular animals control and coordination takes place through nervous
system.
➢ In higher animals, called vertebrates (including human beings) control and coordination
is done by the nervous system and endocrine system.
There are five sense organs in our body, the sense organs contain receptors.
A receptor is a cell (or a group of cells) in a sense organ which is sensitive to a particular
type of stimulus such as light, sound, smell, taste, heat, pressure etc.
Gustatory receptors → to detect Taste -tongue
Olfactory receptors →To detect Smell-nose
Thermo receptors → to detect heat or cold (they are present in skin)
Photo receptors → to detect Light -eyes
Phono receptors →To detect Sound - ears
All the receptors in the sense organs receive stimuli from the surrounding environment and
send the message conveyed by them to the spinal cord and brain in the form of electrical
impulses through the sensory nerves.
An effector is a part of the body which can respond to a stimulus according to the instructions
send from the nervous system.
The effectors are mainly the muscles and glands of our body.
There are two system of coordination of activities in humans. These are:
1. Nervous system
2. Endocrine system
Nervous System

Nervous system: - The nervous system is an organ system containing a network of

specialized cells called Neurons.
Neurons or Nerves is the structural & functional unit of Nervous system.
Functions of Nervous system:-
It regulates involuntary actions.
It controls and coordinates voluntary muscular activities.
It controls all the reflex actions in our body.
It helps us in thinking, remembering and Reasoning.
It keeps us informed about outside world
through sense organs.

Neuron

Neuron is the largest cell in the body.

Neurons carry messages in the form of electrical
Signals called Nerve impulses.
Each Neuron is 90 – 100 cm in length.
Structure of Neurons:-
Each neuron contains:-
(a) Cell body:-
It is the main part of neuron.

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 It has a cell body called Cyton containing a nucleus and cytoplasm.

The cytoplasm contains mitochondria, Golgi body and special ribosomes containing
granules called Nissl’s granules.
Function: - It accepts nerve impulses from dendrites and transfers them to Axon.
(b) Dendrites:-
-A cyton produces 5 to 7 short, branched structure called dendrites.
-It contains Nissl’s granules and Neurofibrils.
-Function: - It receives messages from other neurons.
(c) Axon:-
-It is the longest part/fibre of neuron.
-The axon has an insulating and protective sheath of myelin around it. Myelin is made of fat
and protein.
-Nissl’s granules are not found in axon but Neurofibrils are present.
-Function: - Axons send messages to other neurons.
(d) Nerve ending:-
-The fine branch like terminations of neurons.
-Synaptic Knob /Axon Terminals:- Neuron ends by bulb like structure at nerve ending called as
Synaptic Knob.
Neurons are of three types:
i) Sensory neurons: transmits impulses from the sensory cells towards the central nervous
system (spinal cord and brain).
ii) Motor neurons: transmits impulses from the central nervous system towards the muscle
cells (effectors).
iii) Relay neurons: occur in the central nervous system where they serve as links between other
neurons.
Synapse:- The junction between two adjacent neurons are called Synapse, i.e. the axon
ending of one and the dendrites of the next.
❖ Messages are sent across the synapses by
special chemicals called Neurotransmitters.

Transmission of a Nerve impulse

• The Transmission of a Nerve impulse in the body

has a general scheme of flow.
• All the information from our environment is
Detected by the Receptors, which transfer it to
Sensory neuron.
• These receptors are usually located in our sense
organs i.e. Eye, Ear, Nose, Tongue and Skin.
-The information acquired at the end of the
Dendrite tip of a neuron causes a chemical reaction that produces an Electrical Impulse.
• This impulse travels from dendrite of sensory neuron to its cell body and then along the Axon
to its end.
• -At the end of Axon, the electrical impulse causes the release of some chemicals
(Neurotransmitters).
• -These chemicals cross the gap (Synapse) and start a electrical impulse in dendrite of next
neuron. This process goes on till the electrical impulse reaches the relay neurons in spinal cord
and brain.
-Synapses actually act like one-way valves.
-Synapse ensures that nerve impulses travel in only one direction.

