DIODES

A semiconductor diode is a two terminal electronic component with a PN junction. This is also
called as a Rectifier.

The anode which is the positive terminal of a diode is represented with A and the cathode,
which is the negative terminal is represented with K. To know the anode and cathode of a
practical diode, a fine line is drawn on the diode which means cathode, while the other end
represents anode.

As we had already discussed about the P-type and N-type semiconductors, and the behavior of
their carriers, let us now try to join these materials together to see what happens.

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Formation of a Diode

If a P-type and an N-type material are brought close to each other, both of them join to form a
junction, as shown in the figure below.

A P-type material has holes as the majority carriers and an N-type material has electrons as the
majority carriers. As opposite charges attract, few holes in P-type tend to go to n-side, whereas
few electrons in N-type tend to go to P-side.

As both of them travel towards the junction, holes and electrons recombine with each other to
neutralize and forms ions. Now, in this junction, there exists a region where the positive and
negative ions are formed, called as PN junction or junction barrier as shown in the figure.

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The formation of negative ions on P-side and positive ions on N-side results in the formation of a
narrow charged region on either side of the PN junction. This region is now free from movable
charge carriers. The ions present here have been stationary and maintain a region of space
between them without any charge carriers.

As this region acts as a barrier between P and N type materials, this is also called as Barrier
junction. This has another name called as Depletion region meaning it depletes both the
regions. There occurs a potential difference VD due to the formation of ions, across the junction
called as Potential Barrier as it prevents further movement of holes and electrons through the
junction.

Biasing of a Diode
When a diode or any two-terminal component is connected in a circuit, it has two biased
conditions with the given supply. They are Forward biased condition and Reverse biased
condition. Let us know them in detail.

Forward Biased Condition

When a diode is connected in a circuit, with its anode to the positive terminal and cathode to
the negative terminal of the supply, then such a connection is said to be forward biased
condition. This kind of connection makes the circuit more and more forward biased and helps in
more conduction. A diode conducts well in forward biased condition.

Reverse Biased Condition

When a diode is connected in a circuit, with its anode to the negative terminal and cathode to
the positive terminal of the supply, then such a connection is said to be Reverse biased
condition. This kind of connection makes the circuit more and more reverse biased and helps in
minimizing and preventing the conduction. A diode cannot conduct in reverse biased condition.

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Let us now try to know what happens if a diode is connected in forward biased and in reverse
biased conditions.

Working under Forward Biased

When an external voltage is applied to a diode such that it cancels the potential barrier and
permits the flow of current is called as forward bias. When anode and cathode are connected to
positive and negative terminals respectively, the holes in P-type and electrons in N-type tend to
move across the junction, breaking the barrier. There exists a free flow of current with this,
almost eliminating the barrier.

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With the repulsive force provided by positive terminal to holes and by negative terminal to
electrons, the recombination takes place in the junction. The supply voltage should be such high
that it forces the movement of electrons and holes through the barrier and to cross it to provide
forward current.

Forward Current is the current produced by the diode when operating in forward biased
condition and it is indicated by If.

Working under Reverse Biased

When an external voltage is applied to a diode such that it increases the potential barrier and
restricts the flow of current is called as Reverse bias. When anode and cathode are connected to
negative and positive terminals respectively, the electrons are attracted towards the positive
terminal and holes are attracted towards the negative terminal. Hence both will be away from the
potential barrier increasing the junction resistance and preventing any electron to cross the
junction.

The following figure explains this. The graph of conduction when no field is applied and when
some external field is applied are also drawn.

With the increasing reverse bias, the junction has few minority carriers to cross the junction. This
current is normally negligible. This reverse current is almost constant when the temperature is
constant. But when this reverse voltage increases further, then a point called reverse breakdown
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occurs, where an avalanche of current flows through the junction. This high reverse current
damages the device.

Reverse current is the current produced by the diode when operating in reverse biased condition
and it is indicated by Ir. Hence a diode provides high resistance path in reverse biased condition
and doesn’t conduct, where it provides a low resistance path in forward biased condition and
conducts. Thus we can conclude that a diode is a one-way device which conducts in forward bias
and acts as an insulator in reverse bias. This behavior makes it work as a rectifier, which
converts AC to DC.

Peak Inverse Voltage

Peak Inverse Voltage is shortly called as PIV. It states the maximum voltage applied in reverse
bias. The Peak Inverse Voltage can be defined as “The maximum reverse voltage that a diode
can withstand without being destroyed”. Hence, this voltage is considered during reverse
biased condition. It denotes how a diode can be safely operated in reverse bias.

Purpose of a Diode

A diode is used to block the electric current flow in one direction, i.e. in forward direction and to
block in reverse direction. This principle of diode makes it work as a Rectifier.

For a circuit to allow the current flow in one direction but to stop in the other direction, the
rectifier diode is the best choice. Thus the output will be DC removing the AC components. The
circuits such as half wave and full wave rectifiers are made using diodes, which can be studied in
Electronic Circuits tutorials.

A diode is also used as a Switch. It helps a faster ON and OFF for the output that should occur in
a quick rate.

V - I Characteristics of a Diode

A Practical circuit arrangement for a PN junction diode is as shown in the following figure. An
ammeter is connected in series and voltmeter in parallel, while the supply is controlled through a
variable resistor.

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During the operation, when the diode is in forward biased condition, at some particular voltage,
the potential barrier gets eliminated. Such a voltage is called as Cut-off Voltage or Knee
Voltage. If the forward voltage exceeds beyond the limit, the forward current rises up
exponentially and if this is done further, the device is damaged due to overheating.

The following graph shows the state of diode conduction in forward and reverse biased
conditions.

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During the reverse bias, current produced through minority carriers exist known as “Reverse
current”. As the reverse voltage increases, this reverse current increases and it suddenly breaks
down at a point, resulting in the permanent destruction of the junction

Basic Electronics - Junction Diodes

There are many types of diodes depending upon many factors such as the frequency used, their
working and construction, their applications etc. Let us go through few of them.

Junction diodes

The junction diodes are the normal PN junction diodes but differ in construction. There are three
types of junction diodes, as shown in the following figure.

