Year 1​

Ability Enhancement Course

Environmental Science: Theory into Practice (I)

Unit 1 Introduction to Environmental Studies

• Multidisciplinary nature of environmental studies; components of

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environment:
atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere

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• Scope and importance; Concept of sustainability and sustainable

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development; Brief

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history of environmentalism.​
​

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Environment : An environment refers to the surrounding conditions,
influences, or factors affecting a system, organism, or process.
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The term Environment is derived from the French word ‘Environ’ which literally
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means ‘surrounding’. Anything and everything which surrounds us i.e. all living
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beings or biotic components (microbes, plants and animals) and non-living or

abiotic components (air, water, sunlight etc.) present in nature, form the
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environment.
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Environmental science is the study of the interactions between the

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Earth's natural environment and humans, and how these interactions

impact the environment. more scientific thinking
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Environmental Studies: Environmental study is a multidisciplinary subject

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which studies various dimensions (scientific, social, cultural, economic,

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political etc.) of the environment, its issues and challenges and tangible
solutions in a holistic way. It studies the human-environment interaction and
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its results at the micro and macro level. vast

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For example, suppose a river is getting polluted due to the discharge of

untreated wastewater into the river. The student of Environmental Science
will observe the causes, Physicochemical and biological changes within the
river water, its effect on the aquatic and adjoining ecosystem and scientific
mitigation measures for the river pollution. In addition to the above
dimensions, Environmental Studies will also observe the impact of the
pollution on the nearby population, their livelihood and culture etc.
Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies

Environmental studies is inherently multidisciplinary, encompassing aspects of

physical, chemical, biological, and social sciences. It integrates various disciplines to
understand and address environmental issues holistically. Key fields contributing to
environmental studies include:

1.​ Ecology - Examining interactions between organisms and their environment.

2.​ Geology - Understanding Earth's physical structure and processes.
3.​ Meteorology - Studying atmospheric phenomena and climate.

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4.​ Chemistry - Investigating the chemical composition and processes of natural

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resources.
5.​ Biology - Exploring the diversity and function of living organisms.

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6.​ Economics - Analyzing cost-benefit scenarios for sustainable practices.

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7.​ Sociology and Anthropology - Studying human behaviors and their impacts
on the environment.

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8.​ Political Science - Addressing policy-making and governance for
environmental protection.

Components of the Environment

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The environment is composed of four major components, each interacting to support
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life on Earth:
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1. Atmosphere
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The (Greek: Atmos means vapour) thin sheet of gaseous mixture which envelops the planet
earth is called the atmosphere.
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●​ The gaseous layer surrounding Earth.

(F

●​ Composed mainly of nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), and trace gases like
carbon dioxide, ozone, and water vapor.
A

●​ Functions:
B

○​ Regulates temperature (greenhouse effect).

B

○​ Provides oxygen for respiration and carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.

○​ Protects from harmful solar radiation through the ozone layer.
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●​ Environmental Concerns: Air pollution, global warming, and ozone

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depletion.

The rate of change of temperature with the altitude is called the lapse rate.

The atmosphere has been stratified into major four layers where temperature
decreases (negative lapse rate) or increases (positive lapse rate).

1.​ Troposphere: The altitude of this layer varies from 16 km at the equator to 8
km at the poles. The largest percentage of the air mass is found in this region.
 The upper layer is called the tropopause. Temperature decreases with an
increase in altitude (–6.4°C per km) in this layer and varies from 15°C (ground
Level) to – 56°C (tropopause).

2.​ Stratosphere: Temperature starts rising in this layer from tropopause (–56°C)
to stratopause (–2°C) as ozone (O3 ) layering the upper stratosphere absorbs
solar radiation and temperature rises. The ozone layer in this region absorbs
harmful UV radiation, particularly UV-B radiation (280 nm to 315 nm),
because of which life is possible on the earth’s surface.

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3.​ Mesosphere: Temperature starts decreasing again and reaches −96°C at the

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upper boundary of the layer i.e. mesopause. The density of air is very low and

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important chemical species found in this region are O2 + and NO+ which do

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not absorb much solar radiation. This causes the decline in ambient
temperature in this region.

