Towards An Integrated Approach To Soft Robot

Design Edward L White download

https://ebookbell.com/product/towards-an-integrated-approach-to-
soft-robot-design-edward-l-white-37318292

Explore and download more ebooks at ebookbell.com

Here are some recommended products that we believe you will be
interested in. You can click the link to download.

When Do People Obey Laws Towards An Integrated Approach To Compliance

Shubhangi Roy

https://ebookbell.com/product/when-do-people-obey-laws-towards-an-
integrated-approach-to-compliance-shubhangi-roy-56425638

Toward An Integrated Approach To Narrative Generation Emerging

Research And Opportunities Takashi Ogata

https://ebookbell.com/product/toward-an-integrated-approach-to-
narrative-generation-emerging-research-and-opportunities-takashi-
ogata-34836602

Interdisciplinary Edo Toward An Integrated Approach To Early Modern

Japan 1 Schlachet Joshua

https://ebookbell.com/product/interdisciplinary-edo-toward-an-
integrated-approach-to-early-modern-japan-1-schlachet-joshua-58463614

Towards An Integrated Paradigm In Heterodox Economics Alternative

Approaches To The Current Ecosocial Crises Julienfranois Gerber

https://ebookbell.com/product/towards-an-integrated-paradigm-in-
heterodox-economics-alternative-approaches-to-the-current-ecosocial-
crises-julienfranois-gerber-5364672
Working Memory And Second Language Learning Towards An Integrated
Approach Zhisheng Edward Wen

https://ebookbell.com/product/working-memory-and-second-language-
learning-towards-an-integrated-approach-zhisheng-edward-wen-51814020

Understanding Late Devonian And Permiantriassic Biotic And Climatic

Events Towards An Integrated Approach 1st Edition Dj Over

https://ebookbell.com/product/understanding-late-devonian-and-
permiantriassic-biotic-and-climatic-events-towards-an-integrated-
approach-1st-edition-dj-over-2474640

Cultural Heritage Sustainable Development And Human Rights Towards An

Integrated Approach Laura Pineschi

https://ebookbell.com/product/cultural-heritage-sustainable-
development-and-human-rights-towards-an-integrated-approach-laura-
pineschi-56290318

Promoting And Managing International Investment Towards An Integrated

Policy Approach J Anthony Vanduzer And Patrick Leblond

https://ebookbell.com/product/promoting-and-managing-international-
investment-towards-an-integrated-policy-approach-j-anthony-vanduzer-
and-patrick-leblond-31553000

Historical Linguistics And Biblical Hebrew Steps Toward An Integrated

Approach 1st Edition Robert Rezetko Ian Young

https://ebookbell.com/product/historical-linguistics-and-biblical-
hebrew-steps-toward-an-integrated-approach-1st-edition-robert-rezetko-
ian-young-51380882
TOWARDS AN INTEGRATED APPROACH TO SOFT ROBOT DESIGN

A Dissertation

Submitted to the Faculty

of

Purdue University

by

Edward L. White

In Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for the Degree

of

Doctor of Philosophy

May 2017

Purdue University

West Lafayette, Indiana





ProQuest Number: 10268749




All rights reserved

INFORMATION TO ALL USERS
The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted.

In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript
and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed,
a note will indicate the deletion.






ProQuest 10268749

Published by ProQuest LLC (2017 ). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author.


All rights reserved.
This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code
Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC.


ProQuest LLC.
789 East Eisenhower Parkway
P.O. Box 1346
Ann Arbor, MI 48106 - 1346
 ii

THE PURDUE UNIVERSITY GRADUATE SCHOOL

STATEMENT OF DISSERTATION APPROVAL

Dr. Rebecca K. Kramer, Chair

School of Mechanical Engineering
Dr. Bryan W. Boudouris
Department of Chemistry
Dr. George T. Chiu
School of Mechanical Engineering
Dr. Neera Jain
School of Mechanical Engineering

Approved by:
Dr. Jay P. Gore
Head of the School of Mechanical Engineering Graduate Program
 iii

To Judi and Benny

 iv

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

My successes have been possible due to the efforts and time of the amazing and
diverse group of people I have had the opportunity to work with over my career.
At Kino School, David Anderson taught me how to think, Ed Davis taught me how
to question, and Ann Davis taught me how to communicate. Steven Kukolich of
Department of Chemistry at the University of Arizona took a chance on a high school
intern and allowed me to begin my career as a researcher. Eniko Enikov of the
Mechanical Engineering Department at the University of Arizona got me started in
mechatronics design and eventually became my Master’s thesis adviser.
At Purdue, I wish to acknowledge Jennifer Case for her collaboration on integra-
tion of soft robotic components, Michelle Yuen for her assistance developing capacitive
strain sensors, and Hannah Brown for her assistance measuring mechanical responses
of the elastomer joint structure.
I also wish to thank my major professor Rebecca Kramer for her feedback and
guidance throughout the development of my dissertation and conduct of my research.
She allowed me to pursue my own course as I saw fit, and provided me with the
intellectual freedom to grow as a researcher.
Finally, I wish to acknowledge the Graduate Research Fellowship program of the
National Science Foundation (Grant DGE-1333468) and Early Career Faculty pro-
gram of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (Grant NNX14AO52G)
for the funding they have provided for this work. The conclusions presented here and
in my papers are my own, and do not necessarily reflect the views and opinions of
either the NSF or NASA.
 v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii
ABSTRACT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2. SUMMARY OF PUBLISHED WORK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.1 Multi-Mode Strain and Curvature Sensors for Soft Robotic Applications 7
2.2 Multi-Element Strain Gauge Modules for Soft Sensory Skins . . . . . . 8
2.3 Low-cost, Facile, and Scalable Manufacturing of Capacitive Sensors for
Soft Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.4 A Soft Parallel Kinematic Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3. SIMULATION OF A ROBOTIC SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.1 Modeling and Simulation Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.1.1 High-Frequency Analysis of Capacitive Strain Sensors . . . . . . 20
3.2 Responsive Material Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.2.1 Heat Transfer Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.2.2 Shape Memory Alloy Thermomechanical Modeling . . . . . . . 40
3.2.3 Structural Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.3 Passive Element Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.3.1 Deformable Body Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.3.2 Deformable Body Kinetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4. SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
A. PROGRESS REPORT: TRENDS IN SOFT ROBOTIC STRUCTURE DE-
VELOPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
A.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
A.2 Where we’ve come from . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
A.3 Where we are . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
A.3.1 Pneumatic Elastomer Robots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
A.3.2 Responsive Material Actuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
A.3.3 Conductive Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
A.3.4 The Role of Bioinspiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
A.4 Where we are going . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
 vi

Page
A.4.1 When clothes becomes robots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
A.4.2 Adding soft parts to hard robots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
A.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
VITA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
PUBLICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
 vii

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page
3.1 Parameters used in simulation of heating of SMA wire with convective and
radiative heat transfer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
 viii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page
2.1 Prototype active sensory skin element. Capacitive sensors are black
patches with blue outlines. Shape memory alloy actuators are wire coils
above sensors. Sensor interface electrodes are orange film tabs. Actuator
mounting points are blue hexagons. Skin is fabricated on elastic fabric. . 12
3.1 States and plant models in a soft Stewart platform. States are shown
as black circles with white font. Plants are shown as light gray boxes.
Physical components are shown as dark gray boxes. Information flows are
shown as black arrows. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.2 Abstraction of a sensor element with finite resistance electrodes. . . . . . . 22
3.3 Assembly of two 1-D resistance elements. Voltage and current labels are
identical as the single element case. The parenthetical subscript indicates
element number. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.4 2-D capacitive sensor element. V1 , V2 , V3 are nodal voltages on the upper
surface, Va is the midpoint voltage on the upper surface, V4 , V5 , V6 are
nodal voltages on the lower surface, Vb is the midpoint voltage on the
lower surface, and the current numbers correspond to the nodal numbers,
with i7 as the current from the midpoint of the upper surface to the lower
surface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.5 Example of an assembly of 6 triangular sensor elements. Only the top
nodes are shown, and currents are omitted for clarity. . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.6 Example result for a single electrode location, with elctrodes placed on
the top and bottom surface at the yellow spot in (a). (a)-(d) are for
ω = 0.01rad.s−1 , 0.005rad.s−1 , 0.001rad.s−1 , 0.0005rad.s−1 . All resistor
elements are 1Ω, capacitor elements are 1F . VSurf ace is equal to the mag-
nitude of Va − Vb in Figure 3.4. The sensitivity of the device is a function
of the ratio of surface potential at a point. Thus, higher surface poten-
tal results in higher sensitivity. This figure demonstrates that the spacial
sensitivity of a sensor can be controlled by adjusting the frequency. . . . . 32
 ix

