The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025

Mountains and glaciers

Water towers
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 S H O R T S U M M A R Y

Billions of people depend on the fresh water that flows

from increasingly fragile mountain environments

The water resources we receive from mountains are literally melting away before our eyes.

Mountains and alpine glaciers – often referred to as the world’s ‘water towers’ – are becoming
increasingly vulnerable to climate change and unsustainable human activities, threatening
the water resources upon which billions of people and countless ecosystems depend.

The United Nations World Water Development Report

2025 – Mountains and glaciers: Water towers calls
attention to the essential services and benefits
mountain waters and alpine glaciers provide to
societies, economies and the environment. With a Up to 60% of
focus on the technical and policy responses required
to improve water management in mountains, the
the world’s fresh
report covers critical issues such as water supply and water originates
sanitation, climate change mitigation and adaptation,
food and energy security, industry, disaster risk in mountains
reduction and ecosystem protection.

Addressing the global water crisis begins at the top.

“Since wars begin in the minds of men and

women it is in the minds of men and women
that the defences of peace must be constructed”
The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025

Mountains and glaciers

Water towers
 Foreword by Audrey Azoulay, Director-General of UNESCO........................x
Foreword by Alvaro Lario, Chair of UN-Water and President of IFAD.............xii
Preface.......................................................................................xiii
UN WWDR 2025 Team.................................................................xv
Acknowledgements.....................................................................xvi
Executive summary.....................................................................1

Prologue.....................................................................................9
Trends in water demand and availability............................................................. 10
Progress towards Sustainable Development Goal 6 ......................................... 12
References............................................................................................................. 15

Chapter 1. Introduction................................................................17
1.1 Mountain areas of the world........................................................................... 19
1.2 Mountain water usage and dependency....................................................... 21
1.3 Mountain people and communities............................................................... 21
1.4 Mountain cryosphere, including glaciers...................................................... 23
References............................................................................................................. 24

Chapter 2. Changes in the cryosphere and impacts on water ......25

2.1 Dynamics of the mountain cryosphere ........................................................ 26
2.2 Impacts of changing mountain snow and ice conditions .......................... 31
2.3 Water management challenges..................................................................... 36
2.4 Conclusions..................................................................................................... 38
References............................................................................................................. 38
Contents

Chapter 3. Food and agriculture...................................................42

3.1 Food security and agriculture........................................................................ 43
3.2 Challenges....................................................................................................... 47
3.3 Responses ...................................................................................................... 50
3.4 Conclusions..................................................................................................... 54
References............................................................................................................. 54

Chapter 4. Human settlements and disaster risk reduction..........57

4.1 Challenges....................................................................................................... 58
4.2 Responses....................................................................................................... 60
4.3 Conclusions..................................................................................................... 63
References............................................................................................................. 64

vi
 Chapter 5. Industry and energy....................................................66
5.1 Challenges....................................................................................................... 68
5.2 Impact of industrial pollution on water quality ............................................ 68
5.3 Examples of industrial and energy water use............................................... 69
5.4 Hydropower in mountain areas . ................................................................... 71
5.5 Responses for inclusive and sustainable industrial development . ........... 74
References............................................................................................................. 75

Chapter 6. Environment...............................................................78
6.1 Ecosystem services of the mountain cryosphere........................................ 80
6.2 Trends in cryosphere and mountain ecosystem services........................... 81
6.3 Responses....................................................................................................... 83
References............................................................................................................. 87

Chapter 7. Regional perspectives.................................................89

7.1 Sub-Saharan Africa......................................................................................... 90
7.2 Europe and Central Asia................................................................................. 95
7.3 Latin America and the Caribbean ................................................................. 101
7.4 Asia and the Pacific......................................................................................... 105
7.5 Arab region...................................................................................................... 111
References............................................................................................................. 117

Chapter 8. Knowledge- and capacity-building..............................124

8.1 High mountain data and knowledge gaps . .................................................. 125
8.2 Contributions of Indigenous, gendered and local knowledge . .................. 131
8.3 Enhancing capacity......................................................................................... 133
8.4 Information-sharing and communication..................................................... 135
8.5 Conclusions .................................................................................................... 136
References............................................................................................................. 137
Contents