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4.​ Thermosphere: Ionic oxygen atoms and other ions in this layer absorb

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short-wave solar radiation which increases the temperature in this layer
rapidly from −96°C (lower boundary) to 1200°C (upper layer).
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A
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A
B
B
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2. Hydrosphere
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(Greek: Hydro means water) Hydrosphere represents water masses on the planet present
in solid (ice cover, glaciers etc.), liquid (water bodies) and gaseous (water vapours) phases.
Hydrosphere covers almost three fourths of the total surface area of the earth.

●​ Includes all forms of water: oceans, rivers, lakes, glaciers, and groundwater.
●​ Covers about 71% of Earth’s surface.
●​ Essential for supporting life, regulating climate, and shaping landforms.
●​ Environmental Concerns: Water pollution, ocean acidification, and water
scarcity.
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3. Lithosphere

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Lithosphere is the outermost layer of the crust which represents the land mass of the
planet. It consists of rocks, soil, sediments and minerals

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RV
●​ The solid outer layer of Earth, including rocks, minerals, and soils.
●​ Provides essential resources like fossil fuels, metals, and fertile land for
agriculture. SU
●​ Environmental Concerns: Land degradation, deforestation, and soil erosion.
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4. Biosphere

●​ Encompasses all living organisms and their interactions with other

environmental components.
●​ Includes ecosystems ranging from forests to deserts, freshwater, and marine
systems.
●​ Environmental Concerns: Biodiversity loss, habitat destruction, and species
extinction.
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Scope and Importance of Environmental Studies
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Scope:
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1.​ Resource Conservation: Strategies to use natural resources like water, soil,
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and minerals sustainably.

2.​ Environmental Management: Addressing issues like pollution, deforestation,
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and urbanization.
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3.​ Biodiversity Protection: Preserving ecosystems and endangered species.

4.​ Environmental Policies: Formulating and implementing laws for sustainable
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development.
B

5.​ Environmental Education: Creating awareness and behavioral change in

society.
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Importance:

●​ Awareness Creation: Helps individuals understand the impact of their

actions on the environment.
●​ Problem-Solving: Provides tools to address environmental challenges.
●​ Future Planning: Supports strategies for sustainable living and development.
●​ Interconnected Understanding: Highlights the relationship between
ecological balance, economic stability, and social well-being.
Concept of Sustainability and Sustainable Development

Sustainability:

●​ The ability to maintain ecological balance by using resources in a way that

does not deplete them for future generations.

Sustainable Development:

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●​ Defined by the Brundtland Report (1987) as "development that meets the

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needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to

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meet their own needs."

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Key Principles of Sustainable Development:

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1.​ Environmental Protection: Minimizing pollution and conserving resources.
2.​ Economic Growth: Promoting equitable growth without harming ecosystems.
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3.​ Social Equity: Ensuring access to resources and opportunities for all.

Examples of Sustainable Practices:

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●​ Renewable energy (solar, wind).

●​ Water harvesting and recycling.
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●​ Sustainable agriculture and organic farming.

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●​ Green building technologies.

Brief History of Environmentalism

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1.​ Pre-Industrial Era:​

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○​ People lived in harmony with nature, relying on renewable resources.

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○​ Environmental changes were limited to localized impacts like

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deforestation for agriculture.

2.​ Industrial Revolution (18th-19th Century):​
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D

○​ Rapid industrialization caused large-scale deforestation, air, and water

pollution.
○​ Awareness began with the realization of resource depletion.
3.​ Early 20th Century:​

○​ Conservation movements emerged to protect forests and wildlife.

○​ Key figures like John Muir and Theodore Roosevelt promoted
environmental preservation.
rules and regulations
 4.​ Post-World War II:​

○​ Exponential industrial growth caused severe pollution and biodiversity

loss.
○​ Rachel Carson’s book Silent Spring (1962) raised awareness about the
harmful effects of pesticides.
5.​ Modern Environmentalism (1970s Onwards):​

○​ Establishment of global initiatives like Earth Day (1970). april 22

○​ Formation of environmental laws (e.g., Clean Air Act, Clean Water Act).