Figure Page
3.7 Impedance of the system shown in Figure 3.6. The inflection point near
5x10−4 corresponds to the surface potential map in Figure 3.6(d). The
plot shows the transition from the nearly pure capacitive behavior at low
frequency, which is characterized by the uniform potential distribution on
the surface of the device, to the nearly pure resistive response at high
frequency, which is characterized by the tight potential distribution near
the electrodes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.8 Example result for a offset electrode locations, with one electrode placed
on the bottom side of the device under one yellow spot in (a), and the
other electrode placed on the top of the device under the other spot.
(a)-(d) are for ω = 0.01rad.s−1 , 0.005rad.s−1 , 0.001rad.s−1 , 0.0005rad.s−1 .
All resistor elements are 1Ω, capacitor elements are 1F . The scale and
physical intreprtation of this figure is the same as Figure 3.6. Placing
electrodes with a lateral offset provides more distrubted sensing at the
cost of decreased sensitivity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.9 Schematic of the three modes of heat transfer in a unit length element of
SMA wire. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.10 Simulated time history of heating in an SMA wire. Current is applied at
1A for 30, followed by 120s of cooling. These conditions match the exper-
imental conditions used in physical testing. The maximum temperature
achieved of 365K is higher than the zero-stress austenite transformation
finish temperature observed with DSC testing of 325K, but is in agreement
with IR-imaging based measurements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.11 SMA material-level simulation of a single actuator cycle. The upper plot
shows the imposed strain condition and temperature profile resulting from
Joule heating. The lower plot shows the response of the mass fraction and
internal stress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.12 As-Programmed SMA coil from Stewart platform. Straight pieces are
looped around studs on the robot frame to provide a mechanical and elec-
trical connection. The coils are turned in opposite directions to provide
counteracting torques. The scale is demarcated in cm. . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.13 Cross section of a spring in tension showing the coil diamter D, wire
diameter d, deflection δ, and applied force F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.14 Simulated response of an SMA actuator coil. The coil is initially un-
stretched, then a displacement of 60mm is applied over 10s. The coil is
then heated with 1A of current for 30s. The current is removed, and the
coil allowed to cool for 120. Finally, the displacement is removed over 10s. 49
 x

Figure Page
3.15 An arbitrary body with two parallel surfaces. The “reference” surface
is defined to be stationary, and a coordinate system i is attached. The
“moving” surface moves relative to the reference surface. A point has
position x with components x = [x1 , x2 , x3 ]T in the i coordinate system. . 52
3.16 Definition of the bending deformation. The bending plane is defined by
the two segments of length R. The angle φ is the angular distance from
the i1 direction to that plane. The angle ψ is defined by the length of the
arc from the origin to the point X. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
 xi

ABSTRACT

White, Edward L. PhD, Purdue University, May 2017. Towards an Integrated Ap-
proach to Soft Robot Design. Major Professor: Rebecca K. Kramer, School of
Mechanical Engineering.

Soft robotic systems rely on highly deformable materials to achieve functionality.

While this deformability enables unique capabilities, it also presents new challenges
not found in traditional robotic systems. In a traditional robot, motion is concen-
trated at discrete joints; in a soft robot, deformations are distributed throughout the
body. In order to control these deformations, they must be observed. Making these
observations requires the development and integration of sensors which are mechan-
ically and materially compatible with the body they are sensing. The coupling of
deformation degrees of freedom within a soft body results in complex motions which
are best described and controlled with parallel kinematics formulations, which in turn
drives the design of sensors and actuators.
The work presented in this thesis is comprised of three related research areas.
First, I investigated the process of fabricating thick elastomer films using multi-layer
spin coating and rod coating. Second, I demonstrated the use of conductive elastomer
composites to create capacitive strain sensors for highly deformable systems. Finally,
I integrated soft sensors with soft actuators to control the deformation of an elastomer
body. In this last part of the work, I used six sensor and actuator pairs to achieve
full motion control of a deformable body using a parallel kinematics configuration.
Together, these advances provide tools which can be used to develop more advanced
soft robotic systems with closed-loop deformation control.
 1

1. INTRODUCTION

Our world creates, processes, and stores more information than ever before. Every
day, the quantity of raw data passing through our collective computers increases.
However, our ability to act on that information has not kept up. Automated systems
all require common classes of components: logic, sensors, actuators, and power. While
microelectronic capability has improved exponentially and expanded what is available
in logic devices and sensors, actuator and power technology has improved linearly
at best. For example, the proliferation of cell phones has driven, and been driven
by, the development of low-cost, high-performance inertial measurement units and
low-power, high-density processors and memory. However, we have not seen the
same exponential improvements in actuation and power storage. As a result, the
components of intelligent systems that interact with the outside world have become
the limiting factor slowing wider adoption. Using current technologies, robots are
only viable in high-value applications such as manufacturing, and in a few niche
applications, such as home vacuum cleaners. In order to make robots more widely
applicable, we need to find ways to drastically reduce the cost. Simply focusing on
improving existing technologies will not be sufficient; we have to develop completely
new paradigms for manufacturing robotic systems.
Soft robots are one type of intelligent system enabled by advanced materials that
are designed to use fewer and less expensive components than traditional robots. The
adjective “soft” in this context means that large deformations are a key part of the
functionality of the material, and not that the material necessarily has a low elastic
modulus; a responsive material may have a low modulus, such as a hydrogel, or a high
modulus, such as a metal shape memory alloy. Responsive materials are distinguished
from highly deformable passive elements by a response to some external stimulus, such
as large volumetric change in response to a change in temperature. Soft robots can
 2

contain highly deformable passive materials, active responsive materials, traditional

rigid materials, or some combination thereof.
Responsive materials have the potential to create systems with distributed intel-
ligence, replacing the sensor/actuator/controller/structuere segregation found in cur-
rent robots. Many responsive materials already exist [1–6]. Within the soft robotics
community, these existing materials have been adopted and used as actuators in many
applications [4, 7–9]. Compared to traditional robotic systems, responsive materials
enable new control architectures. For example, responsive materials can enable “dis-
tributed control” throughout an intelligent system. Our experience with both the
natural and the man-made world shows us that decentralized systems are superior
to centralized approaches in many applications [10–15]. Natural system exhibit dis-
tributed functionality which leads to increased robustness and decreases the burden
placed on any single element. By embedding intelligence at the material level, we
can increase the robustness to failure of the system and decrease the computational
requirements compared to a more traditional control system [16–21]. In turn, this
will reduce the power requirements, resulting in a smaller, more efficient design.
The progression from the assembly of a complete system made from individual
components to a new paradigm of material-level integration is similar to what hap-
pened in the field of semiconductor electronics. The first solid-state transistors were
assembled one-at-a-time, by hand, from germanium crystals. From this, silicon gates
were produced in individual packages, then arrayed together, and finally combined
into the integrated circuits we are familiar with today. At each step along the way,
there was a decrease in the cost of production and an improvement in the quality of
the finished part. As an example of what is possible with material-level integration,
closed-loop control of the pH of a fluid was demonstrated using intelligent soft materi-
als [22]. Instead of a traditional control scheme that would have required a pH sensor,
a valve/actuator, a logic device (either programmable or a simple switch), and the
attendant cabling and power supplies, the material properties of a polymer gel were
 3

adjusted to provide observation, feedback, and actuation, resulting in closed-loop

control.
In addition to reducing the cost and complexity of robotic systems, there are
several other rationale put forward for studying soft robots. One near-term rationale
is that soft robots will enable locomotion in unstructured environments. As a result of
their soft bodies, soft robots are thought to be better at interacting with environments
such as debris fields. A soft robot should exhibit more extreme deformations than
its rigid counterparts, enabling it to fit into tighter spaces. Another rationale for
developing soft robots is that soft systems are inherently safer for humans to work
with than traditional robots. When a collision occurs between a person and a robot,
the soft robot imparts less energy over a larger surface area, resulting in decreased
risk of injury. Finally, bio-inspired soft robots are proposed as more similar to the
structures and materials found in nature. Soft robots enable researchers to more
closely replicate the biological examples from which they are developing their robots.
One of the current challenges within the field is how to integrate dissimilar materi-
als together into complete robotic systems. Within the literature, there are two broad
approaches to designing the mechanical components of soft systems. The first is to
start with a traditional rigid component and make a soft component with the same
functionality using soft materials. The second approach is to develop completely new
structures with new functionality. Neither approach is universally superior to the
other. For example, in the case of adding soft grippers to rigid robots, it makes sense
to emulate a rigid component [23]. In the case of completely soft structures, such
as the pH sensor discussed above, it makes sense to abandon traditional components
and create not only old things in a new way, but completely new things.
The broad goal of my dissertation research was to create an integrated robot
system which combined sensing and actuation into a deformable structure. In order
to reach this goal, I focused mainly on replacing existing rigid components with soft
substitutes. The culmination of my research was a parallel kinematic robotic platform,
which combined six sensors and six actuators to achieve holonomic control. I modeled
 4

the design of this system after the Stewart platform [24], which is an example of
replicating a traditional robotic design with responsive materials to achieve reduced
cost and complexity. For example, in the traditional platform, 12 joints are required.
However, with deformable materials, joints can be eliminated, resulting in a simpler
and easier-to-assemble design.
The Stewart platform is a compact way to achieve holonomic control of a de-
formable body. The goal of my work was to demonstrate that responsive materials
can be used to build a soft motion platform. In doing so, I had to create new types
of soft sensors to provide state feedback, and characterize responsive material actu-
ators to achieve closed-loop control. The fabrication of soft sensors in turn required
advances in both materials and methods. In both cases, I leveraged existing research
from other fields and applied the results in new ways. I created two new types of
sensors for soft robotic applications that used novel elastomer fabrication techniques
which are applicable across a wide range of soft sensors. In addition to using liquid
metals, which are well-studied in soft systems, I demonstrated a robust conductive
elastomer composite. Creating conductive composites from expanded graphite has
been previously published [25–31]. However, the use of this material as a strain sen-
sor was limited in part because of the instability of the resistivity of the material over
multiple cycles [32]. My approach was to use capacitive sensing instead of resistive
sensing, which resulted in stable and robust sensor output. Likewise, rod coating is
a well-known approach to creating thin coatings. However, it is not typically used to
create thick layers such as those I needed for sensor substrates, and it had not yet
been applied in the field of soft robotics.
In summary, over the course of my research I made the following contributions to
the field:

