o We call these broad types of biological

communities as biomes.
o Our ability to restore ecosystems and nature’s
ability to restore itself, depend largely on
biome conditions. Clear-cut forests regrow
relatively quickly in New England, but very
slowly in Siberia, where current logging is
Traditional outrigger canoes and hand lines are still
expanding. Some grasslands rejuvenate
used by
quickly after grazing, and some are slower to
villagers
recover. Why these differences?
on
o Most important determinants in biome
many
distribution on land (fig. 5.2).
islands
1. Temperature
in the
2. Precipitation
southwestern Pacific, but these low-impact fishing
o Landforms, especially mountains, and
methods are being threatened by trawlers,
dynamite fishing, and other destructive prevailing winds also exert important
techniques. influences on biological communities.
o Because the earth is cooler at high latitudes
(away from the equator), many temperature-
controlled biomes occur in latitudinal bands.
For example, a band of boreal (northern)
forests crosses
o Canada and Siberia, tropical forests occur
near the equator, and expansive grasslands
lie near—or just beyond—the tropics (fig.
5.3).
Case Study: Saving the reefs of Apo Island
FIGURE 5.1 Coral reefs are among the most
beautiful, species-rich, and productive biological
communities on the planet. They serve as the
nurseries for many open-water species. At least half
the world’s reefs are threatened by pollution, global
climate change, destructive fishing methods, and
other human activities, but they can be protected
and restored if we care for them.

FIGURE 5.3 Major world biomes. Compare this

map to figure 5.2 for generalized temperature
and moisture conditions that control biome
distribution. Also compare it to the satellite image
of biological productivity (fig 5.13).

TERRESTIAL BIOMES o Temperature and precipitation change

o Although all local environments are unique, with elevation as well as with latitude.
o In mountainous regions, temperatures
are cooler and precipitation is usually
greater at high elevations.
it is helpful to understand them in terms of a
general groups with similar climate conditions,
growth patterns,and vegetation types.
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 o Communities can transition quickly from TROPICAL MOIST FORESTS ARE WARN AND WET YEAR- ROUND

warm and dry to cold and wet as you go o The humid tropical regions of the world
up a mountain. support one of the most complex and
Vertical zonation - is a term applied to biologically rich biome types in the world (fig.
vegetation zones defined by altitude. Ocean 5.5).
environments are important because they o Although there are several kinds of moist
cover two-thirds of the earth’s surface, tropical forests, they share common attributes
provide food for much of humanity, and help of ample rainfall and uniform temperatures.
regulate our climate through photosynthesis. Cool cloud forests are found high in the
mountains where fog and mist keep
vegetation wet all the time.
o Tropical rainforests occur where rainfall is
abundant—more than 200 cm (80 in.) per
year— and temperatures are warm to hot
year-round.
TROPICAl SEASONAL FORESTS HAVE ANNUAL DRY SEASON

o Many tropical regions are characterized by

distinct wet and dry seasons, although
temperatures remain hot year-round.
o These areas support tropical seasonal
forests: drought-tolerant forests that look
brown and dormant in the dry season but
burst into vivid green during rainy months.
o These forests are often called dry tropical
FIGURE 5.4 Vegetation changes with
elevation because temperatures are lower forests - because they are dry much of the
and precipitation is greater high on a year; however, there must be ome periodic
mountainside. A 100 km transect from rain to support tree growth. Many of the trees
Fresno, California, to Mt. Whitney and shrubs in a seasonal forest are drought
(California’s highest point) crosses vegetation deciduous: They lose their leaves and cease
zones similar to about seven different biome growing when no water is available.
types.

FIGURE 5.5 Tropical rainforests have FIGURE 5.6 Tropical savannas and grasslands
luxuriant and diverse plant growth. Heavy experience annual drought and rainy seasons and
rainfall in most months, shown in climate year-round warm temperatures. Thorny acacias and
graph, supports this growth. abundant grazers thrive in this savanna. Yellow
areas show moisture deficit.
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Seasonal forests - are often open woodlands that long droughts, extreme heat, and often
grade into savannas Where there is too little rainfall extreme cold.
to support forests, we find open grasslands or o Deserts occur where precipitation is rare and
grasslands with sparse tree cover, which we call unpredictable, usually with less than 30 cm
savannas (fig. 5.6). of rain per year.
o Adaptations to these conditions include
water-storing leaves and stems, thick
epidermal layers to reduce water loss, and
salt tolerance.
o Many animals are nocturnal, spending their
days in burrows to avoid the sun’s heat and
desiccation.
o Pocket mice, kangaroo rats, and gerbils
can get most of their moisture from seeds and
plants.
o Desert rodents also have highly
concentrated urine and nearly dry feces
FIGURE 5.8 Grasslands occur at midlatitudes on all that allow them to eliminate body waste
continents. Kept open by extreme temperatures, dry without losing precious moisture.
conditions, and periodic fires, grasslands can have
surprisingly high plant and animal diversity.
TEMPERATE GRASSLANDS HAVE RICH SOILS