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○​ International agreements like the Kyoto Protocol and Paris Agreement

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aimed at mitigating climate change.

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6.​ 21st Century:​

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○​ Focus on climate change, renewable energy, and sustainable

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development.
○​ Global movements like Fridays for Future, led by Greta Thunberg,
emphasized youth engagement.
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“Earth provides enough to satisfy every man’s needs, but not every man’s greed.”
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World Wetlands Day - 2nd Feb World Environment Day - 5 th june
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Unit 2 Ecosystems
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• Definition and concept of Ecosystem

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• Structure of ecosystem (biotic and abiotic components); Functions of

Ecosystem:
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Physical (energy flow), Biological (food chains, food web, ecological

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succession), and
Biogeochemical (nutrient cycling) processes. Concepts of productivity,
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ecological
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pyramids and homeostasis

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• Types of Ecosystems: Tundra, Forest, Grassland, Desert, Aquatic (ponds,

streams,
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lakes, rivers , oceans, estuaries); importance and threats with relevant

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examples from
India
• Ecosystem services (Provisioning , Regulating, Cultural, and Supporting);
Ecosystem
preservation and conservation strategies; Basics of Ecosystem restoration.
Definition and Concept of Ecosystem

An ecosystem is a functional unit of nature where living organisms (biotic

components) and with non-living (abiotic) components interact with each other to
survive. The term was first coined by Arthur Tansley in 1935.

Key Features of an Ecosystem:

1.​ Interdependence: Organisms and their environment interact to maintain a

balance.

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2.​ Energy Flow: Sunlight is the primary energy source, which drives the system.
3.​ Material Cycling: Continuous cycling of nutrients ensures ecosystem

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stability.

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4.​ Dynamic Nature: Ecosystems are dynamic and change with time due to

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natural or human influences.

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Structure of Ecosystem SU
1. Biotic Components
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The living organisms in an ecosystem are classified into:

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●​ Producers (Autotrophs):
○​ Green plants, algae, and certain bacteria that convert solar energy into
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chemical energy via photosynthesis.

○​ Example: Phytoplankton in aquatic ecosystems.
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●​ Consumers (Heterotrophs):
○​ Depend on producers for food.
(F

○​ Classified into:
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■​ Primary Consumers (Herbivores): Feed directly on producers

(e.g., deer, grasshopper).
B

■​ Secondary Consumers (Carnivores): Feed on herbivores

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(e.g., frog, fox).

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■​ Tertiary Consumers: Feed on other carnivores (e.g., hawk).

●​ Decomposers:
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○​ Microorganisms like bacteria and fungi that break down dead organic
matter, recycling nutrients.

2. Abiotic Components

Non-living factors that influence the ecosystem:

●​ I. Climatic factors: e.g. Light, Temperature, Humidity, Rain etc.

 ●​ II. Edaphic factors: e.g. Soil, Organic and Inorganic components of soil,
Substratum etc.

Functions of Ecosystem

1. Physical Processes: Energy Flow

●​ The ecosystem operates on a unidirectional flow of energy, beginning from

the sun to producers and then to various trophic levels of consumers.

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●​ Laws of Thermodynamics in Energy Flow:

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○​ First Law: Energy is conserved but transformed (solar energy →

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chemical energy).

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○​ Second Law: Energy is lost as heat at each trophic level (~10% energy
transfer).

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2. Biological Processes:
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●​ Food Chains: A linear sequence showing energy transfer through different
trophic levels.
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○​ Example: Grass → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Hawk.
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●​ Food Web: A complex network of interconnected food chains within an

ecosystem.
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●​ Ecological Succession: The natural process by which ecosystems evolve

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over time.
○​ Primary Succession: Occurs on bare surfaces like rocks (e.g.,
volcanic eruptions).
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○​ Secondary Succession: Occurs in previously inhabited but disturbed

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areas (e.g., after forest fires).