• Applied existing rod coating and laser manufacturing techniques to the field of
soft robotics with new materials as a moldless way to create large elastomer-
based devices
 5

• Refined graphite composites to create an alternative strain sensing mechanism

for soft robotics

• Demonstrated integration of sensing and actuation into a soft bodied robotic

system, enabling six-dimensional holonomic control of a deformable body
 6

2. SUMMARY OF PUBLISHED WORK

The body of work I have completed during my research is described in four publica-
tions which are discussed in this chapter. The full text of the manuscripts appears
as the last chapter of this dissertation, and the final published versions can be found
through the relevant journals’ and publishers’ websites. Each of the following sections
describes a single publication and highlights its role in my overall research program.
In the first two papers, I describe improvements to the manufacturing process of
liquid-metal-based strain sensors. Strain sensing is a critical challenge in soft robotic
design, since soft robots are highly deformable and exhibit deformations across their
entire structure. Without highly deformable strain sensors, we cannot properly ob-
serve the current state of a soft robot, and therefore cannot provide state feedback. In
the third paper, I describe the use of conductive composites, which are an alternative
approach to using liquid metals for soft strain sensors. While working with liquid
metal sensors, I found that the devices we were making were not sufficiently robust
to use in robotic applications. I demonstrated that conductive elastomer composites
could be used to create capacitive strain sensors which are more robust than liquid
metal sensors. Finally, in the fourth paper, I demonstrate a fully integrated soft robot
using conductive composite capacitive strain sensors to provide state estimation and
shape memory alloy coils to provide actuation. With this, I demonstrate that it
is possible to replicate traditional robot functionality using exclusively soft and re-
sponsive materials. Together, these four papers demonstrate new approaches to the
fabrication of soft robotic systems and demonstrate ways that responsive material
elements can be integrated together to form a complete soft robotic system.
 7

2.1 Multi-Mode Strain and Curvature Sensors for Soft Robotic Applica-
tions

When I began working on soft robots, liquid-metal-based sensors were frequently

proposed as a solution to the challenges of state observation in highly deformable
bodies. At the time, these sensors were fabricated by casting liquid elastomer onto a
mold with microchannel patterns, similar to the process used to make soft microflu-
idic devices. These microchannels were then filled by injecting liquid metal using a
syringe. Multiple alternative approaches to creating liquid metal patterns were being
investigated at the time, including direct writing [33], masked deposition [34–36] and
microcontact printing [37]. One of the limitations of these alternative approaches
was that the liquid metal had to “stick” to the substrate, which required uniform
substrate surface properties. In practice, this is a challenge. The microchannel-based
approach is not as susceptible to variations in surface condition, and so tends to
be more reliable. Several recent reviews of soft sensing cover the advances made in
deposition techniques by other researchers across the field [38–40].
Within the scope of microchannel fabrication, there were two primary challenges.
First, the total size of the substrate was constrained by the size of the mold. Since
molds were typically fabricated on silicon wafers, this could lead to very expensive
molds if large wafers were used. Second, using molds required that the molds them-
selves be fabricated, which constitutes a time-consuming process. My approach was to
directly fabricate microchannels into silicone substrates using laser machining. This
approach allows processing of substrates up to the size of the laser system (typi-
cally much larger than a silicon wafer) and does not require the preliminary mold
fabrication step. As a result, laser-based processing is much more compatible with
high-throughput techniques such as roll-to-roll manufacturing. Additionally, laser-
based manufacturing allows for cutting completely through the elastomer substrate,
which is useful for cutting vias and outlines. Both of these tasks are difficult with
mold-based approaches.
 8

I designed and fabricated a soft curvature sensor with these laser-based processing
techniques. These devices were a direct extension of previously published curvature
sensors [41, 42]. My contribution was to use two sensors to differentiate between
positive and negative curvature and between curvature and strain. The sensors de-
scribed in the previous work demonstrated sensitivity to both strain and curvature,
and could not differentiate between positive and negative curvature. When placed
on host, such as the joint of a robotic system, the response had to be calibrated to
account for the combined effects of strain and bending. Regardless of how they were
used, these single-element sensors were only capable of measuring a single degree of
freedom. As the field of soft robotics moves towards arrays of sensor elements as state
observers on the surface of deformable bodies, which are commonly called “sensory
skins”, the loading conditions will become more complex and will require sensors
which can distinguish between curvature and strain. In order to measure these two
states, I combined two sensor elements into a single device.
Within the context of my dissertation, the contribution of this work was two-fold.
First, I validated a laser-based approach to microchannel fabrication which was more
scalable and flexible than previous microchannel fabrication techniques. Second, I
demonstrated a new configuration of soft sensor which had direct applicability to
sensory skins. This two-fold contribution, involving both a device and a manufactur-
ing approach, is common in the world of soft robotics. Both of these steps advance
my goal of developing a toolbox of methods and components which can be integrated
into complete soft robots.

2.2 Multi-Element Strain Gauge Modules for Soft Sensory Skins

Like the previous project on curvature sensing, my work with sensor modules was
an effort to expand upon the previously published literature by integrating multiple
liquid metal strain sensors in a single device. Previously, my goal was to differentiate
between curvature and axial strain. In the sensor module project, my goal was to
 9

measure deformations in two planar dimensions. By using three strain sensors inte-
grated into a triangular substrate, I was able to reconstruct the deformed shape of the
substrate using measurements of the resistance in the sensors. This is an important
capability, since soft robotic systems exhibit more complex and larger deformations
than are found in rigid robots. For example, in a typical industrial robot, each joint
allows for motion in a single rotational axis, and so only one state must be measured
at each joint. In a soft robot, not only are deformations distributed, but the deforma-
tions are typically in multiple axes, hence the need for distributed two-dimensional
strain sensing. My design was inspired by the approach used to mesh surfaces in finite
element analysis. Triangular elements cannot “fold” and uniquely define a discritized
surface; by creating an array of connected triangular deformation sensors, we have
sufficient information to reconstruct the state of the surface of an arbitrary body.
My contribution with this work was demonstrating the integration of multiple
sensing elements into a single, thin substrate. In order to achieve this, I had to
demonstrate a manufacturing approach that was sufficiently robust that multiple
functional devices could be manufactured in high enough yield to produce test hard-
ware. This project used the same laser-based fabrication method as the curvature
sensors demonstrated previously, illustrating the utility of the method to produce dif-
ferent liquid metal sensor designs. Like the curvature sensor paper described above,
this work expanded the state of the art in soft sensing and provided another type of
soft sensor for use in soft robotic applications.
One important concept here is the idea of fabrication method re-use. Although
many structures in the soft robotics literature come with their own fabrication meth-
ods, using bespoke methods hinders our ability to produce integrated systems and
slows overall progress. Although the exact processing schemes differ between this
project and the previous, there are many common elements, such as creating a flat
elastomer substrate, patterning the substrate with a laser, bonding additional elas-
tomer layers onto patterned substrates, and filling the resulting microchannels with
liquid metal. Many of the processing parameters developed in the first project were
 10

re-used in the second project, demonstrating that building upon previous work is
possible and results in reduced development time.
In the context of my dissertation, both this project and the previous contributed
different types of sensing structures. By creating two different sensor designs with the
same fabrication method, I validated that laser-based manufacturing was sufficiently
flexible to support multiple sensor configurations. The sensors themselves both vali-
dated my approach to measuring combined loading with thin substrate devices. This
reduction in overall device thickness from previous devices facilitates sensor integra-
tion into more complex soft robots.