Rectifier Diode
These diodes are the normal PN junction diodes, which allow current to flow through them in
only one direction and stop in the other direction. These diodes are used in rectifier circuits to
convert alternating current into direct current.

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In the above figure, we can see the same rectifier diodes with a metal projection. This is added to
the diode to minimize the heat distribution which might affect the diode sometimes. Such a metal
projection is called as Heat sink. These help in the improvement of the diode performance and
the diodes will be able to withstand high powers, without getting affected.

There are circuits such as Half wave rectifier and Full wave rectifier circuits which use these
diodes. These circuits are discussed in ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS tutorial. These rectifier
circuits are used in Power supply sections of many circuits where alternating input current has to
be converted into direct current for that circuit applications.

Zener Diode
This is a special kind of diode which permits current flow not only in forward direction, but also
in reverse direction. A normal diode, when operated in reverse bias, gets damaged if the reverse
current above a certain value is passed through it. This “certain value” is called as the
Breakdown voltage.

The breakdown voltage of a Zener diode is very low. But this diode allows the reverse current
to pass through it, once this breakdown voltage is exceeded. That breakdown voltage is called
as Zener Voltage. Hence there is a controlled breakdown which does not damage the diode
when a reverse current above the Zener voltage passes through a Zener diode.

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A Zener diode in its reverse bias, exhibits a controlled breakdown voltage and it allows the
current flow to keep the value of voltage across that Zener diode close to the Zener breakdown
voltage value. This value of Zener breakdown voltage makes any Zener diode to be chosen for
certain applications.

Avalanche diode is another diode which has the similar characteristics of Zener diode. The
avalanche breakdown takes place across the entire PN junction, when the voltage drop is
constant and is independent of current. This avalanche diode is used for photodetection.

V-I Characteristics of a Zener diode

The V-I Characteristics of a Zener diode are common for any diode when operated in forward
bias. But the reverse bias operation of a Zener diode makes it very important to consider. Let us
have a look at the graph.

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The point where the bent is shown in the reverse bias operation, is the Zener breakdown
voltage, after which the diode allows high reverse currents through it. This Zener voltage is
indicated by VZ. This incredible quality of Zener diode made it the most reliable one and have
got many applications too.

Applications of Zener diode

This diode has many applications such as −

 It is mostly used as a Voltage Regulator.

 Provides fixed reference voltage in transistor biasing circuits.
 For peak clipping or limiting in wave shaping circuits.
 As a Surge protector in many circuits.
 For meter protection against damage from accidental applications.

Switching Diode
This is a normal single PN junction diode which is especially designed for switching purposes.
This diode can exhibit two states of high and low resistance clearly which can be used
alternatively.

The junction capacitance of this diode is made very low so as to minimize other effects. The
switching speed is made quite high. When the diode has high resistance it works as an open
switch and it acts as a closed switch during low resistance. This transition occurs at a faster rate
in switching diode, than in any ordinary one.

Applications of switching diode

These have many applications such as −

 Used in high-speed rectifying circuits

 Used in ring modulators

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  Used in radio frequency receivers
 Used as reverse polarity protectors
 Used for both General purpose and high speed switching applications

Special Purpose Diodes

There are few diodes which are designed to serve some special purposes. There are many of such
kinds like Transient voltage suppression diodes, Gold doped diodes, Super barrier diodes, Point
contact diodes, Peltier diodes etc. But other than these, there are few prominent diodes, which
have got many applications. Let us go through them.

Varactor Diode
A junction diode has two potentials on both sides where the depletion region can act as a
dielectric. Hence there exists a capacitance. The Varactor diode is a special case diode that is
operated in reverse bias, where the junction capacitance is varied.

The Varactor diode is also called as Vari Cap or Volt Cap. The following figure shows a
Varactor diode connected in reverse bias.

If the reverse voltage applied is increased, the width of the dielectric region increases, which
reduces the junction capacitance. When the reverse voltage decreases, the width of the
dielectric decreases, which increases the capacitance. If this reverse voltage is completely null,
then the capacitance will be at its maximum.

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The following figure shows various symbols used for Varactor diode which represents its
function.

Though all diodes have this junction capacitance, the Varactor diode is mainly manufactured to
make use of this effect and increase the variations in this junction capacitance.

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Applications of Varactor diode

This diode has many applications such as −

 It is used as a Voltage variable capacitor.

 It is used in variable LC tank circuit.
 Used as Automatic frequency control.
 Used as Frequency Modulator.
 Used as RF Phase shifter.
 Used as frequency multiplier in local oscillator circuits.

Tunnel diode
If the impurity concentration of a normal PN junction is highly increased, this Tunnel diode is
formed. It is also known as Esaki diode, after its inventor.

When the impurity concentration in a diode increases, the width of depletion region decreases,
extending some extra force to the charge carriers to cross the junction. When this concentration
is further increased, due to less width of the depletion region and the increased energy of the
charge carriers, they penetrate through the potential barrier, instead of climbing over it. This
penetration can be understood as Tunneling and hence the name, Tunnel diode.

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The Tunnel diodes are low power devices and should be handled with care as they easily get
affected by heat and static electricity. The Tunnel diode has specific V-I characteristics which
explain their working. Let us have a look at the graph below.

Consider the diode is in forward-biased condition. As forward voltage increases, the current
increases rapidly and it increases until a peak point, called as Peak Current, denoted by IP. The
voltage at this point is called as Peak Voltage, denoted by VP. This point is indicated by A in the
above graph.

If the voltage is further increased beyond VP, then the current starts decreasing. It decreases until
a point, called as Valley Current, denoted by IV. The voltage at this point is called as Valley
Voltage, denoted by VV. This point is indicated by B in the above graph.

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If the voltage is increased further, the current increases as in a normal diode. For larger values of
forward voltage, the current increases further beyond.

If we consider the diode is in reverse-biased condition, then the diode acts as an excellent
conductor as the reverse voltage increases. The diode here acts as in a negative resistance region.

Applications of Tunnel diode

There are many applications for tunnel diode such as −

 Used as a high-Speed Switching device

 Used as a memory storage device
 Used in Microwave oscillators
 Used in relaxation oscillators

Schottky Diode
This is a special type of diode in which a PN junction is replaced by a metal semiconductor
junction. The P-type semiconductor in a normal PN junction diode is replaced by a metal and N-
type material is joined to the metal. This combination has no depletion region between them. The
following figure shows the Schottky diode and its symbol.