A

3. Biogeochemical Processes (Nutrient Cycling):

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●​ Carbon Cycle: Circulation of carbon among atmosphere, organisms, and soil.

B

●​ Nitrogen Cycle: Fixation of atmospheric nitrogen by bacteria into usable

forms.
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●​ Water Cycle: Movement of water through evaporation, condensation, and

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precipitation.

read in detail from sol notes

Concepts in Ecosystems

1. Productivity:
 ●​ Primary Productivity: The rate at which producers convert solar energy into
biomass.
○​ Gross Primary Productivity (GPP): Total energy captured.
○​ Net Primary Productivity (NPP): Energy available to consumers
(GPP - respiration).
●​ Secondary Productivity: Biomass generation by consumers.

2. Ecological Pyramids:

●​ Pyramid of Numbers: Number of organisms at each trophic level.

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●​ Pyramid of Biomass: Biomass at each trophic level (e.g., forests have

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inverted pyramids).
●​ Pyramid of Energy: Energy flow; always upright.

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detail

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3. Homeostasis:

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●​ Ecosystems maintain balance through feedback mechanisms (e.g.,
predator-prey dynamics).
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Types of Ecosystems
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1. Tundra:
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●​ Features: Cold climate, permafrost, low vegetation.

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●​ Example in India: Himalayan Tundra.

●​ Threats: Climate change and melting permafrost.
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2. Forest:
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●​ Features: Dense vegetation, high biodiversity.

A

●​ Example in India: Western Ghats, Sundarbans (mangroves).

B

●​ Threats: Deforestation, habitat destruction.

B

3. Grassland:
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●​ Features: Dominance of grasses, low rainfall.

D

●​ Example in India: Terai grasslands.

●​ Threats: Overgrazing, land conversion.

4. Desert:

●​ Features: Arid regions with low precipitation.

●​ Example in India: Thar Desert.
●​ Threats: Desertification due to overexploitation.
5. Aquatic Ecosystems:

●​ Freshwater:
○​ Ponds, lakes, rivers (e.g., Dal Lake in Kashmir, Ganges River).
○​ Threats: Pollution, eutrophication.
●​ Marine:
○​ Oceans and coastal areas like estuaries.
○​ Example: Gulf of Mannar (India).
○​ Threats: Coral bleaching, overfishing.

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Ecosystem Services

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1. Provisioning Services:

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●​ Supply of resources like food, water, timber, and medicine.
●​ Example: Fishing in Chilika Lake, Odisha.

2. Regulating Services: SU
●​ Climate regulation, water purification, and flood control.
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●​ Example: Sundarbans mangroves acting as a storm barrier.
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B

3. Cultural Services:
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●​ Aesthetic, spiritual, and recreational benefits.

●​ Example: Ecotourism in Kaziranga National Park.
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4. Supporting Services:
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●​ Processes like nutrient cycling and soil formation.

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●​ Example: Fertility of Indo-Gangetic plain soils due to river sediments.

B
B

Ecosystem Preservation and Conservation Strategies

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D

1.​ Biosphere Reserves: Protecting large ecosystems (e.g., Nilgiri Biosphere

Reserve).
2.​ Wildlife Sanctuaries and National Parks: Safeguarding habitats (e.g., Gir
National Park for Asiatic lions).
3.​ Afforestation and Reforestation: Increasing forest cover.
4.​ Sustainable Resource Use: Balancing development and conservation.
5.​ Pollution Control: Implementing policies to reduce pollution.
Basics of Ecosystem Restoration

●​ Definition: The process of assisting in the recovery of ecosystems that have

been degraded or destroyed.
●​ Strategies:
○​ Removing invasive species.
○​ Replanting native vegetation.
○​ Rehabilitating degraded wetlands and rivers.
○​ Community participation in conservation projects.