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 • Types of Nervous system:-
1. Central Nervous system (CNS):– It includes
a. Brain b. Spinal cord.
2. Peripheral Nervous system (PNS):- It includes-
a. Autonomic nervous system (ANS) b. voluntary nervous system
• Peripheral Nervous system (PNS):- All the nerves of the body together make up the
peripheral nervous system.
The three types of nerves present are:
Spinal nerves: Arise from the spinal cord along most of the length of the spinal cord and
spread throughout the body.
Cranial nerves: Arise from the brain and spread throughout the head.
Visceral nerves: Mostly arise from the spinal cord though some arise from the brain. They
are connected to the internal organs of the body.
The cranial, spinal and visceral nerves are also of two types:
Sensory nerves and motor nerves
The nerves which carry messages from the body parts to the brain are called sensory nerves.
The nerves which carry message from the brain to the body parts for action are called motor
nerves.

Reflex action: The simplest form of response in the nervous system is called reflex action.
OR

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 The sudden, unconscious and involuntary response of the effectors to a stimulus is called
Reflex action.
A reflex action is one which we perform automatically.
Ex: - We suddenly withdraw our hand if we suddenly touch a hot object.
Coughing, yawning, blinking of eyes, sneezing all are reflex action.
In this reflex action, the nerves in the skin (receptor) detect the heat and pass the message
through the sensory nerves to the spinal cord.
Then the information passes through the motor nerves to the muscles (effector) of the hand
and we withdraw our hand.
Reflex actions involve mainly spinal cord.

Reflex Arc

The pathway taken by nerve impulses in a reflex action is called Reflex arc.
In a reflex arc the stimulus is received by the receptors (sense organs) and it passes through
the sensory nerves to the spinal cord.
From the spinal cord the information passes through the motor nerves to the effectors
(muscles/glands) for the response.
Reflex arc involves:-
Sense organs → Receive the stimulus
Sensory (afferent) neuron→ conveys the stimulus to spinal cord.
Spinal cord →Interprets the stimulus and give appropriate command to motor
neurons.
Motor (efferent) neuron → Conveys motor command to effectors.
Effectors or Muscles → Execute the effect by neuro muscular movements.

I Importance of Reflex Action:-

I. Produce immediate response to a harmful

stimulus.
II. It reduces the overloading of Brain.
III. It increases the chances of survival of an organism.
Important: The reflexes in which only the spinal cord is involved are called spinal reflexes.
-The reflexes in which brain is involved are called cerebral reflexes. These reflexes occur in the
organs present in the head because these organs are directly connected to the brain.
Example: The contraction of pupil of our eye automatically in the presence of bright light.

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 Somatic nervous system (SNS):-
It is also known as voluntary nervous system & associated
with the voluntary control of body movements via skeletal
muscles.
It includes – Cranial Nerves & Spinal nerves:-
Cranial nerves:- It emerges from brain and spread
throughout the head. Cranial nerves - 12 pairs arises
from brain.
Spinal nerves:- It arise from spinal cord along most of its
length and spread throughout the body.
Spinal nerves- 31 pairs arise from spinal cord.
Autonomic nervous system (ANS):-
It is also known as involuntary nervous system.
in which sensory & motor neurons plays an important role.
-It regulates the involuntary actions of our internal
organs e.g.- BP, Heart rate etc.
It is sub divided into –
i) Sympathetic nervous system (for fight, flight)
It is active during stressful conditions preparing
body to face them. Its area of influence is
delocalized (diffused). It is associated with fight
or flight. It increases heart beat, breathing rate,
Muscle contraction etc.
ii) Parasympathetic nervous system (for rest, digest).
It is active during relaxing times, restoring normal activity after stress. Its area of influence
is localized. It is sometimes called ‘house keeper system’.
Note: The central nervous system consists of the brain and the spinal cord.