The metal used in this Schottky diode may be gold, silver, platinum or tungsten etc. As well, for
the semiconductor material other than silicon, gallium arsenide is mostly used.

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Operation

When no voltage is applied or when the circuit is unbiased, the electrons in the N-type material
has lower energy level than the ones in the metal. If the diode is then forward biased, these
electrons in the N-type gain some energy and move with some higher energy. Hence these
electrons are called as Hot Carriers.

The following figure shows a Schottky diode connected in a circuit.

Advantages

There are many advantages of Schottky diode such as −

 It is a unipolar device and hence no reverse currents are formed.

 Its forward resistance is low.
 Voltage drops are very low.
 Rectification is fast and easy with the Schottky diode.

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  There is no depletion region present and hence, no junction capacitance. So, the diode
gets to OFF position quickly.

Applications

There are many applications of Schottky diode such as −

 Used as a detector diode

 Used as a Power rectifier
 Used in RF mixer circuits
 Used in power circuits
 Used as clamping diodes

Basic Electronics - Optoelectronic Diodes

These are the diodes which are operated on light. The word “Opto” means Light. There are types
that conduction depending upon the light intensity and other types whose conduction delivers
some light. Each type has got applications of their own. Let us discuss the prominent types
among these ones.

Some diodes conduct according to the intensity of light falls on them. There are two main types
of diodes in this category. They are Photo diodes and Solar cells.

Photo Diode
Photo diode, as the name implies, is a PN junction which works on light. The intensity of light
affects the level of conduction in this diode. The photo diode has a P type material and an N-type
material with an intrinsic material or a depletion region in between.

This diode is generally operated in reverse bias condition. The light when focused on the
depletion region, electron-hole pairs are formed and flow of electron occurs. This conduction of
electrons depends upon the intensity of light focused. The figure below shows a practical Photo
diode.

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The figure below indicates the symbol for a photodiode.

When the diode is connected in reverse bias, a small reverse saturation current flows due to
thermally generated electron hole pairs. As the current in reverse bias flows due to minority
carriers, the output voltage depends upon this reverse current. As the light intensity focused on
the junction increases, the current flow due to minority carriers increase. The following figure
shows the basic biasing arrangement of a photo diode.

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The Photo diode is encapsulated in a glass package to allow the light to fall onto it. In order to
focus the light exactly on the depletion region of the diode, a lens is placed above the junction,
just as illustrated above.

Even when there is no light, a small amount of current flows which is termed as Dark Current.
By changing the illumination level, reverse current can be changed.

Advantages of Photo diode

Photo diode has many advantages such as −

 Low noise
 High gain
 High speed operation
 High sensitivity to light
 Low cost
 Small size
 Long lifetime

Applications of Photo diode

There are many applications for photo diode such as −

 Character detection
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  Objects can be detected visibleorinvisible

 .
 Used in circuits that require high stability and speed.
 Used in Demodulation
 Used in switching circuits
 Used in Encoders
 Used in optical communication equipment

Another diode of such a kind is Solar cell. It is termed as a cell though it is a diode. Let us get
into the details.

Solar Cell
The light dependent diodes include Solar cell, which is a normal PN junction diode but has its
conduction by the rush of photons which are converted into the flow of electrons. This is similar
to a photo diode but it has another objective of converting maximum incident light into energy
and storing it.

The figure below represents the symbol of a solar cell.

A solar cell has its name and symbol indicating storing of energy though it is a diode. The
feature of extracting more energy and storing of it is concentrated in the solar cell.

Construction of a Solar cell

A PN junction diode with an intrinsic material in the deletion region is made to encapsulate in a
glass. The light is made to incident on maximum area possible with thin glass on the top so as to
collect maximum light with minimum resistance.

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The following figure shows the construction of a Solar cell.

When the light is incident on the solar cell, the photons in the light collide with valence
electrons. The electrons are energized to leave the parent atoms. Thus a flow of electrons is
generated and this current is directly proportional to the light intensity focused onto the solar
cell. This phenomenon is called as the Photo-Voltaic effect.

The following figure shows how a solar cell looks like and how a number of solar cells together
are made to form a solar panel.

Difference between a Photo diode and Solar cell

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Photo Diode works faster and concentrates on switching rather than providing more power at the
output. It has a low capacitance value because of this. Also the area of incidence of light energy
is lesser in Photo diode, according to its applications.

A Solar cell concentrates on delivering high output energy and storing the energy. This has high
capacitance value. The operation is a bit slower than photo diode. According to the purpose of
the solar cell, the area of incidence of light is larger than photo diode.

Applications of Solar Cell

There are many applications for Solar cell such as −

Science and Technology

 Used in Solar panels for Satellites

 Used in telemetry
 Used in Remote lighting systems etc.

Commercial Use

 Used in Solar panels for storage of electricity

 Used in Portable power supplies etc.
 Used in household uses such as cooking and heating using solar energy

Electronic

 Watches
 Calculators
 Electronic Toys, etc.

Some diodes emit light according to the voltage applied. There are two main types of diodes in
this category. They are LEDs and Laser diodes.

LED LightEmittingDiodes
This one is the most popular diodes used in our daily life. This is also a normal PN junction
diode except that instead of silicon and germanium, the materials like gallium arsenide, gallium
arsenide phosphide are used in its construction.

The figure below shows the symbol of a Light emitting diode.

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Like a normal PN junction diode, this is connected in forward bias condition so that the diode
conducts. The conduction takes place in a LED when the free electrons in the conduction band
combine with the holes in the valence band. This process of recombination emits light. This
process is called as Electroluminescence. The color of the light emitted depends upon the gap
between the energy bands.

The materials used also effect the colors like, gallium arsenide phosphide emits either red or
yellow, gallium phosphide emits either red or green and gallium nitrate emits blue light. Whereas
gallium arsenide emits infrared light. The LEDs for non-visible Infrared light are used mostly in
remote controls.

The following figure shows a how the practical LEDs of different colors looks like.

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LED in the above figure has a flat side and curved side, the lead at the flat side is made shorter
than the other one, so as to indicate that the shorter one is Cathode or negative terminal and the
other one is Anode or the Positive terminal.

