Advance Pavement Structural

Design
Postgraduate Studies
Highway and Transportation
Engineering
Al-Mustansiriyah University
2022-2023
Asst. Prof. Dr. Rana Amir Yousif
 Syllabus of: Advance Pavement Structural Design
3.Rigid Pavement ........................................(2 Weeks)
1. Principles of Pavement Design: ....... (1.5 Weeks)
3.1. Analysis of: Stress, Strain and Deflection in Rigid Pavement,
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Functions of Pavements
3.2. Type of Stresses
1.3 Requirements of a Pavement 3.2.1. Due to Temperature Variations
1.4 Types of Pavements 3.2.2 Due to Load (Westergard Method)
1.5 Concept of Pavement Performance,
3.2.2.1. Effect of Dual Tires.
1.6 Design Factors.
1.7 Design Methods 3.2.3. Due to Subgrade Friction.
1.8 Structural and Functional Failures of Pavements 3.2.3.1. Steel Stress
1.9 Vehicle Damage Factor 3.2.3.2. Tie-Bars.
1.10 Estimation of Design Traffic
3.3. Design of Dowel-Bars
3.4. Design of Joints.
2.Flexible Pavement............................(2.5 Weeks)
2.1. Analysis of: Stress, Strain and Deflection in Flexible
Pavement
2.1.1. One Layer System
2.1.1.1. Point loading
2.1.1.2. Circular Loading
2.1.1.3. Methods of solutions.
2.1.2. Layard Systems
2.1.2.1. Two Layers System
2.1.2.2. Three Layers System.
2.2. Equivalent Thickness Method (OdeMark‟s Concept)
 Syllabus of: Advance Pavement Structural Design
4.Flexible Pavement Design Method ( AASHTO 1993 Method) ....................(2.5 weeks)
4.1. Design Considerations
4.1.1. Pavement Performance (Loss of Serviceability)
4.1.2. Traffic
4.1.3. Roadbed Soil Properties
4.1.4. Materials for Construction 5. Rigid pavement design method ( AASHTO 1993 Method) ...............(1.5 Weeks)
4.1.4.1. For Flexible Pavement 5.1. Design Considerations
4.1.4.2. For Rigid Pavement 6. Mechanistic Empirical Design Method (ME-Method) ........................(2 Weeks)
4.1.5. Environmental Effects 6.1. ME for Flexible Pavement.
6.2. ME for Rigid pavemen
4.1.6. Drainage
4.1.7. Reliability
4.2. Flexible Pavement Design Solved Example.
4.3. Flexible Pavement Overlay Design.

References
1) Yoder , E. J. & Witiczek , M. W. " Principles of Pavement Design " 2nd edition-
1975.
2) AASHTO, “AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures”, 1993.
3) Huang, Y.H., “Pavement Analysis and Design”, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 1993.
1. Principles of Pavement Design: ......... (1.5 Weeks)
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Functions of Pavements
1.3 Requirements of a Pavement
1.4 Types of Pavements
1.5 Concept of Pavement Performance,
1.6 Design Factors.
1.7 Design Methods
1.8 Structural and Functional Failures of Pavements
1.9 Vehicle Damage Factor
1.10 Estimation of Design Traffic
1.1 Introduction
• The physical components of a highway include the
right of way, pavements, shoulders, signs, signals and
marking.
• Pavement and shoulders represent the most costly
items associated with highway construction and
maintenance. The heavy traffic load requires
constructing of effective pavement surface. In
addition, the surface needs maintenance to ensure the
effectiveness of the pavement surfaces in all weather
conditions and avoid permanent deformation.
Therefore, it is important for highway engineers to
have a basic understanding of pavement analysis and
design principles.
 1.2 Functions of Pavement
Pavement provides two basic functions:
It helps to guide the driver and delineate the roadway by
giving a visual perspective of the travelled path.
Consequently, pavement gives the driver information
about the driving tasks and the steering control of the
vehicle.
It supports the vehicle loads
The second major function will be focused on in this course.
1.3 Requirements of Pavement
An ideal pavement should meet the following requirements:
 Sufficient thickness to distribute the wheel load stresses to a safe
value on the subgrade soil,
 Structurally strong to withstand all types of stresses imposed
upon it,
 Adequate coefficient of friction to prevent skidding of vehicles,
 Smooth surface to provide comfort to road users even at high
speed,
 Produce least noise from moving vehicles,
 Dust proof surface so that traffic safety is not impaired by
reducing visibility,
 Impervious surface, so that sub-grade soil is well protected, and
 Long design life with low maintenance cost.
1.4 Types of Pavement
Flexible or Asphalt
Pavements