(a.) Brain
The brain is the main coordinating centre in the human body.
It is protected by a bony box in the skull called cranium.
It is covered by three membranes called meninges, which help to protect it.

Meninges is filled with a fluid called cerebro spinal

fluid (CSF).
CSF protects the brain from mechanical shocks.
The brain has three main parts.
They are fore brain, mid brain and hind brain.
Parts of Brain:-
i) Fore brain:-
It is dome- shaped, known as roof of the brain.
It consists of the cerebrum , Thalamus and
Hypothalamus.
- It is the main thinking part of the brain and controls
Voluntary actions.

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It controls touch, smell, hearing, taste, sight, mental activities like thinking, learning, memory,
emotions etc.
Hypothalamus controls the body temperature, urge of eating, drinking etc.
Olfactory Lobes: - They lie below the cerebrum and contain olfactory-receptors which are the
organs of smell.
Region Stimulus
Occipital Lobe Visual reception
Temporal Lobe Auditory reception
Frontal Lobe Muscular activities
Parietal Lobe Touch, smell, taste, temperature and
conscious association.

ii) Mid brain:-

It connects forebrain to the hindbrain.
It controls involuntary actions and reflex movements of head, neck, eyes etc.
It also controls reflex movement of Pupil size.
iii) Hind brain: - It consists of cerebellum, pons and medulla.
(a) Cerebellum: - It controls body movements, balance and posture. It is the 2nd largest part
of human brain. It also enables us to make precise and accurate movements.
(b) Pons: - It relays impulses b/w different parts of Brain. It consists of fibres which are
interconnected with different region of brain. It takes part in regulating respiration.
(c) Medulla oblongata: - It controls involuntary actions. It controls heart beat, blood
pressure, swallowing, coughing, sneezing, secretion of saliva and vomiting.

Brain stem: - Midbrain and Hindbrain form the brain stem i.e. Central trunk of the brain connected to spinal cord.

Functions of Human Brain

It coordinates activities of the body.

It receives information carrying nerve impulses from all the sensory organs of the body.
It correlates the various stimuli from different sense organs and produces appropriate
response.
It responds to impulses brought in by sensory organs by sending its own instructions to
the muscles and glands causing them to
function accordingly.

(b) Spinal Cord

➢ The spinal cord starts from the brain and

extends through the vertebral column.
➢ It has 31 pairs of spinal nerves.
➢ It carries messages to and from the brain.
➢ It also controls reflex actions.
➢ Both brain and Spinal cord are surrounded by
meninges that are the protective layers.

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 Exocrine gland Endocrine gland
Exocrine glands have specific duct to carry Endocrine glands are found in different
their secretion. regions of the body.
They have specific duct. They do not have specific duct, so they are
called ductless gland.
The secretion is produced from the The secretion diffuses into the blood
specific duct. stream and reaches the target organ.
Eg: Salivary glands sweat glands. Eg: Pituitary, Adrenal glands.

Endocrine glands in human beings

The endocrine glands are also known as ductless gland.

The chemical substances which are secreted by endocrine glands are called Hormones.
Hormones directly diffuse into blood and reaches to target organ.
The endocrine glands in our body are :-
Pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, pineal, hypothalamus thymus, pancreas, adrenal, testes and
ovary.
▪ Hypothalamus: Present in brain.
It produces ‘releasing hormones’ and ‘inhibitory hormones’.
Function: To regulate the secretions of hormones from pituitary gland.
HYPOTHALAMUS controls the pituitary hormones.

1. Pituitary gland

It is present just below the brain. It secretes a number of hormones. Also called master gland of
the endocrine system.
It functions in response of hypothalamus & releases hormones. For ex.-
❖ GH (Growth hormones):– It helps for body growth. Deficiency of GH- causes Dwarfism &
excess secretion of GH causes Gigantism.
❖ Growth hormone controls the development of bones and muscles.