The basic structure of LED is as shown in the figure below.

As shown in the above figure, as the electrons jump into the holes, the energy is dissipated
spontaneously in the form of light. LED is a current dependent device. The output light intensity
depends upon the current through the diode.

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Advantages of LED

There are many advantages of LED such as −

 High efficiency
 High speed
 High reliability
 Low heat dissipation
 Larger life span
 Low cost
 Easily controlled and programmable
 High levels of brightness and intensity
 Low voltage and current requirements
 Less wiring required
 Low maintenance cost
 No UV radiation
 Instant Lighting effect

Applications of LED

There are many applications for LED such as −

In Displays

 Especially used for seven segment display

 Digital clocks
 Microwave ovens
 Traffic signaling
 Display boards in railways and public places
 Toys

In Electronic Appliances

 Stereo tuners
 Calculators
 DC power supplies
 On/Off indicators in amplifiers
 Power indicators

Commercial Use

 Infrared readable machines

 Barcode readers
 Solid state video displays

Optical Communications

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  In Optical switching applications
 For Optical coupling where manual help is unavailable
 Information transfer through FOC
 Image sensing circuits
 Burglar alarms
 In Railway signaling techniques
 Door and other security control systems

Just as LED has many advantages and applications, there is another important diode called Laser
diode, which also has got many advanced features and scope of future. Let us discuss about
Laser diode.

Laser Diode
Laser Diode is another popular diode for its kind. This is an optical diode which emits light but
with stimulated process. The name LASER implies Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission
of Radiation.

Stimulated Emission
This is a PN junction diode whose action starts when a light ray is incident on it. With a light ray,
when photons get incident on an atom, the atom gets excited and it reaches an upper level which
can be termed as a Higher Energy Level.

The atom when shifts from the higher energy level to a Lower Energy Level, it releases two
photons which are similar in characteristics to the incident photon and are in equal phase to it.

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This process is called as Stimulated Emission. An atom can generally stay in this excited state
for 10-8secs of time.

So, the above process sets the principle for laser diode.

Principle of Laser Diode

Whenever a photon is incident on an atom, that atom is excited from a lower energy state to a
higher energy state and two photons are released in this process. Actually, an atom can generally
stay at this excited state for 10-8secs of time. So, in order to achieve amplification, during this
excited process, the atom is made to be placed in another state called Meta Stable State which is
below the higher energy level and above the lower energy level.

An atom can stay in this Meta stable state for 10-3secs. While the atom gets to the lower state
from this, two photons are released. If more number of atoms are there in the excited state, prior
to the photons striking the atoms, then we have the Lasing Effect.

In this process, we have two terms to understand. Having more number of atoms at Meta Stable
state than the lower energy state or ground state is called as Population inversion. Then energy
that lets the atoms to send from a lower energy state to a higher energy state to achieve the
population inversion, is called as Pumping. This is Optical pumping.

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Advantages

There are many advantages of Laser diode such as −

 Power used by laser diodes is much less

 Higher ON/OFF switching speed
 More Compact
 Less expensive
 They are cheaper than laser generators
 Less chances of providing electrical shocks

Disadvantages

There are few disadvantages of Laser diode such as −

 More divergent rays and hence quality is not so good

 Their life time is less compared to LED.
 Prone to damage during unstable power supplies

Applications

There are many applications of Laser diode such as −

 Used as pump-laser and seed-laser

 Used in optical data storage devices
 Used in laser printers and laser fax machines
 Used in Laser pointers
 Used in bar-code readers
 They are used in DVD and CD drives
 Used in HD DVD and BLU RAY technology
 Has many industrial purposes such as heat treating, cladding, seam welding etc.
 Has got many uses in communication technology such as data linking and transmission.

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After going through all these, let us try to understand few terms.

Component

 The Components are the individual basic elements of electronics.

 They have different properties with respect to their construction.
 Every component has different applications.

Ex − Resistor, Capacitor, Diode etc.

Circuit

 A Circuit is a network of different components

 The components in the circuit altogether, survive an intended purpose.
 If a circuit has to be active, should contain a power source.

Ex − clipper and clamper circuits, amplifier circuits, relay circuits etc.

Device

 A Device is an equipment that is made up of different circuits.

 All circuits in the device help it function to serve its purpose.
 A device can be used for measuring signals, generating signals, controlling the outcomes
or protecting the circuits and so on.

Ex − CRO, Function generator etc.

Solid State devices

Previously we used to have vacuum tubes, which work on thermionic principle and are filled
with vacuum inside. They were bigger in size than today’s components. These vacuum tubes
were replaced with semiconductor devices, which are also called as Solid state devices.

Active Devices

The devices orpreciselycomponents

which can control the current flow can be termed as Active Devices.

 They require some input power supply to get into conduction.

 The working of these components define the behavior of the circuit.

Ex − Vacuum tubes, diodes, transistors, SCRs

Passive Devices

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The devices orpreciselycomponents

which cannot control the current flow can be termed as Passive Devices.

 They don’t require input power supply to work.

 The working of these components slightly alters the circuit’s behavior.

Ex − Resistor, Capacitor, Inductor etc.

Doping

The process of adding of electrons or creating holes to alter the characteristics of the
semiconductor material, either by making more positive or by making more negative can be
understood as Doping.

The applications of diodes include many circuits starting from clipper and clamper circuits,
which will be discussed in ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS tutorial.

Basic Electronics - Transistors

After having a good knowledge on the working of the diode, which is a single PN junction, let us
try to connect two PN junctions which make a new component called Transistor. A Transistor
is a three terminal semiconductor device that regulates current or voltage flow and acts as a
switch or gate for signals.

Why Do We Need Transistors?

Suppose that you have a FM receiver which grabs the signal you want. The received signal will
obviously be weak due to the disturbances it would face during its journey. Now if this signal is
read as it is, you cannot get a fair output. Hence we need to amplify the signal. Amplification
means increasing the signal strength.

This is just an instance. Amplification is needed wherever the signal strength has to be increased.
This is done by a transistor. A transistor also acts as a switch to choose between available
options. It also regulates the incoming current and voltage of the signals.