o As in tropical latitudes, temperate

(midlatitude) grasslands occur where there is
enough rain to support abundant grass but
not enough for forests (fig. 5.8).
o Usually grasslands are a complex, diverse
mix of grasses and flowering herbaceous
plants, generally known as forbs.
o Myriad flowering forbs make a grassland
FIGURE 5.9 Temperate deciduous forests
colorful and lovely in summer.
have year-round precipitation and winters
o In dry grasslands, vegetation may be less
near or below freezing
than a meter tall.
o In more humid areas, grasses can exceed 2 Temperate forests can be evergreen or
m. deciduous
o Where scattered trees occur in a grassland,
o In general, we can group these forests by tree
we call it a savanna.
type, which can be broad-leaf deciduous
o Deep roots help plants in temperate
(losing leaves seasonally) or evergreen
grasslands and savannas survive drought,
coniferous (cone-bearing).
fire, and extreme heat and cold. These roots,
together with an annual winter accumulation Deciduous Forests
of dead leaves on the surface, produce thick,
organic-rich soils in temperate grasslands. o Broad-leaf forests occur throughout the world
where rainfall is plentiful.

DESERTS ARE HOT OR COLD BUT ALWAYS DRY

o Their vegetation is sparse, but it can be In midlatitudes - these forests are deciduous
surprisingly diverse, and most desert plants and lose their leaves in winter. The loss of green
and animals are highly adapted to survive
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 chlorophyll pigments can produce brilliant FIGURE 5.11 Boreal forests have moderate
colors in these forests in autumn (fig. 5.9). precipitation but are often moist because
At lower latitudes- broad-leaf forest may be temperatures are cold most of the year. Cold-
evergreen or drought-deciduous. tolerant and drought-tolerant conifers dominate
CANIFEROUS FORESTS
boreal forests and taiga, the forest fringe.

o Often they occur where moisture is limited:

BOREAL FORESTS OCCUR AT HIGH LATITUDES
o In cold climates, moisture is unavailable
(frozen) in winter; hot climates may have o Because conifers can survive winter
seasonal drought; sandy soils hold little cold, they tend to dominate the boreal
moisture, and they are often occupied by forest, or northern forests, that lie
conifers. between about 50° and 60° north (fig.
o Thin, waxy leaves(needles) help these trees 5.11).
reduce moisture loss. o Mountainous areas at lower latitudes may
o Coniferous forests provide most wood also have many characteristics and
products in North America. species of the boreal forest.
o The coniferous forests of the Pacific coast o Dominant trees are pines, hemlocks,
grow in extremely wet conditions. spruce, cedar, and fir.
o The wettest coastal forests are known as o Some deciduous trees are also present,
o temperate rainforest - a cool, rainy forest such as maples, birch, aspen, and alder.
often enshrouded in fog (fig. 5.10). o These forests are slow-growing because
of the cold temperatures and a short frost-
free growing season, but they are still an
expansive resource.
o In Siberia, Canada, and the western
United States, large regional economies
depend on boreal forests.
o The extreme, ragged edge of the boreal
forest, where forest gradually gives way to
open tundra, is known by its
o Russian name, taiga. Here extreme cold
and short summer limits the growth rate of
trees. A 10 cm diameter tree may be over
200 years old in the farnorth.

FIGURE 5.10 Temperature rainforests have

abundant but often seasonal precipitation that
supports magnificent trees and luxuriant
understory vegetation. Often these forests
experience dry summers.

