Chapter III: Blood physiology
Blood is a fluid connective tissue. It circulates continually around the body
communication between tissues distant from each other. It is considered the fluid
of life because it carries oxygen from lungs to all body parts and carbon dioxide
from all body parts to the lungs.
1. Functions of the blood:
1. Nutrient Function
Nutritive substances like glucose, amino acids, lipids and vitamins
2. Respiratory Function
The blood transports respiratory gases. It carries O2 from the alveoli of the lungs
to different tissues and CO2 from tissues to the alveoli.
3. Excretory Function
Waste products formed in the tissues during various metabolic activities are
removed by blood and carried to the excretory organs like kidneys, skin, liver, etc.,
for excretion.
4. Transport of Hormones and Enzymes
Hormones, which are secreted by ductless also transports enzymes.
5. Regulation of Acid-base Balance:
the plasma proteins and hemoglobin Act as buffers and help in the regulation of
acid-base balance.
6. Regulation of Body Temperature
Because of the high specific heat of blood, , i.e. the balance between heat loss and
heat gain in the body.
7. Storage Function
Water and some important substances like proteins, glucose, sodium, and potassium
e taken by the tissues under conditions like starvation, fluid loss, electrolyte loss,
etc.
8. Defensive Function The WBCs Neutrophils and monocytes engulf Lymphocytes
Eosinophils protect
2. Properties of blood
1. Color: Blood is red. Arterial blood is scarlet red because it contains more oxygen,
and venous blood is purple red because it contains more carbon dioxide.
2. Volume: The average blood volume in a normal adult is 5 L. In a newborn baby,
it is 450 ml. It increases during growth and reaches 5 L at the time of puberty. In
females, it is slightly less and is about 4.5 L. It is about 8% of the body weight in
a normal, young,healthy adult weighing about 70 kg.
3. Reaction and pH: Blood is slightly alkaline, is 7.4.
4. Viscosity: Blood is five times more viscous than water. It is mainly due to red
blood cells and plasma proteins
3. Major Components of Blood
Blood is composed of 2 fractions:
1. Plasma Non-living extracellular matrix composes about 55% of total blood volume.
2. Formed elements (living cells) compose about 45% of the total blood volume.
• The two fractions of blood can be separated by spinning (centrifugation).
Hematocrit: an instrument for
measuring the ratio of the volume
of red blood cells to the total
especially blood disorders
3.1. Plasma
Plasma is a straw-colored, clear liquid
part of blood. It contains 91 to
92% of water and 8 to 9% of solids.
The solids are the organic and
inorganic substances.
The constituents of plasma are:
1. Water (90-92%)
2. Plasma proteins : make up about 7% of plasma.
▪ Albumins (about 60% of total plasma protein). They are responsible for
maintaining normal plasma osmotic pressure. Albumins also act as transport
molecules for free fatty acids, some drugs, and steroid hormones
▪ Globulins their main functions: as antibodies (immunoglobulins), Α-globulin, β-
globulin, and γ-globulin. Transportation of some hormones and mineral salts
And inhibition of some proteolytic enzymes
▪ Fibrinogen is responsible for the coagulation of blood
3. Inorganic salts like Ca, Na, PO4, which are responsible for muscle contraction,
transmission of nerve impulses, ect
4. Nutrients: glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, and glycerol.
5. Waste products, like urea, creatinine, and uric acid
6. Hormones and gases
3.2. Formed elements (cellular content of blood)
There are three types of blood cell:
1. Leukocytes (white blood cells = WBC)
2. Platelets (thrombocytes)
3. Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells =RBC).
3.2.1. Leukocytes (white blood cells = WBC)
-True cells (nucleus + organels; active metabolism)
-COUNT adults: 4-10 x 109 /l of blood (no gender differences) - newborns: 15-17
x 109 /l
There are 2 categories of Leukocytes (WBCs): Granular and Agranular :
A-Granular Leukocytes:
Have granules in cytoplasm containing powerful enzymes & substances for defense
1.Neutrophils 70% of circulating leukocytes. Highly mobile phagocytes, multi-lobed
nucleus (3 or more lobes)
2. Eosinophiles are less common. Bi-lobed nucleus, ‘orange’ staining granules.
3. Basophils are relatively rare .Bi-lobed, dark-staining granules release histamine and
heparin. Migrate to damaged tissue.
All of these cells make and release toxic materials by ‘degranulation’. This is to aid
in the destruction and ingestion of necrotic tissue and microorganisms
B-Agranular leukocytes
These cells do not contain granules in the cytoplasm.
1. Lymphocytes primary cells of the lymphatic system, are spherical cells. The
nucleus of a lymphocyte is large and rounded. The cytoplasm of the small
lymphocytes is scanty
▪ Natural killer cells cytotoxic response to infected cells.
▪ T-cells attack foreign cells directly.
▪ B-cells produce Plasma cells, which produce antibodies
2. Monocytes The cytoplasm of monocyte is basophilic and contains very fine
azurophilic granules (lysosomes). They migrate into tissues and differentiate into
Macrophages - highly mobile phagocytes
3.2.2. Platelets
-Blood platelets are non-nucleated
disc-like cell fragments 2-4 µm in
diameter.
-They originate from fragments of
megakaryocyte cytoplasm that reside
in the red bone marrow.
-Platelets are very sticky so they appear under a light microscope as clumps of cells.
-Platelets promote blood clotting and help repair gaps in the walls of blood vessels,
preventing loss of blood
-Normal platelet counts range from 200,000- 400000 per microliter of blood,
and has a life span of about 10 days
-Thrombopoietin released by the kidneys can stimulate platelet synthesis.
3.2.3. Erythrocytes (Red blood cells)
-Red blood cells are biconcave discs; they have no nucleus and cytoplasmic organelles.
They contain a red-colored protein called hemoglobin.
A. Hemoglobin: Each RBC contains approximately 270 hemoglobin molecules,
▪ Hemoglobin is a complex protein comprising of globin and iron-containing heme,
produced within developing erythrocytes in the red bone marrow.
▪ Globin is a protein that has 4 polypeptide chains (2 alpha and 2 beta)
▪ Heme is made up of iron (in ferrous form Fe 2+) and porphyrin
▪ In mature erythrocytes, hemoglobin binds with oxygen to create oxyhemoglobin,
▪ Each hemoglobin molecule contains four iron atoms, and each of these atoms can
carry one molecule of oxygen.
The plasma membrane of erythrocytes is
composed of lipids and proteins.
Several types of proteins
are present, including A, B proteins
(antigens) and Rh (D)
Individuals make antibodies to these
antigens but not to their own type of antigen
▪ Rh factor or antigen (Rhesus factor), about 85% of people have this antigen own
cell membrane of RBC.
4. Hematopoiesis
occurs in the bone marrow. Hematopoiesis
starts with hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs)
in specialized bone marrow regions called ‘niches’.
. Hematopoiesis is a dynamic and highly tuned process that fluctuates to meet
demand. For example, during infection the body needs more immune cells, so
hematopoiesis escalates. However, unrestrained hematopoiesis can lead to immune
cell over-supply that elevates inflammation and worsens disease.
Figure 6. Hematopoiesis process