Constructional Details of a Transistor

The Transistor is a three terminal solid state device which is formed by connecting two diodes
back to back. Hence it has got two PN junctions. Three terminals are drawn out of the three
semiconductor materials present in it. This type of connection offers two types of transistors.

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They are PNP and NPN which means an N-type material between two Ptypes and the other is a
P-type material between two N-types respectively.

The construction of transistors is as shown in the following figure which explains the idea
discussed above.

The three terminals drawn from the transistor indicate Emitter, Base and Collector terminals.
They have their functionality as discussed below.

Emitter

 The left hand side of the above shown structure can be understood as Emitter.
 This has a moderate size and is heavily doped as its main function is to supply a
number of majority carriers, i.e. either electrons or holes.
 As this emits electrons, it is called as an Emitter.
 This is simply indicated with the letter E.

Base

 The middle material in the above figure is the Base.

 This is thin and lightly doped.
 Its main function is to pass the majority carriers from the emitter to the collector.
 This is indicated by the letter B.

Collector

 The right side material in the above figure can be understood as a Collector.
 Its name implies its function of collecting the carriers.
 This is a bit larger in size than emitter and base. It is moderately doped.
 This is indicated by the letter C.

The symbols of PNP and NPN transistors are as shown below.

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The arrow-head in the above figures indicated the emitter of a transistor. As the collector of a
transistor has to dissipate much greater power, it is made large. Due to the specific functions of
emitter and collector, they are not interchangeable. Hence the terminals are always to be kept in
mind while using a transistor.

In a Practical transistor, there is a notch present near the emitter lead for identification. The PNP
and NPN transistors can be differentiated using a Multimeter. The following figure shows how
different practical transistors look like.

We have so far discussed the constructional details of a transistor, but to understand the
operation of a transistor, first we need to know about the biasing.

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Transistor Biasing
As we know that a transistor is a combination of two diodes, we have two junctions here. As one
junction is between the emitter and base, that is called as Emitter-Base junction and likewise,
the other is Collector-Base junction.

Biasing is controlling the operation of the circuit by providing power supply. The function of
both the PN junctions is controlled by providing bias to the circuit through some dc supply. The
figure below shows how a transistor is biased.

By having a look at the above figure, it is understood that

 The N-type material is provided negative supply and P-type material is given positive
supply to make the circuit Forward bias.
 The N-type material is provided positive supply and P-type material is given negative
supply to make the circuit Reverse bias.

By applying the power, the emitter base junction is always forward biased as the emitter
resistance is very small. The collector base junction is reverse biased and its resistance is a bit
higher. A small forward bias is sufficient at the emitter junction whereas a high reverse bias has
to be applied at the collector junction.

The direction of current indicated in the circuits above, also called as the Conventional
Current, is the movement of hole current which is opposite to the electron current.

34
Operation PNP Transistor
The operation of a PNP transistor can be explained by having a look at the following figure, in
which emitter-base junction is forward biased and collector-base junction is reverse biased.

The voltage VEE provides a positive potential at the emitter which repels the holes in the P-type
material and these holes cross the emitter-base junction, to reach the base region. There a very
low percent of holes recombine with free electrons of N-region. This provides very low current
which constitutes the base current IB. The remaining holes cross the collector-base junction, to
constitute collector current IC, which is the hole current.

As a hole reaches the collector terminal, an electron from the battery negative terminal fills the
space in the collector. This flow slowly increases and the electron minority current flows through
the emitter, where each electron entering the positive terminal of VEE, is replaced by a hole by
moving towards the emitter junction. This constitutes emitter current IE.

Hence we can understand that −

 The conduction in a PNP transistor takes place through holes.

 The collector current is slightly less than the emitter current.
 The increase or decrease in the emitter current affects the collector current.

35
Operation NPN Transistor
The operation of an NPN transistor can be explained by having a look at the following figure, in
which emitter-base junction is forward biased and collector-base junction is reverse biased.

The voltage VEE provides a negative potential at the emitter which repels the electrons in the N-
type material and these electrons cross the emitter-base junction, to reach the base region. There
a very low percent of electrons recombine with free holes of P-region. This provides very low
current which constitutes the base current IB. The remaining holes cross the collector-base
junction, to constitute the collector current IC.

As an electron reaches out of the collector terminal, and enters the positive terminal of the
battery, an electron from the negative terminal of the battery VEE enters the emitter region. This
flow slowly increases and the electron current flows through the transistor.

Hence we can understand that −

 The conduction in a NPN transistor takes place through electrons.

 The collector current is higher than the emitter current.
 The increase or decrease in the emitter current affects the collector current.

Advantages
There are many advantages of a transistor such as −

 High voltage gain.

 Lower supply voltage is sufficient.
 Most suitable for low power applications.
 Smaller and lighter in weight.
 Mechanically stronger than vacuum tubes.

36
  No external heating required like vacuum tubes.
 Very suitable to integrate with resistors and diodes to produce ICs.

There are few disadvantages such as they cannot be used for high power applications due to
lower power dissipation. They have lower input impedance and they are temperature dependent.

Basic Electronics - Transistor Configurations

A Transistor has 3 terminals, the emitter, the base and the collector. Using these 3 terminals the
transistor can be connected in a circuit with one terminal common to both input and output in a 3
different possible configurations.

The three types of configurations are Common Base, Common Emitter and Common
Collector configurations. In every configuration, the emitter junction is forward biased and the
collector junction is reverse biased.

Common Base CB

Configuration
The name itself implies that the Base terminal is taken as common terminal for both input and
output of the transistor. The common base connection for both NPN and PNP transistors is as
shown in the following figure.

For the sake of understanding, let us consider NPN transistor in CB configuration. When the
emitter voltage is applied, as it is forward biased, the electrons from the negative terminal repel

37
the emitter electrons and current flows through the emitter and base to the collector to contribute
collector current. The collector voltage VCB is kept constant throughout this.

In the CB configuration, the input current is the emitter current IE and the output current is the
collector current IC.

Current Amplification Factor α

The ratio of change in collector current $ΔIC$

to the change in emitter current $ΔIE$

when collector voltage VCB is kept constant, is called as Current amplification factor. It is
denoted by α.