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Unit 3 Natural Resources

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• Land resources: Minerals, soil, agricultural crops, natural forest products,
medicinal
plants, and forest-based industries and livelihoods; Land cover, land use
change, land SU
degradation, soil erosion , and desertification; Causes of deforestation;
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Impacts of
mining and dam building on environment, forests, biodiversity, and tribal
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communities.
B

• Water resources: Natural and man-made sources; Uses of water; Over

exploitation
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of surface and ground water resources; Floods, droughts, and international

&inter-
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state conflicts over water.

• Energy resources: Renewable and non-renewable energy sources; Use of
(F

alternate
A

energy sources; Growing energy needs; Energy contents of coal, petroleum,

B

natural
gas and bio gas; Agro-residues as a biomass energy source
B

• Case studies: Contemporary Indian issues related to mining, dams, forests,

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energy,
D

etc (e.g ., National Solar Mission, Cauvery river water conflict, Sardar Sarovar
dam,
Chipko movement, Appiko movement, Tarun Bharat Sangh, etc)
Land Resources

Land resources are fundamental for human sustenance and economic

development. They include minerals, soil, agricultural crops, forests, medicinal
plants, and other natural resources derived from land.

Key Land Resources

1.​ Minerals:​

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○​ Used in industries, construction, and technology.
○​ Examples: Iron ore, bauxite, limestone, coal.

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○​ Concerns: Mining causes land degradation and habitat destruction.

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2.​ Soil:​

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○​ Supports agriculture and forestry.

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○​ Types in India: Alluvial (Indo-Gangetic plains), black (Deccan plateau),
red (southern plateau), and laterite soils.
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○​ Concerns: Soil erosion, loss of fertility, and contamination from
chemicals.
3.​ Agricultural Crops:​
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○​ India’s major crops include rice, wheat, sugarcane, cotton, and pulses.
B

○​ Concerns: Unsustainable farming practices leading to salinization and

nutrient depletion.
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4.​ Natural Forest Products:​

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○​ Timber, bamboo, resin, and other raw materials.

○​ Example: Teak and sandalwood forests in India.
(F

○​ Concerns: Overexploitation and illegal logging.

A

5.​ Medicinal Plants:​

B

○​ Examples: Neem, Tulsi, Aloe Vera, and Ashwagandha.

B

○​ Concerns: Loss of biodiversity due to deforestation.

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6.​ Forest-Based Industries and Livelihoods:​

D

○​ Examples: Paper, furniture, and rubber industries.

○​ Millions of tribal communities rely on forests for their livelihood.

Land Cover and Land Use Change

●​ Land Cover: Refers to natural vegetation, water bodies, or artificial structures

present on land.
 ●​ Land Use Change: Conversion of forests, grasslands, and wetlands to
agriculture or urban areas due to industrialization, population growth, and
urban sprawl.

Land Degradation, Soil Erosion, and Desertification

1.​ Land Degradation:​

○​ Reduction in land productivity due to deforestation, mining, or industrial

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pollution.

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2.​ Soil Erosion:​

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○​ Loss of topsoil due to wind or water.
○​ Causes: Overgrazing, deforestation, and improper farming practices.

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3.​ Desertification:​

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○​ Degradation of arid and semi-arid lands into deserts.
○​ Example: Rajasthan and Gujarat are prone to desertification.
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M

Deforestation: Causes and Impacts

B

●​ Causes:​
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1.​ Agricultural expansion.

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2.​ Logging for timber.

3.​ Infrastructure development (roads, dams).
(F

4.​ Urbanization.
A

●​ Impacts:​
B

1.​ Loss of biodiversity and wildlife habitats.

B

2.​ Climate change due to increased carbon dioxide levels.

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3.​ Soil erosion and loss of fertility.

4.​ Displacement of tribal communities.
D

Mining and Dam Building: Environmental and Social Impacts

1.​ Mining: Mining is the process of extracting useful materials from the earth.
Some examples of substances that are mined include coal, gold, or iron ore.
 ​

○​ Impacts on Environment:
■​ Deforestation, habitat destruction, and water pollution.
○​ Impacts on Communities:
■​ Displacement of tribal populations, loss of livelihood.