2.3 Low-cost, Facile, and Scalable Manufacturing of Capacitive Sensors

for Soft Systems

After creating the two sensors described above, I started integrating sensors into
a robotic system. At the time, another project was working to develop a one-
dimentional soft robotic system [40]. My contribution to that project was to add
sensors to enable closed-loop control. However, during the course of that project,
it became clear to me that our existing approaches to creating liquid-metal-filled
microchannel sensors were not sufficiently robust to support robotic systems in the
long-term. For example, we would typically be able to use a single sensor for a day at
most, which was O(103 ) cycles. Beyond this, sensors would start to degrade and pro-
duce unreliable readings. One change we had made between the two previous sensor
projects and the one-dimensional robot was a change in substrate material. In order
to reduce the mechanical impact of the sensors as much as possible, we had switched
to a more flexible elastomer. This decrease in modulus, along with a reduction in the
overall size of the sensors, exacerbated the challenge of maintaining a good interface
with the liquid metal contained within the elastomer substrate. Although the laser
fabrication process improved the processing time of microchannels compared to mold-
based approaches, filling the microchannels with liquid metal was still performed by
 11

hand on each sensor. This processing time combined with the large number of sen-
sors required due to short lifetimes motivated the search for an improved approach
to sensing.
At the same time, the overarching goal of our lab had moved towards the develop-
ment of active sensory skins, where many sensors and actuators would be arrayed on
an single substrate. An example of such a structure is shown in Figure 2.1. In order
to produce usable devices, we needed to start with sensors that had a combination of
relatively high manufacturing yield and were sufficiently robust to collect data. For
example, in one demonstration unit I built, I included 12 sensor and actuator units,
which was at the lower end of what we envisioned for a full skin. The system yield
YS of a device in terms of element yield Ye is:

YS = Yen (2.1)

With 12 elements, in order to achieve a 50% system yield, I needed to achieve a

95% element yield. Although it is difficult to quantify exactly, I estimated that our
liquid metal sensor yield at the time was below 75%, which would have resulted in
an unusable 3% system yield. Combined with the poor reliability of the liquid metal
sensors at that point, I decided that I needed to investigate a different approach.
Reviewing the literature on stretchable conductive materials, I concluded that
the best alternative was to use a conductive elastomer composite. These materials
are well represented in the literature, but have not gained much traction in the soft
robotics literature. One reason for this is that composite materials are known to be
electrically unstable at high strains, which limits their utility as resistive stain sensors.
However, they can be used as electrodes in capacitive sensors which do not require
stable resistance values. Although capacitive sensing requires a slightly more complex
signal conditioning approach, the overall impact to the complexity of the system is
minor.
Initial testing with conductive elastomers demonstrated that they are significantly
more mechanically and electrically stable than liquid metals. I found that I was able
to use all of the same processing techniques as normal elastomers with the conductive
 12

Figure 2.1. Prototype active sensory skin element. Capacitive sensors

are black patches with blue outlines. Shape memory alloy actuators
are wire coils above sensors. Sensor interface electrodes are orange film
tabs. Actuator mounting points are blue hexagons. Skin is fabricated
on elastic fabric.
 13

materials. This significantly simplified the processing requirements and suggested

that conductive composites could be integrated into soft robots much more easily
than liquid metals. We have currently developed three different approaches to man-
ufacturing capacitive sensors. I developed two of those approaches, the film-based
and masked deposition approaches, while my co-first-author developed the approach
of direct writing.
Conductive composite strain sensors provided both another sensing modality (ca-
pacitive sensing) and a new material to our toolbox. The fabrication method for
conductive composites is relatively simple, and involves creating large sheets of con-
ductive material. This allows us to fabricate many sensors at once, facilitating the
research process. The process also involves few steps, resulting in high device yields.
Finally, final geometry of the sensor is defined by creating the required shape from a
finished substrate using a laser. Because of this, we can create stock substrates and
rapidly iterate new sensor geometries by simply changing the input file to the laser.
This approach to manufacturing sensors has already been taken up by other members
of my research group who are using capacitive sensors to determine deformations in
sensory skins or in inflatable robots. Further, the idea of conductive composites is
being extended to create soft heating elements and self-heating thermoplastics. In
total, the materials and manufacturing approach developed as a part of this project
added significant capability to our toolbox.
Liquid metals and conductive composites are complementary approaches to de-
veloping soft conductors. Conductive composites, because of their solid nature, will
never achieve the reconfigurability offered by liquid metals. Further, the conductivity
of conductive composites is much lower than that of liquid metals, limiting their abil-
ity to support high current density. However, conductive composites are made from
the same elastomers as the bodies of many soft robots, suggesting that we may be able
to create integrated processing techniques that allow us to fabricate sensor-imbued
elastomer bodies in the near future.
 14

2.4 A Soft Parallel Kinematic Mechanism

The overall goal of my research was to create a true soft robot. Doing so required
the integration of the research discussed previously, combined with a design process
to integrate all of the parts together. My objective was to maximize the use of
responsive and soft materials. As such, the sensors, actuators, and active structures
are all soft or responsive; only the passive supports at the ends are “conventional”
materials. This results in a mechanism which is able to achieve closed-loop position
and rotation control of a moving end plate without a single joint or bearing.
Highly deformable structures made from low modulus materials allow for unique
mechanisms, but also come with a set of problems. In many cases, the stiffness in
the various degrees of freedom is similar. Compare this to a joint in a traditional
mechanical system, where the effective stiffness in the degree of freedom defined by
the joint is many orders of magnitude lower than that in the other degrees of freedom.
Because of this, designers of traditional robots can simplify their control approaches
by focusing on only the degrees of freedom defined by their structure. Of course, no
material is perfectly rigid, and so there will always be some unwanted deformations.
However, in many applications these effects are sufficiently small that they may be
neglected. Unfortunately, the same simplification is not available to the designer of
a soft robotic system.
The specific objective of this robot was to provide closed-loop position control
of a moving plate relative to a stationary plate using soft components. In doing so,
I demonstrated that I was able to achieve “gross” position control of a soft body
between the two plates. I define gross control as being able to control the general
deformation, rather than “fine” control, where the deformation would be defined and
controlled throughout the body. In most cases, control over the entire deformation
within a body is not useful. My contribution in this work is two-fold. First, I
demonstrated how capacitive strain sensors can be used to measure the state of a
highly deformable robotic system. Second, I demonstrated that closed-loop control of
 15

a robot is possible using only soft materials. This was the final step of my dissertation,
and demonstrated that it is possible to use responsive materials to create robotic
systems.
This project validated that conductive composite sensors are applicable in soft
robot state sensing. This validation includes both the stability and resolution of the
sensors. As of this writing, the same six sensors have been in place on the robot for
over nine months. Aside from a measurement of the initial capacitance whenever the
robot starts up, their response has not changed in that time. Although the robot
has not been used continuously, it produced sufficient data to generate a journal
publication. This is in contrast to the previous closed-loop soft robot using liquid
metal sensors which required new sensors on a nearly daily basis. In addition, the
low noise in sensor output due to capacitive sensing allows for measurements on the
millimeter scale, which is sufficient for a majority of the published soft robot designs.
This resolution is comparable to that achieved with liquid metal resistive sensors.
Although sensing required the most development, actuation in soft robots contin-
ues to be a challenge. Because of my desire to focus on responsive materials, I elected
to use shape memory alloy (SMA) actuators. These actuators are thermal, and are
driven by a temperature-and-stress-induced transformation of the crystal properties,
which is discussed in more detail in the next chapter. The dynamic response of the
system is severely limited by the slow energy transfer out of the SMA actuator coils.
Additionally, SMA coils are made from nickle and titanium, and are therefore not
easy to shape into wire in a laboratory environment, although we are able to “train”
the wire into a required shape using a small oven. All of the wire used in this project
was purchased from commercial vendors. As a result, we have limited opportunities
to truly integrate SMA into the fabrication process of a soft robot in a seamless way.
Therefore, future soft robotics researchers will need to continue the search for better
actuators materials.
By itself, a soft structure such as the one I have demonstrated could be used to
replace complex multi-DoF joints in traditional robotic systems, or could be stacked
 16

together to create pseudo-continuum manipulators. In the future, I suggest that the

rigid components could be removed entirely from the system, resulting in a completely
soft module. However, at the present time, our actuator technologies are sufficiently
limited that we cannot create fast moving, free standing robots without integrating
significant rigid components, such as batteries, pumps, valves and the like. Shape-
memory-alloy-driven robots, such as the one I built, require large batteries due to the
low energy efficiency of the thermally-actuated material. Pneumatic-powered robots
require air compressors or compressed gas storage tanks, valves, pressure sensors,
and tubing, which results in a large part of the overall robot consumed by rigid
components.
 17

3. SIMULATION OF A ROBOTIC SYSTEM

One of the pressing challenges in the soft robotics community is the need for integrated
design tools. Although the various domains required in the traditional robotic design
processes are coupled, soft robotics increases both the number of technical domains
and the level of integration. As an example, Figure 3.1 shows a schematic of the states
and information flow in the Stewart platform described previously. The majority of
the currently available robotic modeling tools, for example the Robotic Operating
System (ROS) and Gazebo simulator, are focused more on algorithms and software
than on structure. Dedicated multibody dynamics tools, such as MSC ADAMS, are
capable of performing the required computations, but are so general that setting
up a single simulation is sufficiently complicated that it is prohibitive as “quick”
design tool. Additionally, multibody dynamics is only a part of the full soft robotics
problem; multibody dynamics is concentrated in the “Integrated soft robot model”
box in Figure 3.1. The other boxes are a collection of other multiphysics problems.
The physical complexities that can exist in a soft robot are illustrated in the
experimental results shown in §4.6 of the Stewart platform paper. For example, there
are repeatable and highly complex movements of the system in response to simple
commands due to the heating and cooling of different parts of the structure at different
rates. Although the system is treated as quasistatic in the following analysis, which
neglects these complexities in the control algorithms, faster control approaches and
feed-forward controllers will require that the hysteresis effects of the actuators be
included in the model. The models described in this chapter are a foundation on
which these models can be built.
For these reasons, it makes sense to create a flexible simulation framework focused
on providing fast analysis of soft robotic systems. Like most design tools, unless it
is very easy to use, it will not be used. As a mechanical engineer, my focus is on
 18

Figure 3.1. States and plant models in a soft Stewart platform.