FIGURE 5.12 This landscape in Canada’s

Northwest Territories has both alpine and arctic
tundra. Plant diversity is relatively low and frost
can occur even in summer.
Tundra can freeze in any month

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 o Where temperatures are below freezing o Ocean currents also contribute to the
most of the year, only small, hardy distribution of biological productivity, as
vegetation can survive. they transport nutrients and
o Tundra = a treeless landscape that phytoplankton far from shore (fig. 5.13).
occurs at high latitudes or on
mountaintops, has a growing season of
only two to three months, and it may have
frost any month of the year.
o Some people consider tundra a variant of
grasslands because it has no trees;
others consider it a very cold desert
because water is unavailable (frozen)
most of the year.
o Arctic tundra is an expansive biome
that has low productivity because it has a FIGURE 5.14 Light penetrates
short growing season (fig. 5.12). During
midsummer, however, 24-hour sunshine o As plankton, algae, fish, and other
supports a burst of plant growth and an organisms die, they sink toward the ocean
explosion of insect life. floor.
o Light decreases rapidly with depth, and
communities below the photic zone (light
zone, often reaching about 20 m deep)
must rely on energy sources other than
photosynthesis to persist. Temperature
also decreases with depth.
o Deep-ocean species often grow slowly
in part because metabolism is reduced in
cold conditions.
FIGURE 5.13 Satellite measurements of o In contrast, warm, bright, near-surface
chlorophyll levels in the oceans and on land. communities such as coral reefs and
Dark green to blue land areas have high estuaries are among the world’s most
biological productivity. Dark blue oceans have biologically productive environments.
little chlorophyll and are biologically o Temperature also affects the amount of
impoverished. Light green to yellow ocean zones oxygen and other elements that can be
are biologically rich. absorbed in water.
Marine Ecosystem o Cold water holds abundant oxygen, so
productivity is often high in cold oceans
o Oceans cover nearly three-fourths of the
o Ocean systems can be described by
earth’s surface.
depth and proximity to shore (fig. 5.14).
o Like land-based systems, most marine
o In general, benthic communities occur on
communities depend on photosynthetic
the bottom, and pelagic
organisms.
(from “sea” in Greek) zones are the
o Often it is algae or tiny, free-floating
water column.
photosynthetic plants (phytoplankton)
that support a marine food web, rather
than the trees and grasses we see on
land.

o In oceans, photosynthetic activity tends

to be greatest near coastlines, where o The epipelagic zone (epi = on top) has
nitrogen, phosphorus, and other photosynthetic organisms.
nutrients wash offshore and fertilize
primary producers.
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 o Below this are the mesopelagic (meso = o are trees that grow in salt water.
medium), and bathypelagic (bathos = o They occur along calm, shallow,
deep) zones. tropical coastlines around the
o The deepest layers are the abyssal zone world (fig. 5.16b).
(to 4,000 m) and hadal zone o Mangrove forests or swamps
(deeper than 6,000 m). help stabilize shorelines, and they
o Shorelines are known as littoral zones, are also critical nurseries for fish,
and the area exposed by low tides is shrimp, and other commercial
known as the intertidal zone. species.
o Unlike reefs, mangroves provide
commercial timber, and they can
be clear-cut to make room for
aquaculture (fish farming) and
other activities.

CORAL REEFS ESTUARIES

o are among the best-known marine

ecosystems because of their
extraordinary biological productivity
and their diverse and beautiful
organisms.
o Reefs - are aggregations of minute
colonial animals (coral polyps) that
live symbiotically with photosynthetic
algae.
o Calcium-rich coral skeletons build
up to make reefs, atolls, and islands
(fig. 5.16a).
o Reefs protect shorelines and shelter
countless species of fish, worms,
crustaceans, and other life-forms.
o Destructive fishing practices can
damage or destroy coral
communities.
o In addition, polluted urban runoff,
trash, sewage and industrial effluent,
sediment from agriculture, and
unsustainable forestry are smothering
coral reefs along coastlines that have
high human populations.
o Perhaps the greatest threat to reefs
is global warming.
o Elevated water temperatures cause
coral bleaching = in which corals
expel their algal partner and then die.

MANGROVES

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 o are bays where rivers empty into the sea,
mixing fresh water with salt water.
o Salt marshes, shallow wetlands
flooded regularly or occasionally
with seawater, occur on shallow
coastlines, including estuaries
(fig. 5.16)
o Usually calm, warm, and FIGURE 5.19 The layers of a deep lake are
nutrientrich, estuaries and salt determined mainly by gradients of light, oxygen,
marshes are biologically diverse and temperature. The epilimnion is affected by
and productive. surface by mixing from wind and thermal
convections, while mixing between the hypolimnion
o Rivers provide nutrients and and epilimnion is inhibited by a sharp temperature
sediments, and a muddy bottom and density difference at the thermocline.
supports emergent plants (whose FRESH WATER ECOSYSTEM
leaves emerge above the water
surface), as well as the young o Freshwater environments are far less
forms of crustaceans, such as extensive than marine environments, but
crabs and shrimp, and they are centers of biodiversity.
mollusks, such as clams and o Most terrestrial communities rely, to some
oysters. extent, on freshwater environments.
o In deserts, isolated pools, streams, and even
o Tide pools are depressions in a
underground water systems, support
rocky shoreline that are flooded at
astonishing biodiversity as well as provide
high tide but retain some water at
water to land animals.
low tide. These areas remain
Lakes have open water
rocky where wave action prevents
o Freshwater lakes, like marine environments,
most plant growth or sediment
have distinct vertical zones (fig. 5.19).
(mud) accumulation.
BARRIER ISLANDS