2.​ Dam Building: Dam building is the process of constructing a barrier

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across a river, stream, or estuary to store water and control its flow​

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○​ Examples in India: Sardar Sarovar Dam, Tehri Dam.

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○​ Impacts:
■​ Environment: Loss of forests and wetlands, biodiversity

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reduction.
■​ Social: Displacement of local communities, conflicts over water
sharing. SU
○​ Example: Narmada Bachao Andolan protested against displacement
due to Sardar Sarovar Dam.
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M
B

Water Resources
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Water is a critical resource for life and economic development. It is sourced from
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rivers, lakes, groundwater, and artificial reservoirs.

(F

Natural and Man-Made Sources of Water

A

1.​ Natural: Rivers, lakes, aquifers, glaciers.

B

2.​ Man-Made: Dams, canals, and tanks.

B

Uses of Water
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●​ Domestic: Drinking, sanitation, and cooking.

D

●​ Agricultural: Irrigation, consuming about 80% of water in India.

●​ Industrial: Cooling, washing, and as a raw material in certain industries.

Over exploitation of Water Resources

●​ Surface Water: Excessive withdrawal from rivers and lakes.

●​ Groundwater: Over-pumping for irrigation has led to aquifer depletion.
 ●​ Consequences: Declining water tables, saline intrusion, and drying rivers.

Floods, Droughts, and Water Conflicts

1.​ Floods:​

○​ Causes: Heavy rainfall, dam failure, encroachment of floodplains.

○​ Example: Assam floods.
2.​ Droughts:​

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○​ Causes: Prolonged dry spells, deforestation, over-irrigation.

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○​ Example: Marathwada drought in Maharashtra.

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3.​ Water Conflicts:​

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○​ Interstate: Cauvery River water dispute (Karnataka and Tamil Nadu).
○​ International: Indus Water Treaty between India and Pakistan.
SU
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Energy Resources​
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An energy resource is a material that can be used to produce energy, such

B

as heat, electricity, or power for moving objects.

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Types of Energy Resources

1.​ Renewable: Solar, wind, hydro, geothermal, and biomass.

IA

2.​ Non-Renewable: Coal, petroleum, and natural gas.

(F

Alternate Energy Sources

A

●​ Solar, wind, and tidal energy are promoted under the National Solar Mission
B

and other programs.

B

●​ Example: India's largest solar park in Bhadla, Rajasthan.

U

Energy Contents of Fossil Fuels and Biomass

D

●​ Coal: High energy content but causes significant pollution.

●​ Petroleum: Versatile but non-renewable and polluting.
●​ Natural Gas: Cleaner than coal and petroleum.
●​ Biogas: Produced from organic waste; an eco-friendly option.
●​ Agro-Residues: Straw, husks, and shells are used as biomass energy
sources.
Growing Energy Needs

India’s rapid economic growth has led to an increasing demand for energy.
Transitioning to renewable sources is crucial for sustainability.

Case Studies: Contemporary Indian Issues

1.​ National Solar Mission:​

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○​ Launched in 2010 to promote solar energy.

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○​ Target: Achieve 100 GW solar power capacity by 2022.

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2.​ Cauvery River Water Conflict:​

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○​ Dispute between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu over water sharing.

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3.​ Sardar Sarovar Dam:​

○​ Part of the Narmada Valley Project.SU

○​ Environmentalists raised concerns about displacement and loss of
biodiversity.
S
4.​ Chipko Movement (1970s):​
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B

○​ Forest conservation movement in Uttarakhand.

○​ Villagers, led by women, hugged trees to prevent their felling.
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5.​ Appiko Movement (1983):​

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○​ Inspired by Chipko, aimed to save forests in Karnataka.

6.​ Tarun Bharat Sangh (1990s):​
(F
A

○​ A water conservation movement led by Rajendra Singh in Rajasthan.