States are shown as black circles with white font. Plants are shown as
light gray boxes. Physical components are shown as dark gray boxes.
Information flows are shown as black arrows.
 19

building the underlying mathematics and physics of the model. In order to create
a truly user-friendly solution, my code would benefit greatly from the attention of a
software developer with user interface design experience.
My goal in developing this simulation was to not only create a tool which could
be used to model a particular soft robot, but to create a group of tools which could
be used to model a wide range of soft robots. In order to meet this goal, I designed
a group of component models which can be assembled in different ways to simulate
different robot concepts. Soft robots demonstrate emergent system-level behavior.
This is because the interactions between components are significant, and investigat-
ing each component individually is not sufficient to predict system-level response.
Because of this, it is important to be able to simulate the response of a full system
worth of components, including the interactions between components. Further, the
parameters of the models are user inputs. This allows the designer to vary the inputs
to find the system-level response to changes in component properties. Over time,
my hope is that more models will be developed for different soft robotic concepts,
resulting in a more comprehensive soft robot design tool.

3.1 Modeling and Simulation Progress

A substantial part of the modeling has already been included in §3 and §4 of

the Stewart platform paper presented in the publications section below. In that
paper, the forward and reverse kinematics models (l = T (c) and c∗ = T −1 (l∗ ) in
Figure 3.1) and the capacitive sensor response are described in detail. The geometry
transformations are fairly straightforward, and involve rotations and translations of
vectors. The capacitive sensor analysis yields the promising result that the measured
voltage output of the capacitive sensors is a linear function of strain:

β1 ε + β0
VDC = (3.1)
T
 20

where ε is the strain, T is the period of oscillation, and the constants are defined by:

w0 l0
β1 =α0 r (3.2a)
t0
 
w0 l0
β0 =α 0 r + CP arasitic (3.2b)
t0

where w0 is the initial width of the sensor, l0 is the initial length, to is the initial
thickness, 0 is the permitivity of free space, r is the relative permitivity of a dielectric
elastomer layer, CP arasitic is the parasitic capacitance of the system and the constant
is given by:
   
RC RD Vh RC + RD Vl
α=− ln − + 1 − RD ln (3.3)
RC + RD VIn RD Vh

where RC is the charging resistance, RD is the discharging resistance, Vh is the high

threshold voltage, Vl is the low threshold voltage, and VIn is the supply voltage. The
timing and circuit are described in more detail in §4.1 of the Stewart platform paper.
What is critical is that all of these terms, with the exception of the strain ε, are either
physical constants or are parameters under the control of the designer. Because of
this, the current implementation of the capacitive sensors provides a convenient way
to measure strain in soft systems.

3.1.1 High-Frequency Analysis of Capacitive Strain Sensors

In the basic signal conditioning system, the fundamental excitation frequency is

fairly low, on the the order of 1kHz in most cases. At low frequency, the charge in
the upper and lower electrode layers is approximately uniform, resulting in a uniform
electric field along the length of the sensor. In fact, this was an implicit assumption
that went into the sensor response modeling. However, the sensors are actually a
finite length network of resistance and capacitive elements. Since the resistance of the
conductive layer is non-negligible, as shown in the graphite sensor paper, by driving
the sensors with different frequencies, we could control what part of a device is active.
By driving the sensors at multiple frequencies, it may be possible to reconstruct
 21

the strain field along the length of a sensor, rather than just measuring the overall
strain. Finite element models of both 1-D and 2-D sensors were developed in order
to investigate the viability of this approach. The 1-D model would be applicable to a
long, thin sensor, such as those used on the Stewart platform. The 2-D model would
be applicable to a sensor skin element, such as those described in the modular sensor
paper.

1-D Element Construction

Analysis of the simple axial strain sensor begins with the development of an ele-
ment to model the frequency-dependent response of the device. The finite resistance
electrode and dielectric capacitance are approximated as shown in Figure 3.2. The
constitutive equations for this element are constructed using Kirchoff voltage and
current laws:

i1 + i3 − i5 = 0 (3.4a)

i2 + i4 + i5 = 0 (3.4b)

i1 R + Va = V1 (3.4c)

i3 R + Va = V3 (3.4d)

i2 R + Vb = V2 (3.4e)

i4 R + Vb = V4 (3.4f)

i5 Z − Va + Vb = 0 (3.4g)

where Z = 1/jωC is the complex impedance of the capacitor. This results in the
following constitutive relation:
 22

Figure 3.2. Abstraction of a sensor element with finite resistance electrodes.

    
i a b c b V
 1    1
    
i2   b a b c  V2 
 =   (3.5a)
    
i3   c b a b  V3 
    
i4 b c b a V4
 
    V1
i d −d d −d  
 5   
    V2 
Va  =  e f e f    (3.5b)
    V3  
Vb f e f e  
V4

where:

1 3R + 2Z
a= (3.6a)
4 (R + Z)R
1 1
b=− (3.6b)
4R+Z
1 R + 2Z
c=− (3.6c)
4 (R + Z)R
1 1
d= (3.6d)
2R+Z
1 R + 2Z
e= (3.6e)
4 R+Z
1 R
f= (3.6f)
4R+Z

Equation (3.5) is partitioned into two parts to separate external variables (a) from
internal variables (b). Only the external variable definition is required in the finite
element formulation.
 23

In order to demonstrate the use of this element, consider the use of the element in
one-element and two-element cases. This will demonstrate assembly and application
of boundary conditions. The element formulation given in Equation (3.5a) is used in
the single element case. Essential boundary conditions are applied to V1 and V2 to
simulate the application of potential to the sensor, and natural boundary conditions
are applied to i3 and i4 to simulate the finite length of the sensor. Making these
substitutions, the solution becomes:
    
i a b c b 1
 1   
    
i2   b a b c  0 
 =   (3.7)
    
 0  c b a b  V3 
    
0 b c b a V4
A unit potential is used since the impedance of the overall device is the quantity of
interest, not the potential itself. Since the frequency is already accounted for in the
complex impedance terms, only the magnitude of potential is of interest. The matrix
can be partitioned to consider only the two bottom rows which contain the unknown
potentials:       
0 a b V c
 =   3 +   (3.8)
0 b a V4 b
The forcing terms on the right appear due to the essential boundary conditions. The
forcing terms can be moved to the left and the constitutive equation inverted to obtain
an expression for the unknown potentials:
   
ac−b2
− V
 a2 −b2  =  3  (3.9)
bc−ab
a2 −b2
V4
If a case arises in which the reaction currents are required, the Equations in (3.5b)
can be used to obtain those since all of the potentials are now determined. The quan-
tities a, b, and c are complex quantities. Thus, the resulting potentials are complex.
Since the system has non-zero reactance, this is the expected result. Throughout
the remainder of this discussion, whenever potentials are compared, is it actually the
magnitude of the complex potential that is being evaluated.
 24

Figure 3.3. Assembly of two 1-D resistance elements. Voltage and

current labels are identical as the single element case. The parenthet-
ical subscript indicates element number.
 25

Next, the assembly of two elements needs to be investigated and the resulting
overall constitutive model for the combined system, as shown in Figure 3.3, need to
be determined. If two elements are concatenated together, the result is:
    
i1(1) a b c b 0 0 0 0 V1(1)
    
    
i2(1)   b a b c 0 0 0 0 V2(1) 
    
    
i3(1)   c b a b 0 0 0 0 V3(1) 
    
    
i4(1)   b c b a 0 0 0 0   V 
 =   4(1)  (3.10)
    
i1(2)  0 0 0 0 a b c b  V1(2) 
    
    
i2(2)  0 0 0 0 b a b c  V2(2) 
    
    
i3(2)  0 0 0 0 c b a b  V3(2) 
    
i4(2) 0 0 0 0 b c b a V4(2)

where the parenthetical subscripts denote element numbers. The element-based re-
lationships are now assembled into a global relationship. Looking at Figure 3.3,
i3(1) = −i1(2) , i4(1) = −i2(2) , V3(1) = V1(2) , and V4(1) = V2(2) . Making these substitu-
tions and simplifying the resulting system yields:
    
i a b c b 0 0 V
 1(1)     1(1) 
    
i2(1)   b a b c 0 0 V2(1) 
    
    
 0   c b 2a 2b c b  V3(1) 
 =   (3.11)
    
 0   b c 2b 2a b c  V4(1) 
    
    
i3(2)  0 0 c b a b  V3(2) 
    
i4(2) 0 0 b c b a V4(2)

Imposing boundary conditions in this case is similar to the single element case,
namely i3(2) = i4(2) = 0, V1(1) = 1, and V2(1) = 0. Making these substitutions and
considering only the equations related to the unknown potentials:
      
0 2a 2b c b V3(1) c
      
      
0  2b 2a b c  V4(1)   b 
 =  +  (3.12)
      
0  c b a b  V3(2)  0
      
0 b c b a V4(2) 0
 26

Figure 3.4. 2-D capacitive sensor element. V1 , V2 , V3 are nodal volt-

ages on the upper surface, Va is the midpoint voltage on the upper
surface, V4 , V5 , V6 are nodal voltages on the lower surface, Vb is the
midpoint voltage on the lower surface, and the current numbers corre-
spond to the nodal numbers, with i7 as the current from the midpoint
of the upper surface to the lower surface.