α=ΔICΔIEatconstantVCB

Expression for Collector current

With the idea above, let us try to draw some expression for collector current. Along with the
emitter current flowing, there is some amount of base current IB which flows through the base
terminal due to electron hole recombination. As collector-base junction is reverse biased, there is
another current which is flown due to minority charge carriers. This is the leakage current which
can be understood as Ileakage. This is due to minority charge carriers and hence very small.

The emitter current that reaches the collector terminal is

αIE
Total collector current

IC=αIE+Ileakage
If the emitter-base voltage VEB = 0, even then, there flows a small leakage current, which can be
termed as ICBOcollector−basecurrentwithoutputopen

The collector current therefore can be expressed as

IC=αIE+ICBO
IE=IC+IB
IC=α(IC+IB)+ICBO
IC(1−α)=αIB+ICBO
38
 IC=(α1−α)IB+(ICBO1−α)
IC=(α1−α)IB+(11−α)ICBO
Hence the above derived is the expression for collector current. The value of collector current
depends on base current and leakage current along with the current amplification factor of that
transistor in use.

Characteristics of CB configuration

 This configuration provides voltage gain but no current gain.

 Being VCB constant, with a small increase in the Emitter-base voltage VEB, Emitter
current IE gets increased.
 Emitter Current IE is independent of Collector voltage VCB.
 Collector Voltage VCB can affect the collector current IC only at low voltages, when VEB
is kept constant.
 The input resistance ri is the ratio of change in emitter-base voltage $ΔVEB$

to the change in emitter current $ΔIE$

at constant collector base voltage VCB.

η=ΔVEBΔIEatconstantVCB
 As the input resistance is of very low value, a small value of VEB is enough to produce a
large current flow of emitter current IE.

 The output resistance ro is the ratio of change in the collector base voltage $ΔVCB$

to the change in collector current $ΔIC$

at constant emitter current IE.

ro=ΔVCBΔICatconstantlE

 As the output resistance is of very high value, a large change in VCB produces a very little
change in collector current IC.
 This Configuration provides good stability against increase in temperature.
 The CB configuration is used for high frequency applications.

Common Emitter CE

Configuration
39
The name itself implies that the Emitter terminal is taken as common terminal for both input and
output of the transistor. The common emitter connection for both NPN and PNP transistors is as
shown in the following figure.

Just as in CB configuration, the emitter junction is forward biased and the collector junction is
reverse biased. The flow of electrons is controlled in the same manner. The input current is the
base current IB and the output current is the collector current IC here.

Base Current Amplification factor β

The ratio of change in collector current $ΔIC$

to the change in base current $ΔIB$

is known as Base Current Amplification Factor. It is denoted by β

β=ΔICΔIB

Relation between β and α

Let us try to derive the relation between base current amplification factor and emitter current
amplification factor.

β=ΔICΔIB
α=ΔICΔIE
IE=IB+IC
ΔIE=ΔIB+ΔIC
ΔIB=ΔIE−ΔIC
We can write

40
 β=ΔICΔIE−ΔIC
Dividing by $$

β=ΔICΔIEΔIEΔIE−ΔICΔIE
α=ΔICΔIE
We have

α=ΔICΔIE
Therefore,

β=α1−α
From the above equation, it is evident that, as α approaches 1, β reaches infinity.

Hence, the current gain in Common Emitter connection is very high. This is the reason this
circuit connection is mostly used in all transistor applications.

Expression for Collector Current

In the Common Emitter configuration, IB is the input current and IC is the output current.

We know

IE=IB+IC
And

IC=αIE+ICBO
=α(IB+IC)+ICBO
IC(1−α)=αIB+ICBO
IC=α1−αIB+11−αICBO
If base circuit is open, i.e. if IB = 0,

The collector emitter current with base open is ICEO

ICEO=11−αICBO
Substituting the value of this in the previous equation, we get

41
 IC=α1−αIB+ICEO
IC=βIB+ICEO
Hence the equation for collector current is obtained.

Knee Voltage

In CE configuration, by keeping the base current IB constant, if VCE is varied, IC increases nearly
to 1v of VCE and stays constant thereafter. This value of VCE up to which collector current IC
changes with VCE is called the Knee Voltage. The transistors while operating in CE
configuration, they are operated above this knee voltage.

Characteristics of CE Configuration

 This configuration provides good current gain and voltage gain.

 Keeping VCE constant, with a small increase in VBE the base current IB increases rapidly
than in CB configurations.
 For any value of VCE above knee voltage, IC is approximately equal to βIB.
 The input resistance ri is the ratio of change in base emitter voltage $ΔVBE$

to the change in base current $ΔIB$

at constant collector emitter voltage VCE.

ri=ΔVBEΔIBatconstantVCE
 As the input resistance is of very low value, a small value of VBE is enough to produce a
large current flow of base current IB.

 The output resistance ro is the ratio of change in collector emitter voltage $ΔVCE$

to the change in collector current $ΔIC$

at constant IB.

ro=ΔVCEΔICatconstantIB

 As the output resistance of CE circuit is less than that of CB circuit.
 This configuration is usually used for bias stabilization methods and audio frequency
applications.

42
Common Collector CC

Configuration
The name itself implies that the Collector terminal is taken as common terminal for both input
and output of the transistor. The common collector connection for both NPN and PNP transistors
is as shown in the following figure.

Just as in CB and CE configurations, the emitter junction is forward biased and the collector
junction is reverse biased. The flow of electrons is controlled in the same manner. The input
current is the base current IB and the output current is the emitter current IE here.

Current Amplification Factor γ

The ratio of change in emitter current $ΔIE$

to the change in base current $ΔIB$ is known as Current Amplification factor in common
collector CC

configuration. It is denoted by γ.

γ=ΔIEΔIB
 The current gain in CC configuration is same as in CE configuration.
 The voltage gain in CC configuration is always less than 1.

43
Relation between γ and α

Let us try to draw some relation between γ and α

γ=ΔIEΔIB
α=ΔICΔIE
IE=IB+IC
ΔIE=ΔIB+ΔIC
ΔIB=ΔIE−ΔIC
Substituting the value of IB, we get

γ=ΔIEΔIE−ΔIC

Dividing by ΔIE

γ=ΔIEΔIEΔIEΔIE−ΔICΔIE
11−α
γ=11−α

Expression for collector current

We know

IC=αIE+ICBO
IE=IB+IC=IB+(αIE+ICBO)
IE(1−α)=IB+ICBO

IC≅IE=(β+1)IB+(β+1)ICBO
IE=IB1−α+ICBO1−α

The above is the expression for collector current.