○​ Revived traditional water harvesting structures like johads.
B
B

Unit 4 Environmental Pollution

U
D

• Environmental pollution (Air, water, soil, thermal, and noise): causes, effects,
and
controls; Primary and secondary air pollutants; Air and water quality
standards
• Nuclear hazards and human health risks
• Solid waste management: Control measures for various types of urban,
industrial
waste, Hazardous waste, E-waste, etc; Waste segregation and disposal
• Pollution case studies: Ganga Action plan (GAP}, Delhi air pollution and
public health
issues, Plastic waste management rules, Bhopal gas tragedy, etc

Environmental Pollution

Environmental pollution refers to the contamination of natural resources such as air,

water, soil, and ecosystems, causing adverse effects on living organisms and the

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environment. The major types of pollution are air, water, soil, thermal, and noise

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pollution.

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Types of Pollution

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1. Air Pollution

Causes:
SU
S
1.​ Natural Causes:
○​ Volcanic eruptions release sulfur dioxide and ash.
M

○​ Forest fires and pollen release.

B

2.​ Anthropogenic Causes:

○​ Primary Pollutants: Directly emitted into the air:
)&

■​ Carbon monoxide (CO) from vehicles.

■​ Sulfur dioxide (SO₂) from coal-burning industries.
IA

■​ Particulate matter (PM) from construction and mining activities.

(F

○​ Secondary Pollutants: Formed by chemical reactions in the

atmosphere:
A

■​ Ozone (O₃) and smog from vehicle emissions reacting with

B

sunlight.
B

■​ Acid rain (SO₂ and NO₂ combining with water vapor).

U

Effects:
D

●​ Health: Respiratory diseases (asthma, bronchitis), cardiovascular issues.

●​ Environment: Acid rain damages crops, aquatic life, and buildings.
●​ Global Issues: Greenhouse gases contribute to climate change.

Controls:

●​ Adoption of clean energy sources like solar and wind.

●​ Strict enforcement of vehicular emission standards (e.g., Bharat Stage VI in
India).
 ●​ Plantation of trees to act as carbon sinks.

Air Quality Standards:

●​ National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) in India regulate pollutants

like PM2.5, PM10, SO₂, NO₂, and O₃.

2. Water Pollution

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Causes:

R
1.​ Discharge of untreated sewage into rivers.

O
2.​ Industrial effluents containing heavy metals and toxic chemicals.

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3.​ Agricultural runoff with pesticides and fertilizers.
4.​ Oil spills in oceans and marine dumping.

RV
Effects:

SU
●​ Health: Spread of waterborne diseases like cholera and dysentery.
●​ Ecosystem Damage: Eutrophication from excess nutrients leads to algal
S
blooms and oxygen depletion in water bodies.
●​ Biodiversity Loss: Aquatic organisms suffer due to reduced oxygen levels.
M
B

Controls:
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●​ Installation of effluent treatment plants (ETPs).

●​ Strict enforcement of water quality standards by agencies like the Central
IA

Pollution Control Board (CPCB).

●​ Promotion of rainwater harvesting and recycling.
(F

Water Quality Standards:

A
B

●​ Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS): Defines acceptable limits for

contaminants like heavy metals, pathogens, and dissolved oxygen.
B
U
D

3. Soil Pollution

Causes:

1.​ Excessive use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides.

2.​ Industrial waste dumping and mining activities.
3.​ Oil spills and improper waste management.
4.​ Urbanization leading to construction debris.
Effects:

●​ Reduced soil fertility and crop productivity.

●​ Contamination of groundwater through leaching.
●​ Bioaccumulation of harmful substances in food chains.

Controls:

●​ Promotion of organic farming and natural pest control methods.

●​ Implementation of soil conservation techniques like contour plowing and
reforestation.

S
●​ Regulating industrial waste disposal.

R
O
IV
4. Thermal Pollution

RV
Causes:

SU
●​ Discharge of heated water from power plants and industries into natural water
bodies.
●​ Deforestation reduces shade and raises temperatures in ecosystems.
S
Effects:
M
B

●​ Decreased dissolved oxygen levels in water, harming aquatic organisms.