There are three major types Rigid or Concrete

of pavement: Pavements

Semi-Rigid / Composite
Pavements
1.4 .1 Flexible or Asphalt Pavements
Flexible pavements will transmit wheel load stresses to the lower layers by
grain-to-grain transfer through the points of contact in the granular structure
(see Figure 1.1).
The wheel load acting on the pavement will be
distributed to a wider area, and the stress decreases
with the depth. Taking advantage of the stress
distribution characteristic, flexible pavements
normally has many layers. Hence, the design of
flexible pavement uses the concept of layered system.
Based on this, flexible pavement may be constructed
Figure 1.1: Load transfer in
in a number of layers and the top layer has to be of granular structure
best quality to sustain maximum compressive stress,
in addition to wear and tear. The lower layers will
experience lesser magnitude of stress and low quality
material can be used.
Flexible pavements are constructed using bituminous materials. These
can be either in the form of surface treatments (such as bituminous
surface treatments generally found on low volume roads) or, asphalt
concrete surface courses (generally used on high volume roads such as
national highways). Flexible pavement layers reflect the deformation
of the lower layers on to the surface layer (e.g., if there is any
undulation in sub-grade then it will be transferred to the surface layer).
In the case of flexible pavement, the design is based on overall
performance of flexible pavement, and the stresses produced
should be kept well below the allowable stresses of each pavement
layer.

Figure 1.2: Profile of a flexible pavement

Figures 1.3 and 1.4 shows the cross section of a
conventional flexible pavement . Starting from the
top, the pavement consists of, surface course, tack
coat, binder course(optional), prime coat, base
course(Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) or untreated
granular materials), subbase course, and natural
subgrade. Each of these layers contributes to
structural support. The use of the various courses is
based on either necessity or economy, and some of
the courses may be omitted . Figures 1.3 and 1.4:
the cross section of a conventional flexible
pavement
The surface course is made of hot-mix asphalt (HMA), it typically is the stiffest
(as measured by elastic modulus) layer and may contribute the most
(depending upon thickness) to pavement strength. The underlying layers are
less stiff but are still important to pavement strength as well as drainage and
frost protection
1.4.1.1 Types of Flexible Pavements

The following types of construction have been used in

flexible pavement:
 Conventional layered flexible pavement,
 Full - depth asphalt pavement, and
 Contained rock asphalt mat (CRAM).
1.4.1.2 Advantages of Flexible Pavement
The advantages of flexible pavement can be listed as
follows:
a. a. The initial construction cost is low.
b. b. It doesn‟t require joints.
c. c. There is no effect of temperature variation on stress
variation.
d. d. Repair works can be carried out quickly.
e. e. The thickness can be increased easily as per the need.
f. f. No glare due to sunlight. (Glare: shine with a strong
or dazzling light.)
g. g. It is more comfortable for travel.
1.4.1.3 Disadvantages of Flexible Pavement
The disadvantages of flexible pavements can be listed
as follows:
a. The life span is decreased with repeated prolonged
use.
b. Maintenance cost is relatively higher.
c. It is susceptible to heat, oils, greases, and
chemicals.
d. Poor night visibility due to the use of asphalt.
1.4 .2 Rigid Pavement
 A rigid pavement structure is composed of a
hydraulic cement concrete surface course or
Portland Cement Concrete (PCC) pavement,
produced from aggregates and cement as bonding
material, and underlying of subbase courses. The
surface course (concrete slab) is the stiffest layer
and provides the majority of strength. The
subbase layer is orders of magnitude less stiff
than the PCC surface but still make important
contributions to uniformity of support,
pavement drainage, and frost protection, and
provide a working platform for construction
equipment.