2. Thyroid gland
Thyroid gland is attached to the wind pipe in our body.
Thyroxine hormone: - Thyroxine controls the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats and
proteins and helps in proper growth.
If the diet is deficient in iodine it causes deficiency of Thyroxine leads to cause the goitre in
which enlargement of thyroid glands causes the swelling the neck.
The goitre disease is generally found in people living in Northern sub-Himalayan areas
where the diet is deficient of iodine.
Hence one must take the iodised salt.
Excess secretion of Thyroxine cause exophthalmia (protrusion of eyes).

3. Parathyroid glands

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 ➢ There are four small parathyroid glands which are embedded in the thyroid gland.
➢ It secretes a hormone called parathormone.
➢ Function: regulate the calcium and phosphorus level in the blood.
➢ It deficiency cause Cramps.

4. Thymus gland

It lies in the lower part of the neck and upper part of

Chest.
It secretes the hormone called Thymus.
This hormone plays a role in the development of the
Immune system of the body.
-Thymus gland is large in young children but shrinks
after puberty.

5. Adrenal glands
It is present over the Kidney in a pair.
Adrenaline hormone:–
It is also known as Emergency hormone or hormone of 3F → Fight, Flight, Freight.
It regulates heart rate, breathing rate, blood pressure and carbohydrate metabolism.
It is secreted in small amounts all the time but in large amounts when a person is
frightened or excited.
It is also called “glands of emergency.”

6. Pancreas

Present just below the stomach in our body. It secretes the hormone called insulin.
It is heterocrine gland (Exocrine & Endocrine gland).
Function: to lower the blood sugar level.
-Deficiency of insulin hormone in the body causes a disease known as diabetes.
-Insulin hormone controls the metabolism of sugar.
- due to some reason, pancreas does not produce and secrete sufficient amount of insulin -
into blood, then the sugar level in the blood rises.
-The high sugar level in the blood can cause many harmful effects to the body of a person.
-The person having high sugar level in blood is called a diabetic.
-The persons having severe diabetes are treated by giving injections of insulin.

7. Testes
In male a pair of testes present which act as heterocrine glands.
These are the glands which are present only in males. Testes make sex hormones called
testosterone.
The function is to control the development of male sex organs and male features such as deeper
voice, moustache, beard and more body hair.

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 The testes also make the male gametes called sperms.

8. Ovary
 Ovaries are the glands which are present only in females.
 Make two female sex hormones called oestrogen and progesterone.
 Function of oestrogen hormone is to control the development of female sex organs, and female
features such feminine voice, soft skin and mammary glands.
 Progesterone hormone helps to maintain the pregnancy, hence it is also known as Pregnancy
hormone.
 It controls the uterus changes in menstrual cycle.
Feedback Mechanism
The excess or deficiency of hormones has a harmful effect on our body.
The timing and amount of hormones released by various glands are controlled by the ‘feedback
mechanism’ which is in-built in our body.

Nervous system Endocrine system (Hormonal system)

1. Made of neurons (nerve cells) 1. Made of secretory cells (or glands)
2. Messages transmitted in the form of 2. Message transmitted in the form of
electrical impulses. chemicals called hormones.
3. Messages transmitted along nerve 3. Message transmitted through blood
fibres. stream.
4. Messages travel very quickly. 4. Messages travel more slowly.
5. Effect of message usually lasts for a 5. Effect of message usually lasts longer.
very short while.

Important:

PINEAL GLAND: The primary function of the pineal gland is to produce and secrete
the hormone melatonin, which plays a crucial role in regulating the body's sleep-
wake cycle and circadian rhythms.
- It also produces other neurohormones like serotonin, though in smaller
quantities. The pineal gland receives information about light exposure from the
retinas and adjusts melatonin secretion accordingly, with higher levels during
darkness and lower levels during the day.