The forcing terms from the essential boundary conditions are moved to the left side
and the result is premultiplied by the inverse of the constitutive matrix, resulting in
the solution for the potentials:
   
2a3 c−2a2 b2 −ab2 c−ac3 +b4 +b2 c2
− 4a4 −12a V
 2 b2 −4a2 c2 +16ab2 c+b4 −6b2 c2 +c4
  3(1) 
 b(2a3 −2a2 c−3ab2 +ac2 +3b2 c−c3 )   
− 4a4 −12a2 b2 −4a2 c2 +16ab2 c+b4 −6b2 c2 +c4  V4(1) 
 =  (3.13)
 2a2 b2 +2a2 c2 −8ab2 c+b4 +4b2 c2 −c4   
 4a4 −12a2 b2 −4a2 c2 +16ab2 c+b4 −6b2 c2 +c4  V3(2) 
   
4b(a2 c−ab2 −ac2 +b2 c)
4a4 −12a2 b2 −4a2 c2 +16ab2 c+b4 −6b2 c2 +c4
V 4(2)

In practice, beyond these simple examples, the matrix inversion and multiplica-
tion was implemented using MATLAB’s built-in linear algebra capabilities. The
impedance of one- and two-element sensor models was evaluated using the finite el-
ement approach described above and compared it to the results from QUCS (Quite
Universal Circuit Simulator), a SPICE-based circuit simulator, as a verification step.
In all cases, the results agreed to at least four significant figures.
 27

2-D Element Construction

The same approach used above to create a one-dimensional model can also be used
to create a two-dimensional model. A two-dimensional element is shown in Figure 3.4.
Beginning with the Kirchoff current and voltage laws:

i1 + i2 + i3 − i7 = 0 (3.14a)

i4 + i5 + i6 + i7 = 0 (3.14b)
1
i1 = (V1 − Va ) (3.14c)
R
1
i2 = (V2 − Va ) (3.14d)
R
1
i3 = (V3 − Va ) (3.14e)
R
1
i4 = (V4 − Vb ) (3.14f)
R
1
i5 = (V5 − Vb ) (3.14g)
R
1
i6 = (V6 − Vb ) (3.14h)
R
1
i7 = (Va − Vb ) (3.14i)
Z

These equations can be recast into a system, separating the node potentials from
currents and internal potentials:
    
1 1 1 0 0 0 −1 0 0 i 0 0 0 0 0 0
  1  
    
0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0   i2  0 0 0 0 0 0  
     V1
    
R 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0   i3  1 0 0 0 0 0  
     
     V2 

0 R 0 0 0 0 0 1 0   i4  0 1 0 0 0 0  
     V 
     3
0 0 R 0 0 0 0 1 0   i5  = 0 0 1 0 0 0   (3.15)
     
    
  4
V
0 0 0 R 0 0 0 0 1   i6  0 0 0 1 0 0  
     V 
     5
0 0 0 0 R 0 0 0 1   i7  0 0 0 0 1 0  
     V
     6
0 0 0 0 0 R 0 0 1  Va  0 0 0 0 0 1
    
0 0 0 0 0 0 Z 1 −1 Vb 0 0 0 0 0 0
 28

This system is inverted to obtain two sets of constitutive relations:

    
i a b b c c c V
 1    1
    
i2   b a b c c c  V2 
    
    
i3   b b a c c c  V3 
 =   (3.16a)
    
i4   c c c a b b  V4 
    
    
i5   c c c b a b  V5 
    
i6 c c c b b a V6
   
i d d d −d −d −d
 7  
   
Va  =  e e e f f f  (3.16b)
   
Vb f f f e e e

where:

1 5R − 6Z
a= (3.17a)
3 (2R − 3Z)R
1 R − 3Z
b=− (3.17b)
3 (2R − 3Z)R
1 1
c=− (3.17c)
3 (2R − 3Z)R
1
d= (3.17d)
2R − 3Z
1 R − 3Z
e= (3.17e)
3 2R − 3Z
1 R
f= (3.17f)
3 2R − 3Z

Similar to the 1-D case, the elements must be assembled. For this example,
consider the assembly of six elements, as shown in Figure 3.5. The elemental equations
are assembled into the global system:
 29

Figure 3.5. Example of an assembly of 6 triangular sensor elements.

Only the top nodes are shown, and currents are omitted for clarity.
 30

    
i(1) S(1) V(1)
    
    
i(2)   S(2) 0  V(2) 
    
    
i(3)   S(3)  V(3) 
 =   (3.18)
    
i(4)   S(4)  V 
     (4) 
    
i(5)   0 S(5)  V(5) 
    
i(6) S(6) V(6)
Were i(α) is the forcing term of Equation (3.17a) for the αth node, S is the stiffness
matrix from Equation (3.17a), and V(α) is the vector of nodal voltages from Equation
(3.17a).
The system is simplified by applying compatibility conditions. Referring back to
Figure 3.5, the compatibility conditions on the nodal voltages are:

V3(1) = V3(2) = V3(3) = V3(4) = V3(5) = V3(6) (3.19a)

V6(1) = V6(2) = V6(3) = V6(4) = V6(5) = V6(6) (3.19b)

V2(j) = V1(j+1) , j = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] (3.19c)

V5(j) = V4(j+1) , j = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] (3.19d)

The current follows a similar pattern. Per Kirchoff current laws, there is no charge
storage at the nodes, and the net current must be zero. Current can either come
from adjacent nodes or from external sources (i.e. essential or natural boundary
conditions). As an example, set the following boundary conditions:

V2(1) = V1 (2) = 1V (3.20a)

V2(4) = V1 (5) = 0V (3.20b)

On all other nodes, we set the external current flux to zero. Beyond this, the prob-
lem becomes one of bookkeeping and code implementation. In practice, an element
connectivity list is used to map local nodes to global nodes, and the global constitu-
tive matrix constructed by looping over this list. This approach is used in common
practice in finite element codes, and so will not discussed in further detail here.
 31

Figure 3.6 shows the simulated surface potential. The geometry in the figure is
based on the triangular sensors presented in the modular sensor skins paper, with a
pair of interrogation electrodes mounted on the top and bottom sides of the device,
near one of the edges. At high frequency (Figure 3.6(a)), the surface potential is
localized at the interrogation electrode location. This means that changes in capaci-
tance and resistance near the electrode will result in a change in measured impedance,
while changes away from the electrode will not. This is the effect we want for local-
ized deformation sensing and state reconstruction. At low frequency (Figure 3.6(d)),
the surface potential is more uniform, meaning that the measured impedance will
be equally sensitive to changes in resistance and capacitance at any location. At
intermediate frequencies (Figure 3.6(b-c)), we can tune the spacial sensitivity. The
impedance measured between the two interrogation electrodes as a function of fre-
quency is shown in Figure 3.7.
The effect of placing the interrogation electrodes at offset locations, rather than
on top of one another, can also be simulated. This case results in sensitive bands,
rather than sensitive spots as in the case where the electrodes are placed at the same
location. This effect is shown in Figure 3.8. Changes in capacitance anywhere within
this driven region will result in a change in impedance. Therefore, these driven regions
act as displacement sensors. The length of the sensitive region can be controlled by
selecting the attachment points for the interrogation electrodes. The balance between
local sensing between the interrogation electrodes and global sensing across the entire
body can be selected by adjusting the interrogation frequency.
This is a very promising result. Instead of trying to build many individual strain
elements on a single substrate, this simulation suggests that it would be possible to
create a single sensor element, then interrogate it at different locations with different
frequencies to determine the strain field across the sensor. That has the potential
to significantly improve the manufacturability of sensor arrays, since a single sensor
element will be easier to produce than many small elements. Further, the interface
between sensor elements and signal conditioning electronics is one of the standing
 32

Figure 3.6. Example result for a single electrode lo-

cation, with elctrodes placed on the top and bottom sur-
face at the yellow spot in (a). (a)-(d) are for ω =
0.01rad.s−1 , 0.005rad.s−1 , 0.001rad.s−1 , 0.0005rad.s−1 . All resistor el-
ements are 1Ω, capacitor elements are 1F . VSurf ace is equal to the
magnitude of Va − Vb in Figure 3.4. The sensitivity of the device is
a function of the ratio of surface potential at a point. Thus, higher
surface potental results in higher sensitivity. This figure demonstrates
that the spacial sensitivity of a sensor can be controlled by adjusting
the frequency.

challenges of soft sensors. By reducing the number of sensor elements, we would also
be reducing the number of signal conditioning electronics boards and interfaces. In
sum, this is a promising direction for future research in soft sensing.