 Rigid pavements are substantially „stiffer‟ than flexible pavements due to the high modulus of
elasticity of the PCC material, resulting in very low deflections under loading. The rigid
pavements can be analyzed by the plate theory. Rigid pavements can have reinforcing steel,
which is generally used to handle thermal stresses to reduce or eliminate joints and
maintain tight crack widths. Figure 1.2 shows a typical section for a rigid pavement.
1.4 .2.1 Types of Rigid Pavements
Rigid pavements can be classified into four types:
 Jointed plain concrete pavement (JPCP),
 Jointed reinforced concrete pavement (JRCP),
 Continuous reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP), and
 Pre-stressed concrete pavement (PCP).
1.4 .3 Composite Pavement
A composite pavement is composed of both hot-mix asphalt (HMA)
and hydraulic cement concrete. Typically, composite pavements are
asphalt overlays on top of concrete pavements. The HMA overlay may
have been placed as the final stage of initial construction, or as part of a
rehabilitation or safety treatment. Composite pavement behavior under
traffic loading is essentially the same as rigid
1.4 .3.1 Benefit of Composite Pavement
Composite pavements, when compared to traditional flexible or rigid
pavements, have the potential to provide better levels of performance both
structurally and functionally (technical aspects) while being an economically
viable alternative (economic aspect). Some of the benefits that composite
pavements provide are (Donald 2003; Jofre and Fernandez 2004; Nunn 2004):

 Strong support to the HMA layer provided by the rigid base layer.
 Improvement of the rideability of the pavement and driver comfort by
providing a smooth and quiet driving surface.
 Ensuring adequate pavement skid resistance (i.e., friction).
 Preservation of the structural integrity of the rigid base to ensure a long-
life pavement system by performing preventive maintenance on the HMA
surface course.
 Prevention of the intrusion of deicing salts and surface water to the rigid
base due to the impermeable characteristic of the asphalt layer.
 Reduction of the temperature gradient in the rigid layer because of the
overlaying asphalt layer.
 1.5 Concept of Pavement Performance
 Different agencies as Asphalt Institute suggested the use of:
1. Vertical compressive strain on the surface of subgrade as a failure criterion to reduce permanent
deformation, and
2. Horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of asphalt layer to minimize fatigue cracking, as shown in Figure
1.3. The use of vertical compressive strain to control permanent deformation(Rutting) is based on the fact
that plastic strains are proportional to elastic strains in paving materials .
 The principal structural requirements are as follows :
(1) The subgrade should be able to sustain traffic loading without
excessive deformation; this is controlled by the vertical compressive
stress or strain at this level.
(2) Bituminous materials and cement-bound materials used in road-
base design should not crack under the influence of traffic; this is
controlled by the horizontal tensile stress or strain at the bottom of
the bound layer.
(3) The road-base is often the main structural layer of the pavement,
required to distribute the applied traffic loading so that the
underlying materials are not overstressed. It must be able to sustain
the stress and strain generated within itself without excessive or
rapid deterioration of any kind. To control fatigue cracking caused
by load repetitions.
(4) In pavements containing bituminous materials, the internal
deformation of these materials must be limited.
(5) The load spreading ability of granular sub-base and formation layers
must be adequate to provide a satisfactory construction platform.
1.6 Design Factors.
Design factors can be divided into five categories :
 Traffic and loading
 Environment factors
 Materials characteristics
 Design Method.
 Economic considerations

1.6.1 Traffic and loading Axle loads

The number of load repetitions

Tire-contact areas

Vehicle speeds .
Axle Loads
 The total weight of vehicle is carried by axels, and the load on
axels transformed to the wheels and than to the pavement.

1.4. Legal Axels load and Configurations for Iraq

Standard Axle Load: Single axle

with dual wheels carrying a load
of 80 kN (8.2 tonnes) is defined
1.5. Characteristics of Standard Axels load as standard axle as shown in
Figure (1.5)
Number of load repetitions
 The damage caused by each axle depends on its load,
configuration and repetitions
 It is possible to evaluate the damage caused by the repetitions
of each axle load group; so, they can be converted into
equivalent repetitions of a standard axle (W18) using
Equivalent Standard Axle Load (ESAL) factor.
Tire pressure and contact areas
It is necessary to know the contact area between tire and
pavement, so the axle load can be assumed to be uniformly
distributed over the contact area which is known as contact
pressure. In pavement design, the contact pressure is
generally assumed to be equal to the tire pressure (pressure
of air inside the tire); because using of tire pressure as the
contact pressure will be more safe.
Contact areas
 The approximate shape of contact area for each tire is elliptical shape and
can be approximated to a compound of a rectangle and two semicircles,
Figure 1.6.