Characteristics of CC Configuration

 This configuration provides current gain but no voltage gain.

 In CC configuration, the input resistance is high and the output resistance is low.
 The voltage gain provided by this circuit is less than 1.
 The sum of collector current and base current equals emitter current.
 The input and output signals are in phase.
 This configuration works as non-inverting amplifier output.
 This circuit is mostly used for impedance matching. That means, to drive a low
impedance load from a high impedance source.

44
Types of Transistors
There are many types of transistors in use. Each transistor is specialized in its application. The
main classification is as follows.

The primary transistor is the BJT and FET is the modern version of transistor. Let us have a look
at the BJTs.

Bipolar Junction Transistor

A Bipolar junction transistor, shortly termed as BJT is called so as it has two PN junctions for its
function. This BJT is nothing but a normal transistor. It has got two types of configurations NPN
and PNP. Usually NPN transistor is preferred for the sake of convenience. The following image
shows how a practical BJT looks like.

45
The types of BJT are NPN and PNP transistors. The NPN transistor is made by placing a ptype
material between two n-type materials. The PNP transistor is made by placing an ntype material
between two p-type materials.

BJT is a current controlled device. A normal transistor which we had discussed in the previous
chapters come under this category. The functionality, configurations and applications are all the
same.

Field Effect Transistor

An FET is a three-terminal unipolar semiconductor device. It is a voltage controlled device
unlike a bipolar junction transistor. The main advantage of FET is that it has a very high input
impedance, which is in the order of Mega Ohms. It has many advantages like low power
consumption, low heat dissipation and FETs are highly efficient devices. The following image
shows how a practical FET looks like.

46
The FET is a unipolar device, which means that it is made using either p-type or n-type material
as main substrate. Hence the current conduction of a FET is done by either electrons or holes.

Features of FET
The following are the varied features of a Field Effect Transistor.

 Unipolar − It is unipolar as either holes or electrons are responsible for conduction.

 High input impedance − The input current in a FET flows due to the reverse bias. Hence
it has high input impedance.
 Voltage controlled device − As the output voltage of a FET is controlled by the gate
input voltage, FET is called as the voltage controlled device.
 Noise is low − There are no junctions present in the conduction path. Hence noise is
lower than in BJTs.
 Gain is characterized as transconductance.Transconductance is the ratio of change in
output current to the change in input voltage.
 The output impedance of a FET is low.

Advantages of FET

To prefer a FET over BJT, there should be few advantages of using FETs, rather than BJTs. Let
us try to summarize the advantages of FET over BJT.

JFET BJT
It is an unipolar device It is a bipolar device
Voltage driven device Current driven device
High input impedance Low input impedance
Low noise level High noise level
Better thermal stability Less thermal stability
Gain is characterized by transconductance Gain is characterized by voltage gain

47
Applications of FET

 FET is used in circuits to reduce the loading effect.

 FETs are used in many circuits such as Buffer Amplifier, Phase shift Oscillators and
Voltmeters.

FET Terminals
Though FET is a three terminal device, they are not the same as BJT terminals. The three
terminals of FET are Gate, Source and Drain. The Source terminal in FET is analogous to the
Emitter in BJT, while Gate is analogous to Base and Drain to Collector.

The symbols of a FET for both NPN and PNP types are as shown below

Source

 The Source terminal in a Field Effect Transistor is the one through which the carriers
enter the channel.
 This is analogous to the emitter terminal in a Bipolar Junction Transistor.
 The Source terminal can be designated as S.
 The current entering the channel at Source terminal is indicated as IS.

Gate

 The Gate terminal in a Field Effect Transistor plays a key role in the function of FET by
controlling the current through the channel.
 By applying an external voltage at Gate terminal, the current through it can be controlled.
 Gate is a combination of two terminals connected internally that are heavily doped.
 The channel conductivity is said to be modulated by the Gate terminal.
 This is analogous to the base terminal in a Bipolar Junction Transistor.
 The Gate terminal can be designated as G.
 The current entering the channel at Gate terminal is indicated as IG.

48
Drain

 The Drain terminal in a Field Effect Transistor is the one through which the carriers leave
the channel.
 This is analogous to the collector terminal in a Bipolar Junction Transistor.
 The Drain to Source voltage is designated as VDS.
 The Drain terminal can be designated as D.
 The current leaving the channel at Drain terminal is indicated as ID.

Types of FET
There are two main types of FETS. They are JFET and MOSFET. The following figure gives
further classification of FETs.

In the subsequent chapters, we will have a detailed discussion on JFET and MOSFET.

Basic Electronics - JFET

The JFET is abbreviated as Junction Field Effect Transistor. JFET is just like a normal FET.
The types of JFET are n-channel FET and P-channel FET. A p-type material is added to the n-
type substrate in n-channel FET, whereas an n-type material is added to the ptype substrate in p-
channel FET. Hence it is enough to discuss one type of FET to understand both.

N-Channel FET
The N-channel FET is the mostly used Field Effect Transistor. For the fabrication of Nchannel
FET, a narrow bar of N-type semiconductor is taken on which P-type material is formed by
diffusion on the opposite sides. These two sides are joined to draw a single connection for gate
terminal. This can be understood from the following figure.

49
These two gate depositions p−typematerials

form two PN diodes. The area between gates is called as a channel. The majority carriers pass
through this channel. Hence the cross sectional form of the FET is understood as the following
figure.

Ohmic contacts are made at the two ends of the n-type semiconductor bar, which form the source
and the drain. The source and the drain terminals may be interchanged.

Operation of N-channel FET

50
Before going into the operation of the FET one should understand how the depletion layers are
formed. For this, let us suppose that the voltage at gate terminal say VGG is reverse biased while
the voltage at drain terminal say VDD is not applied. Let this be the case 1.