3.2 Responsive Material Modeling

The most complex part of the simulation of the Stewart platform is the responsive
material and structural model shown at the center of Figure 3.1. This is perhaps
not surprising, since the concept of soft robotics is so closely integrated with the
 33

Figure 3.7. Impedance of the system shown in Figure 3.6. The

inflection point near 5x10−4 corresponds to the surface potential map
in Figure 3.6(d). The plot shows the transition from the nearly pure
capacitive behavior at low frequency, which is characterized by the
uniform potential distribution on the surface of the device, to the
nearly pure resistive response at high frequency, which is characterized
by the tight potential distribution near the electrodes.
 34

Figure 3.8. Example result for a offset electrode locations,

with one electrode placed on the bottom side of the device un-
der one yellow spot in (a), and the other electrode placed on the
top of the device under the other spot. (a)-(d) are for ω =
0.01rad.s−1 , 0.005rad.s−1 , 0.001rad.s−1 , 0.0005rad.s−1 . All resistor el-
ements are 1Ω, capacitor elements are 1F . The scale and physical in-
treprtation of this figure is the same as Figure 3.6. Placing electrodes
with a lateral offset provides more distrubted sensing at the cost of
decreased sensitivity.
 35

Figure 3.9. Schematic of the three modes of heat transfer in a unit

length element of SMA wire.

concept of responsive materials. The purpose of this model is to determine the force
generated by an SMA actuator as a function of time, given an electric current and
length history. Within the simulation, this data is provided to an iterative solver
to determine the equilibrium condition of the system. Generating the force data
requires three steps. First, a heat transfer model is used to determine the temperature
as a result of resistive heating, free convective cooling, and radiation. Second, a
thermomechanical constitutive model is used to determine the internal stress and
strain in the material based on the temperature from the heat transfer model and
external boundary conditions. Finally, a mechanical model is used to translate the
internal stress and strain into external force and displacement. All three of these
models must be connected together to fully simulate the response of the material.
This model represents a generic SMA coil actuator. As such, it could be used in
any soft robot application with such an actuator. As shown previously, I have also
used SMA coils in other systems, such as active sensory skins as shown in Figure 2.1.
To the designer, the critical measures of performance for an SMA actuator are the
generated force as a function of extension in both the heated and cooled state. This
enables the designer to compute both the force the SMA actuator will exert when fully
activated, as well as the force required to extend the actuator back to its deformed
configuration. Although these two forces can be determined by other methods, this
model allows the designer to simulate complex loading paths and to determine the
relevant forces at any point along those paths.
 36

3.2.1 Heat Transfer Modeling

The SMA actuators in the Stewart platform are heated and activated by passing
an electric current through the wire and are passively cooled by exposing the wire to
air. As such, there are three types of heat transfer which must be considered: energy
transfer into the system by resistive heating, and heat loss from the system through
convection and radiation, as shown in Figure 3.9. The heating of the wires is the only
source of energy used to deform the robot. In order to model the state of the SMA
material, discussed in the next section, the temperature must be determined. The
problem is formulated on a per unit length basis as a simplification. This assumes
that the diameter of the SMA wire is much smaller than its length, which is true in
most soft robotic applications. Therefore, the temperature of the wire is governed by:

dT 4q 0
= T otal (3.21)
dt cp πd2
where T is the temperature, t is time, qT0 otal is the total heat flux, cp is the specific
heat capacity of the wire, and d is the wire diameter. A fourth-order Runge-Kutta
integration scheme is used to solve this governing equation. Fixed time steps of 0.1s
were sufficient to provide accuracy better than the uncertainty in parameters.
The total heat flux in the system is:

qT0 otal = qJoule

0 0
− qRad 0
− qConv (3.22)

where the three components are from Joule heating, radiation, and convection,
respectively. The contribution from Joule heating is:

0 4ρe 2
qJoule = i (3.23)
πd2
where ρe is the electrical resistance of the wire and i is the current in the wire.
The heat loss due to radiation is:

0
qRad = Rad πdσS−B (Ts4 − Tsur
4
) (3.24)
 37

where Rad is the emissivity of the wire surface, σS−B is the Stefan-Boltzmann
constant, Ts is the surface temperature, and Tsur is the background temperature
of the surroundings. Given the small wire diameter, body heating condition, and
relatively high conductive heat transfer compared to convection and radiation, the
temperature within the wire is assumed to be constant as a function of radius. The
energy transfer due to free convection is given by [43]:

0
qConv = h̄πd(Ts − Tinf ) (3.25)

where Tinf is the temperature of the air, and h̄ is a heat transfer parameter given by:

k
h̄ = (3.26)
dN¯uD
where k is the thermal conductivity of air, and N¯uD is a modified Nusselt number,
given by:  2
1/6
 0.387RaD 
N¯uD = 0.60 +  8/27  (3.27)
1 + (0.559/P r)9/16
where P r is the Prantl number of air, and RaD is the Rayleigh number, given by:

gβ (Ts − Tinf ) d3
RaD = (3.28)
να
where g is the gravitational constant, ν is the kinematic viscosity of air, and α is the
thermal diffusivity of air, and beta is a correction term given by:

2
β= (3.29)
Ts + Tinf
The energy consumed by the SMA while undergoing transformation was negligable
compared to the convective and radiative heat losses. This is consistant with the poor
overall thermal efficiency of SMAs [44].
The key parameters in this model are geometry and material properties. From a
design perspective, the material properties are essentially nominal parameters, since
most soft robot designers are going to work with commercially available formulations.
 38

Table 3.1. Parameters used in simulation of heating of SMA wire

with convective and radiative heat transfer.

Parameter Value Source

d 5.08e−4 m Measured
i 1A Controlled value
Tinf 296K Estimate
Tsur 296K Estimate
cp 5.40e6 kJ/m3 .K Vendor data sheet
ρe 8.83e−7 Ω.m Vendor data sheet
Rad 0.5 Estimate
σS−B 5.67e−8 W/m2 .K 4 Constant
k 26.3e−3 W/m.K [43]
Pr 0.707 [43]
ν 15.9e−6 m2 /s [43]
α 22.5e−6 m2 /s [43]

Instead, what the designer does have control over are geometric properties, such as
the diameter of the wire d and the current in the wire i. Since the overall objective of
this project is to produce a design tool, these parameters feel like natural selections
which are well-matched to the parameters the designer would need to select.
The heating history of a piece of SMA was simulated and the result was and
compared it to IR images taken of SMA coils in service. The parameters used in the
simulation are given in Table 3.1. A current of 1A was applied for 60s, followed by a
cooling period of 120s. This test matches the SMA characterization tests performed
in §4.6 of the Stewart platform paper. The results show a temperature response that
is qualitatively similar to the mechanical response observed during force testing. The
simulation time history is shown in Figure 3.10.
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 辨，有云脊刺长为雌，脊刺短为雄者。有云前两分水有疙疸粗硬涩
手者为雄，否