Contact Area 𝐴𝑐 is given by:

𝑨𝒄 = 𝝅 (𝟎. 𝟑𝑳)𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟒𝑳 𝟎. 𝟑𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟐𝟐𝟕𝑳𝟐

Vehicle speed Figure 1.6. Shape of Contact Area

It is necessary to know the contact area between tire and pavement, so the
axle load can be assumed to be uniformly distributed over the contact area
which is known as contact pressure. In pavement design, the contact
pressure is generally assumed to be equal to the tire pressure (pressure of
air inside the tire); because using of tire pressure as the contact pressure
will be more safe.
Lab Test Loading Shape
There are two types of loading shapes used in four points test, Figure 1.7.
• Haversine waveform loading
• Sinusoidal Waveform loading

Figure 1.7. Test Loading Shapes

In field, the intensity of load varies with time according to a haversine function, as shown in
Figure 1.8. With t = 0 at the peak, the load function is expressed as in Equation 1.1.

Where: d is the duration of load, the load intensity is q and t is the time. When the load is at a
considerable distance from a given point, t = ±d/2, the load above the point is zero, or L(t) = 0.
When the load is directly above the given point (a), or t = 0, the load intensity is q. The duration
of load depends on the vehicle speed S and the tire contact radius a. A reasonable assumption is
that the load has practically no effect when it is at a distance of 6a from the points (b and c), or d
expressed as in Equation 1.2

For example: If a = 6 in . and s = 40 mph (64 km/h) =

58 .7 ft/s (17.9 m/s), d = 0.1 s . So the loading
frequency is: f = 1/time where f in Hz and t in
second. time = d = 0.1 s. f = (1/0.1) = 10 Hz. Note: 1
Hz = 1 cycle per second. So in this example the
frequency is 10 cyc/sec.
Figure 1.8. Moving load as a function of time
1.6.2. Environmental Factors
 Temperature
 Precipitation and Moisture Variations
 Temperature
 Effect on Asphalt Layer (Flexible Pavement)
• Asphalt is a viscoelastic materials, when the atmosphere temperature changes asphalt‟s
behavior changes.
• During the winter, when temperature is low, the HMA becomes rigid (elastic) and the vertical
compressive strain reduces in the pavement, less fatigue life and causes asphalt pavements to
crack.
• During summer, hot temperature makes the asphalt layer hotter than atmosphere temperature
causing asphalt softer to build up permanent deformation (rutting).

 Effect on Concrete Slab (Rigid Pavement)

During the day, when the temperature at top is higher than
that at bottom, the slab curls down so that its interior. At
night, when the temperature at top is lower than that at
bottom, the slab curls upward as shown in Figure 1.7. The
change between maximum and minimum temperatures also
1.7. Curling phenomena in rigid
determines the joint and crack openings and affects the
pavement
efficiency of load transfer .
 Frost Penetration
o The freezing of pore water and the melting of pore ice result in significant
pavement layer volume changes, which over time and under the action of traffic
loads reduce pavement serviceability.
o Frost penetration in cold climate results in a stronger subgrade in the winter but a
much weaker subgrade in the spring causing differential settlements; where the ice
melts in spring causes the subgrade to be in a saturated condition.
o To protect the subgrade from frost action, it is desirable to use non-frost-susceptible
materials such as sand and gravel or mix of them which omit or eliminate the
capillary property of the layer beneath the base course.

 Freezing Index
o Freezing index is an indicator used to express the severity of frost of a given region
on the pavement in terms of mean degree days which is equal to the average of the
highest and lowest air temperatures during the day.
o The freezing index has been correlated with the depth of frost penetration and can
be used as a factor of pavement design and evaluation.
 Precipitation and Moisture Variations
o The precipitation from rain and snow affects the quantity of surface water
infiltrating into the subgrade and the location of the groundwater table. The water
table should be kept at least 3 ft (0.91 m) below the pavement surface. Every effort
should be made to improve the drainage to drain out the rainfalls within a short
time, its effect can be minimized, even in regions of high precipitation.
o Moisture variations in pavement layers may be caused due to precipitation or a
high ground water table. Proper surface and subsurface drainage will reduce the
moisture variations in pavement layers. The bad effects of poor drainage include
loss of subgrade stiffness in flexible pavements and pumping and loss of support in
rigid pavements
1.6.3 Materials Characteristics
• In the pavement design methods, the properties of materials which are used in the construction
of the pavement layers must be strongly considered, so that the responses of the pavement
layers due to axel load or traffic motion such as, stresses, strains, and deflection can be
determined. These responses are then used in the analysis and design process .
• The general engineering properties of materials for subgrade, embankment soil, and each layer
which are considered in the design are:
1. Modulus of elasticity (E).
2. Poisson ratios (μ)
3. Resilient modulus (MR) (the elastic modulus under repeated loads).
4. Nonlinear elastic moduli.