 In case 1, When VGG is reverse biased and VDD is not applied, the depletion regions
between P and N layers tend to expand. This happens as the negative voltage applied,
attracts the holes from the p-type layer towards the gate terminal.
 In case 2, When VDD is applied
positiveterminaltodrainandnegativeterminaltosource
 andVGG is not applied, the electrons flow from source to drain which constitute the drain
current ID.

Let us now consider the following figure, to understand what happens when both the supplies are
given.

The supply at gate terminal makes the depletion layer grow and the voltage at drain terminal
allows the drain current from source to drain terminal. Suppose the point at source terminal is B
and the point at drain terminal is A, then the resistance of the channel will be such that the
voltage drop at the terminal A is greater than the voltage drop at the terminal B. Which means,

VA>VB

Hence the voltage drop is being progressive through the length of the channel. So, the reverse
biasing effect is stronger at drain terminal than at the source terminal. This is why the depletion
layer tends to penetrate more into the channel at point A than at point B, when both VGG and VDD
are applied. The following figure explains this.

51
Now that we have understood the behavior of FET, let us go through the real operation of FET.

Depletion Mode of Operation

As the width of depletion layer plays an important role in the operation of FET, the name
depletion mode of operation implies. We have another mode called enhancement mode of
operation, which will be discussed in the operation of MOSFETs. But JFETs have only
depletion mode of operation.

Let us consider that there is no potential applied between gate and source terminals and a
potential VDD is applied between drain and source. Now, a current ID flows from drain to source
terminal, at its maximum as the channel width is more. Let the voltage applied between gate and
source terminal VGG is reverse biased. This increases the depletion width, as discussed above. As
the layers grow, the cross-section of the channel decreases and hence the drain current ID also
decreases.

When this drain current is further increased, a stage occurs where both the depletion layers touch
each other, and prevent the current ID flow. This is clearly shown in the following figure.

52
The voltage at which both these depletion layers literally “touch” is called as “Pinch off
voltage”. It is indicated as VP. The drain current is literally nil at this point. Hence the drain
current is a function of reverse bias voltage at gate.

Since gate voltage controls the drain current, FET is called as the voltage controlled device.
This is more clearly understood from the drain characteristics curve.

Drain Characteristics of JFET

Let us try to summarize the function of FET through which we can obtain the characteristic
curve for drain of FET. The circuit of FET to obtain these characteristics is given below.

When the voltage between gate and source VGS is zero, or they are shorted, the current ID from
source to drain is also nil as there is no VDS applied. As the voltage between drain and source VDS

53
is increased, the current flow ID from source to drain increases. This increase in current is linear
up to a certain point A, known as Knee Voltage.

The gate terminals will be under reverse biased condition and as ID increases, the depletion
regions tend to constrict. This constriction is unequal in length making these regions come closer
at drain and farther at drain, which leads to pinch off voltage. The pinch off voltage is defined as
the minimum drain to source voltage where the drain current approaches a constant value
saturationvalue
. The point at which this pinch off voltage occurs is called as Pinch off point, denoted as B.

As VDS is further increased, the channel resistance also increases in such a way that ID practically
remains constant. The region BC is known as saturation region or amplifier region. All these
along with the points A, B and C are plotted in the graph below.

The drain characteristics are plotted for drain current ID against drain source voltage VDS for
different values of gate source voltage VGS. The overall drain characteristics for such various
input voltages is as given under.

54
As the negative gate voltage controls the drain current, FET is called as a Voltage controlled
device. The drain characteristics indicate the performance of a FET. The drain characteristics
plotted above are used to obtain the values of Drain resistance, Transconductance and
Amplification Factor.

Basic Electronics - MOSFET

FETs have a few disadvantages like high drain resistance, moderate input impedance and slower
operation. To overcome these disadvantages, the MOSFET which is an advanced FET is
invented.

MOSFET stands for Metal Oxide Silicon Field Effect Transistor or Metal Oxide Semiconductor
Field Effect Transistor. This is also called as IGFET meaning Insulated Gate Field Effect
Transistor. The FET is operated in both depletion and enhancement modes of operation. The
following figure shows how a practical MOSFET looks like.

55
Construction of a MOSFET
The construction of a MOSFET is a bit similar to the FET. An oxide layer is deposited on the
substrate to which the gate terminal is connected. This oxide layer acts as an insulator (sio 2
insulates from the substrate), and hence the MOSFET has another name as IGFET. In the
construction of MOSFET, a lightly doped substrate, is diffused with a heavily doped region.
Depending upon the substrate used, they are called as P-type and N-type MOSFETs.

The following figure shows the construction of a MOSFET.

The voltage at gate controls the operation of the MOSFET. In this case, both positive and
negative voltages can be applied on the gate as it is insulated from the channel. With negative
gate bias voltage, it acts as depletion MOSFET while with positive gate bias voltage it acts as
an Enhancement MOSFET.

56
Classification of MOSFETs

Depending upon the type of materials used in the construction, and the type of operation, the
MOSFETs are classified as in the following figure.

After the classification, let us go through the symbols of MOSFET.

The N-channel MOSFETs are simply called as NMOS. The symbols for N-channel MOSFET
are as given below.

57
The P-channel MOSFETs are simply called as PMOS. The symbols for P-channel MOSFET
are as given below.

Now, let us go through the constructional details of an N-channel MOSFET. Usually an

NChannel MOSFET is considered for explanation as this one is mostly used. Also, there is no
need to mention that the study of one type explains the other too.

Construction of N- Channel MOSFET

58
Let us consider an N-channel MOSFET to understand its working. A lightly doped P-type
substrate is taken into which two heavily doped N-type regions are diffused, which act as source
and drain. Between these two N+ regions, there occurs diffusion to form an Nchannel,
connecting drain and source.

A thin layer of Silicon dioxide (SiO2) is grown over the entire surface and holes are made to
draw ohmic contacts for drain and source terminals. A conducting layer of aluminum is laid
over the entire channel, upon this SiO2 layer from source to drain which constitutes the gate. The
SiO2 substrate is connected to the common or ground terminals.

Because of its construction, the MOSFET has a very less chip area than BJT, which is 5% of the
occupancy when compared to bipolar junction transistor. This device can be operated in modes.
They are depletion and enhancement modes. Let us try to get into the details.

59