●​ Disruption of aquatic ecosystems and migration of species.
)&

Controls:
IA

●​ Use of cooling towers and recycling heat energy.

(F

●​ Regulation of industrial water discharge temperatures.

A
B

5. Noise Pollution
B

Causes:
U
D

1.​ Urban traffic, construction activities, and industrial machinery.

2.​ Loudspeakers, music systems, and fireworks.

Effects:

●​ Health: Hearing loss, stress, hypertension, and sleep disturbances.

●​ Environment: Disturbance to wildlife, affecting reproduction and migration.

Controls:
 ●​ Imposing noise limits in residential and industrial zones.
●​ Encouraging the use of soundproof materials and green belts.

Primary and Secondary Air Pollutants

Primary Pollutants:

●​ Emitted directly into the atmosphere.

○​ Examples: CO, SO₂, NO₂, PM10, lead.

S
R
Secondary Pollutants:

O
●​ Formed through reactions of primary pollutants.

IV
○​ Examples: Ozone (O₃), smog, and acid rain.

RV
Nuclear Hazards and Human Health Risks SU
Causes:
S
M

1.​ Nuclear accidents (e.g., Chernobyl, Fukushima).

B

2.​ Improper disposal of radioactive waste.

3.​ Exposure to nuclear weapons testing.
)&

Effects:
IA

●​ Acute radiation syndrome leading to skin burns and organ damage.

●​ Long-term health issues like cancer and genetic mutations.
(F

●​ Contamination of soil and water, affecting biodiversity.

A

Controls:
B
B

●​ Strict safety protocols in nuclear plants.

●​ Safe disposal methods for radioactive waste.
U

●​ International treaties like the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT).

D

Solid Waste Management

Types of Solid Waste:

1.​ Urban Waste: Food scraps, plastics, paper, and glass.

2.​ Industrial Waste: Sludge, chemicals, and metal scraps.
 3.​ Hazardous Waste: Toxic chemicals, flammable materials.
4.​ E-Waste: Discarded electronics like computers and mobile phones.

Control Measures:

1.​ Waste Segregation:

○​ Separating waste into biodegradable, recyclable, and hazardous
categories.
2.​ Waste Disposal Methods:
○​ Landfills: Scientific methods to prevent leachate contamination.

S
○​ Incineration: Reduces waste volume but requires air pollution control.

R
○​ Composting: Biodegradable waste converted into manure.
3.​ Recycling and Reuse:

O
○​ Promoting circular economies and reducing landfill burden.

IV
4.​ E-Waste Management:
○​ Proper recycling of components and safe disposal of toxic materials.

RV
Pollution Case Studies
SU
S
1. Ganga Action Plan (GAP):
M

●​ Launched: 1986.
B

●​ Objective: Reduce pollution and rejuvenate the Ganges River.

)&

●​ Challenges:
○​ Lack of sewage treatment plants.
○​ Industrial effluents and agricultural runoff.
IA
(F
A

2. Delhi Air Pollution:

B

●​ Causes:
B

○​ Vehicular emissions, construction dust, stubble burning, and fireworks.

●​ Effects:
U

○​ Increased respiratory diseases, especially during winters (smog).

D

●​ Measures Taken:
○​ Odd-even vehicle scheme, ban on crackers, and promotion of CNG
vehicles.

3. Plastic Waste Management Rules:

●​ Introduced: 2016, amended in 2021.

 ●​ Key Provisions:
○​ Ban on single-use plastics.
○​ Producers held responsible for recycling.
●​ Challenges: Lack of infrastructure and public awareness.

4. Bhopal Gas Tragedy:

●​ Date: December 3, 1984.

●​ Incident: Leakage of methyl isocyanate (MIC) gas from Union Carbide's plant

S
in Bhopal.

R
●​ Impacts:

O
○​ Over 15,000 deaths, with survivors facing chronic illnesses.

IV
○​ Environmental contamination of soil and water.
●​ Lessons Learned: Importance of industrial safety and disaster preparedness.

RV
SU
S
M
B
)&
IA
(F
A
B
B
U
D