The data required in design:

 Fixable pavement
 Hot mix asphalt is viscoelastic materials (Creep compliance (moduli at various loading
times), Time–temperature shift factor (the sensitivity of asphalt mixtures to
temperature) ).
 Fatigue properties of asphalt mixtures (design based on the fatigue failure criteria)
 Rut depth (the permanent deformations over all layers), the permanent deformation
parameters of each layer must be specified for design based on rutting failure criteria.
 Low-temperature cracking (asphalt stiffness at the winter design temperature).
The data required in design:
Rigid pavement
 The modulus of subgrade reaction.
 Coefficient of thermal expansion (the effect of temperature curling).
 Fatigue cracking distress (the modulus of rupture).
 Other distresses.

1.7 Design Methods

 Empirical method : Empirical method are used to relate observed or measurable
phenomena (pavement characteristics) with outcomes (pavement performance) , i.e.
empirical equations,. An example: AASHTO Guide design, Group Index method and
CBR method (Asphalt Institute).

 Mechanistic–Empirical Methods: The mechanistic–empirical method of design is

based on the mechanics of materials that relates an input, such as a wheel load, to an
output or pavement response, such as stress or strain.
 The modulus of subgrade reaction.
 Coefficient of thermal expansion (the effect of temperature curling).
 Fatigue cracking distress (the modulus of rupture).
 Other distresses.
1.8 Structural and Functional Failures of Pavements
1.8.1 Structural Failure : Structural failure is a collapse of the
pavement structure or a breakdown of one or more of the
pavement components to make the pavement incapable of
sustaining the loads imposed upon its surface. For example:
collapse of box Calvert, embankment, depending of the degree of
distress severity such as high severity of rutting and cracking.

1.8.2. Functional Failure: Functional failure is a failure that is

taken place in the pavement surface causing uncomfortable for the
riders such as rutting, cracking, potholes, roughness, opening of
joints in rigid pavement, etc.
1.9 Vehicle Damage Factor
The vehicle damage factor (VDF) is a multiplier for converting the number of
commercial vehicles of different axle loads and axle configurations to the
number of standard axle-load repetitions. It is defined as equivalent number of
standard axles per commercial vehicle. The VDF varies with the axle
configuration, axle loading, terrain, type of road, and from region to region.
The Equivalent Standard Axle Load (ESAL) factor is used to convert different
axle load repetitions into equivalent standard axle load repetitions. The exact
VDF values are arrived after extensive field surveys. The load equivalency
factor (LEF) is a number which relate the amount of equivalent damage caused
𝑊
by a given load of axel to the standard axel load. LEF = [ 𝑚 ]4 Where : 𝑊𝑚 is
𝑊𝑠𝑡𝑑
axel load , 𝑊𝑠𝑡𝑑 Is the standard axel load.
1.10 Estimation of Design Traffic
 Traffic is a mix of different vehicles types having different type and configurations of axels.
In the pavement design criteria it is necessary to account the number and types of vehicles
moving along the highway.
 The account of the traffic volume and types is daily, weekly, monthly and annually . Annually
average daily traffic (AADT) is one of the important account. It is depends on account the
traffic volume and type per hour along the day and then the account operation is continued
from many days to several months arriving to a year.
 The total account of a one year is divided by (365) days to get the AADT.
 Then, the AADT is converted to standard axle load (W18/day) using Load Equivalency
factor.
 The Equivalency factors have different values based on the axles, configurations and
conditions of the pavement.
 (W18/day × 365 days = W18/year). Where W18/year is the amount of the standard axel
loads of the base year used in the design.
 A growth rate (G) is used to estimate the total amount of the standard axle loads which can be
passed over the highway during the design life. Where: r is the annual growth rate (e.g. (3%),
r = 0.03), t is design life in year of the pavement in years.
1.10 Estimation of Design Traffic

Example:

W18/day = 1050, r = 3%, t= 20 year

W18/year = 1050 × 365 = 383250 per year
G = ((𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑)𝟐𝟎 -1)/0.03 = 26.87

Estimated W18 which pass over the pavement within 20 years =

26.87 × 383250 = 10.3 ×𝟏𝟎𝟔 years = 26.87
ThankS for Attention