为雌者。又有云前两分水大者为雄，小者为雌者。又有云尽后尾下
分水双者为雌，

单为雄者。皆不足凭之论也。其雄雌动作气质究有阴阳之分，近尾
下腹大而垂者

为雌，小而收者为雄；粗者为雌，细者为雄。此秘法也。其余诸法
皆愚人之论耳。

诸体未备时，其种类亦不易识。惟视其色，黑为龙睛，青为文鱼、
蛋鱼，极易辨

也。缸底鱼矢须用汲筒汲出。若水至晚太热，缘晒甚也，须用生凉
水添之。

鱼生子若人不知，则粘于缸上，有落底者则自食之矣。若早见
缸上有子，即

换缸。不然，则可一日不喂虫。伏秋间虽有子，亦不能甚长，不能
出息也。

秋日不可过换水，天寒不可多下虫，寒则鱼不甚食。然秋中喂
大鱼，则来年

子早而壮。

鱼子出后，水极清不必换，本水养之，鱼乃不伤元气。

有养鱼不换新水者，即换，亦于本缸内水撤旧添新。此法鱼最
弱，市语谓之
 水头软。若即从旧缸移入新水者，谓之水头硬，云此法所养之鱼强
壮。

鱼尾根札者难于过冬，绺尾者易养，此论最验。

冬入室时水不能晒，即用生水，次日移入，然须于院中见冰后
入屋。惊蛰时

即可出屋，若天寒亦可迟几日。春分前后亦不必晒水。天寒井底
暖，新水不冷，

若晒则反冷矣。

又法，养鱼先要讲究水之活，鱼得长生矣。如居家吃水缸内投
以食，鱼其能

经久存活者，以其每日去旧更新，非取水之故也。盖新水入缸三日
必浑，三日后

澄清，四日水性侧立，方可下鱼。下鱼之后，春末犹寒，隔一日撤
换新水一次。

交夏之后，一日撤换一次。撤换之法，先用倒流吸筒吸出缸底泥
滓，添入新汲井

水，不用甜水、河水。如盛五担水之缸，每日撤换一担，视缸之大
小，以此类推。

有鱼之水，七日必浑。浑则当移鱼他缸，刷净原缸，全换新水，晒
过三四日之水

再入鱼。入鱼之后照旧撤换。一交秋令，水自澄清，无俟添换矣。
缸内不放闸草，
 一恐鱼虫藏匿致鱼不得食，二恐草烂水臭以致鱼生虱蚁之患。谷雨
前后便可喂虫。

一交九月节，鱼自不食矣。至鱼无故浮水面，口出水上空吸吐泡
者，乃是受热之

故，速添新汲凉水以解之。若鱼沉缸底懒动，是受寒之故，速捞入
浅水内晒之。

鱼或歪倒浮游，或如死水中，及动之腮仍能张翕，急取出以盐擦
之，另盆养之，

犹可得活。俟其涎沫吐净，方可置原缸内。

冬鱼出房不可太早。于清明前后，置于向阳之处，用木板盖
覆。天若和暖，

一日撤板一块，渐次撤去。若骤然不盖，夜间寒霜侵入，鱼必受
伤。

夏月伏暑之时，必当半遮半露，不可使鱼受热毒。雨水性沉，
日色蒸晒，必

致发变。著雨后，一俟晴明，即用倒流吸桶撤净缸底雨水，则无害
矣。若降雨之

先将缸添满，或缸有水孔，随落随流，雨水不能到底，则不必撤之
矣。

冬月蓄鱼之法，不须喂虫，亦不必晒水。添撤只要视水有浑
色，便取新水换

之。以纯阳之性在地下，井水性暖故也。置放处不可令缸底实贴坑
上，须用矮架
 托之。亦不可过暖，即水面有薄冰亦无妨。缸口用纸封之，不致于
落灰尘，更省

遮盖也。

喂鱼之法。须将捞来红虫用清水漂净，否则虫之臭水入缸，净
水为之败坏矣。

喂鱼虫不拘时候，日不可留余虫也，夜恐虫浮水面，鱼不得受甘露
之益。若一时

不得鱼虫，或用鸡鸭血和白面晒干为细虫喂之，或用晒干鱼虫及淡
金钩虾米为末

饲之，皆可。

分鱼央之法。先用洗净揉软棕片一块，择闸草四、五束，去
根，以绳线缚

之，击以石块，坠草于其水中间，不可散放。后看牝鱼跳跃急烈有
欲摆子之势，

即取放水浅缸内。入公鱼二尾，恐一公鱼追赶不力。俟母鱼沉底懒
于游泳，便是

已摆子之候，即将公鱼取出，迟恐为其吞食鱼子。缸须置向阳之
处，切忌雨水。

听其自变，不过七八日便能生动如蚂蚁蝇蛆之状，生长最速。俟其
化成鱼央，

先以小米糊晾冷，用竹片挑挂草上，任其寻食，并用粗夏布口袋盛
虫入水中，任
 其吞啄，即透出小白虫。三四日后，虽能赶食散虫，亦须先择白色
小虫饲之。即

可食红大虫时，亦不可喂之过饱，恐嫩鱼腹胀致毙也。沙虫之极小
者名曰面食，

白色，在水皮上如面之浮，不能分其粒数。初生小鱼食之甚佳，且
易长而坚壮。

小鱼长至半寸许，即宜分缸，每缸不过百头。至寸余，则每缸
三十足矣。多

则挤热而死，竟至一头不留。渐长渐分，至二寸余大，则一缸四、
五、六对。至

三寸，则一缸不过四头、六头而已。然养缸如此，若庭院赏玩，则
一缸一对，至

多二对，始足以尽其游泳之趣，而观者亦可心静神逸也。

鱼不可乱养，必须分隔清楚。如黑龙睛不可见红鱼，见则易
变。翠鱼尤须分

避黑、白、红三色串觖。花鱼亦然。红鱼见各色鱼则亦串花矣。蛋
鱼、纹鱼、龙

睛尤不可同缸。各色分缸，各种异地，亦令人观玩有致。

子出鱼后，夜夜须将缸盖起，次日日出后开之。否则每至冻
死，一缸为之一

空。
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 竹葉亭雜記 ***

Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will
be renamed.

Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S.

copyright law means that no one owns a United States copyright in
these works, so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it
in the United States without permission and without paying
copyright royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of
Use part of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™
concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following
the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use
of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything
for copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is
very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as
creation of derivative works, reports, performances and research.
Project Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given
away—you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with
eBooks not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject
to the trademark license, especially commercial redistribution.

START: FULL LICENSE

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
 PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free

distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work (or
any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at
www.gutenberg.org/license.

Section 1. General Terms of Use and

Redistributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works
1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree
to and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your
possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be
bound by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund
from the person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in
paragraph 1.E.8.

1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be

used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people
who agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a
few things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic
works even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.
See paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with
Project Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this
agreement and help preserve free future access to Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the
Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the
collection of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the
individual works in the collection are in the public domain in the
United States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law
in the United States and you are located in the United States, we do
not claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing,
performing, displaying or creating derivative works based on the
work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of
course, we hope that you will support the Project Gutenberg™
mission of promoting free access to electronic works by freely
sharing Project Gutenberg™ works in compliance with the terms of
this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg™ name associated
with the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this
agreement by keeping this work in the same format with its attached
full Project Gutenberg™ License when you share it without charge
with others.

1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also
govern what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most
countries are in a constant state of change. If you are outside the
United States, check the laws of your country in addition to the
terms of this agreement before downloading, copying, displaying,
performing, distributing or creating derivative works based on this
work or any other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes
no representations concerning the copyright status of any work in
any country other than the United States.

1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other

immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must
appear prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™
work (any work on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears,
or with which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is
accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, copied or distributed:
 This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.

1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is derived

from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not contain a
notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the copyright
holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in the
United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must
comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through
1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project
Gutenberg™ trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted

with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works posted
with the permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning
of this work.

1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project

Gutenberg™ License terms from this work, or any files containing a
part of this work or any other work associated with Project
Gutenberg™.

1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this

electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1
with active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg™ License.

1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form,
including any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you
provide access to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work
in a format other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in
the official version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website
(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or
expense to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or
a means of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original
“Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must
include the full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in
paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,

performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing

access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
provided that:

• You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive
from the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the
method you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The
fee is owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark,
but he has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty
payments must be paid within 60 days following each date on
which you prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your
periodic tax returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked
as such and sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation at the address specified in Section 4, “Information
 about donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation.”

• You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who

notifies you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt
that s/he does not agree to the terms of the full Project
Gutenberg™ License. You must require such a user to return or
destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
Project Gutenberg™ works.

• You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of

any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in
the electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90
days of receipt of the work.

• You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg™

electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of
the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set
forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend

considerable effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe
and proofread works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating
the Project Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works, and the medium on which they may
be stored, may contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to,
incomplete, inaccurate or corrupt data, transcription errors, a
copyright or other intellectual property infringement, a defective or
damaged disk or other medium, a computer virus, or computer
codes that damage or cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for

the “Right of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3,
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the
Project Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a
Project Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim
all liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR
NEGLIGENCE, STRICT LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR
BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH
1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE TRADEMARK
OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL
NOT BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT,
CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF
YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you

discover a defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving
it, you can receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by
sending a written explanation to the person you received the work
from. If you received the work on a physical medium, you must
return the medium with your written explanation. The person or
entity that provided you with the defective work may elect to provide
a replacement copy in lieu of a refund. If you received the work
electronically, the person or entity providing it to you may choose to
give you a second opportunity to receive the work electronically in
lieu of a refund. If the second copy is also defective, you may
demand a refund in writing without further opportunities to fix the
problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED,
INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF
MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied

warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted
by the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any
provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.

1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation,

the trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation,
anyone providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in
accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with
the production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of the
following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or
any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or
additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any
Defect you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission

of Project Gutenberg™
Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.
It exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and
donations from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the

assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a
secure and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future
generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help,
see Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at
www.gutenberg.org.

Section 3. Information about the Project

Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.

The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West,

Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up
to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website
and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact

Section 4. Information about Donations to

the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation
Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without
widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can
be freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the
widest array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many
small donations ($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to
maintaining tax exempt status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating

charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and
keep up with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in
locations where we have not received written confirmation of
compliance. To SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of
compliance for any particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where

we have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no
prohibition against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in
such states who approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make

any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of
other ways including checks, online payments and credit card
donations. To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.

Section 5. General Information About

Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be
freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of
volunteer support.
Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed
editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
edition.

Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.

This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™,

including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how
to subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
Welcome to our website – the perfect destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. We believe that every book holds a new world,
offering opportunities for learning, discovery, and personal growth.
That’s why we are dedicated to bringing you a diverse collection of
books, ranging from classic literature and specialized publications to
self-development guides and children's books.

More than just a book-buying platform, we strive to be a bridge

connecting you with timeless cultural and intellectual values. With an
elegant, user-friendly interface and a smart search system, you can
quickly find the books that best suit your interests. Additionally,
our special promotions and home delivery services help you save time
and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Join us on a journey of knowledge exploration, passion nurturing, and

personal growth every day!

ebookbell.com