o are low, narrow, sandy islands that form

parallel to a coastline (fig. 5.17).
o They occur where the continental shelf is
shallow and rivers or coastal currents provide
a steady source of sediments.
o They protect brackish (moderately salty),
inshore lagoons and salt marshes from
storms, waves, and tides. o FIGURE 5.20 The character of freshwater
o One of the world’s most extensive sets of ecosystems is greatly influenced by the
barrier islands lines the Atlantic coast from immediately surrounding terrestrial
New England to Florida, as well as along ecosystems and even by ecosystems far
the Gulf coast of Texas. upstream or far uphill from a particular site.
o Composed of sand that is constantly - Near the surface a subcommunity of
reshaped by wind and waves, these islands plankton, mainly microscopic plants,
can be formed or removed Buy a single animals, and protists (single-celled
violent storm. organisms such as amoebae), float freely in
o Because they are mostly beach, barrier the water column.
islands are also popular places for real - Insects such as water striders and
estate development. mosquitoes also live at the airwater
interface.
- Fish move through the water column,
sometimes near the surface, and sometimes
at depth.
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 o Finally, the bottom, or benthos, is occupied by sandy, or rocky floor
a variety of snails, burrowing worms, fish, and (7) internal currents
other organisms. (8) connections to, or isolation from, other
o These make up the benthic community. aquatic and terrestrial systems (fig. 5.20).
Oxygen levels are lowest in the benthic
environment, mainly because there is little
mixing to introduce oxygen to this zone.
o Anaerobic bacteria (not using oxygen) may
live in low-oxygen sediments.
o In the littoral zone, emergent plants such as
cattails and rushes grow in the bottom
sediment. These plants create important Wetlands are shallow and productive
functional links between layers of an aquatic Wetlands - are shallow ecosystems in which
ecosystem, and they may provide the the land surface is saturated or submerged
greatest primary productivity to the system. at least part of the year.
o Lakes, unless they are shallow, have a Wetlands have vegetation that is adapted to
warmer upper layer that is mixed by wind and grow under saturated conditions. Wetlands
warmed by the sun. This layer is the are described by their vegetation.
epilimnion. Swamps = are wetlands with trees (fig.
o Below the epilimnion is the hypolimnion 5.21a).
(hypo = below), a colder, deeper layer that is Marshes = are wetlands without trees (fig.
not mixed. If you have gone swimming in a 5.21b).
moderately deep lake, you may have
discovered the sharp temperature boundary,
known as the thermocline, between these
layers.
o Below this boundary, the water is much
colder. This boundary is also called the
mesolimnion.

Bogs - are areas of saturated ground,

and usually the ground is composed of
deep layers of accumulated,
undecayed vegetation known as peat.
Are fed mainly by precipitation.
Fens - are similar to bogs except that
FIGURE 5.20 The character of freshwater
they are mainly fed by groundwater, so
ecosystems is greatly influenced by the
that they have mineral-rich water and
immediately surrounding terrestrial
specially adapted plant species. Bogs
ecosystems, and even by ecosystems far
Swamps and marshes have high
upstream or far uphill form a particular site
biological productivity.
Local conditions that affect the
o Bogs and fens, which are often
characteristics of an aquatic community
nutrient poor, have low biological
include:
productivity. They may have
(1) nutrient availability (or excess) such as
unusual and interesting species,
nitrates and phosphates
though, such as sundews and
(2) suspended matter, such as silt, that
pitcher plants, which are adapted
affects light penetration
to capture nutrients from insects
(3) depth
rather than from soil.
(4) temperature
o The water in marshes and
(5) currents
(6) bottom characteristics, such as muddy, swamps usually is shallow enough
to allow full penetration of sunlight
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 and seasonal warming (fig. 5.21c).
These mild conditions favor great
photosynthetic activity, resulting in
high productivity at all trophic
levels.

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