Chapter 9. Governance and finance.............................................139

9.1 Mountain water governance at the international level................................. 140
9.2 Regional mountain water governance . ........................................................ 141
9.3 National and local mountain water governance........................................... 144
9.4 Valuation and finance..................................................................................... 145
References............................................................................................................. 147

Conclusions................................................................................149
Why mountains matter to everyone..................................................................... 150
Responses: Moving forwards............................................................................... 151
Coda....................................................................................................................... 153

Abbreviations and acronyms.......................................................154

vii
 Boxes, figures and tables
Boxes
Box 1.1 Delineating mountain regions............................................................................................................................................................19

Box 2.1 Impact of black carbon, dust and other particulate matter deposition on snow and ice melt...................................................29

Box 2.2 Caution against applying the ‘peak water’ concept in water resources policy.............................................................................32

Box 2.3 Snow drought–wildfire–debris flow feedback.................................................................................................................................35

Box 2.4 Glacier lake outburst flood (GLOF) management in Peru...............................................................................................................36

Box 3.1 Food security and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)....................................................................................................44

Box 3.2 The Honghe Hani rice terraces system............................................................................................................................................46

Box 3.3 Indo-Gangetic basin reliance on cryosphere meltwater for irrigation...........................................................................................49

Box 3.4 Innovative adaptation to glacier melt affecting water availability for irrigated agriculture........................................................52

Box 3.5 The Global Mountain Participatory Guarantee System (PGS) Network........................................................................................53

Box 4.1 Impacts of the 2021 Nepal flood disaster........................................................................................................................................59

Box 4.2 A community-based gravity-fed piped water supply and sanitation system...............................................................................63

Box 5.1 Protecting glaciers from the impacts of mining: Pascua-Lama, Chile..........................................................................................70

Box 6.1 The paramos – a unique mountain ecosystem in South America.................................................................................................79

Box 6.2 Land degradation neutrality (LDN) approaches in mountains.......................................................................................................84

Box 6.3 Acción Andina: Forest landscape restoration in the high Andes...................................................................................................85

Box 6.4 Building mountain resilience: Torrent Catchment restoration in the Pamir Mountains of Afghanistan....................................86

Box 7.1 The importance of Madagascar’s water towers for agriculture.....................................................................................................92

Box 7.2 Protecting glaciers with insulating blankets....................................................................................................................................97

Box 7.3 A transboundary community-based flood early warning system (CBFEWS)...............................................................................110

Box 8.1 International Network for Alpine Research Catchment Hydrology (INARCH)..............................................................................128

Box 8.2 Co-developing a strategy for Indigenous Peoples and local community (IPLC) water research...............................................132

Box 8.3 Research Centre for Alpine Ecosystems (CREA)-Mont Blanc: A legacy of citizen science in the Alps.....................................134

Box 8.4 Beyond technical capacity: The importance of trust in project success......................................................................................136

Box 9.1 Components of regional mountain governance initiatives.............................................................................................................142

Box 9.2 Hindu Kush Himalya (HKH) High-Level Task Force.........................................................................................................................143

Box 9.3 Economic losses from natural hazards in mountains....................................................................................................................146

Box 9.4 Factors encouraging financial investment in mountains...............................................................................................................146

Figures
Figure P.1 Global total water withdrawals by major water-use sector, 2000–2021 (km3/year)....................................................................10

Figure P.2 Water withdrawal by sector (% of total freshwater withdrawal) by income group, 2020.............................................................11

Figure P.3 Progress status of Sustainable Development Goal 6 targets, 2024..............................................................................................12

Figure P.4 Proportion of population using safely managed drinking water services, 2022..........................................................................13

viii
Figure P.5 Proportion of population using safely managed sanitation services (Sustainable Development Goal Indicator 6.2.1a)
in different regions, 2022...................................................................................................................................................................13

Figure 1.1 Delineation of mountain regions and population densities, 2015..................................................................................................20

Figure 1.2 Projected importance of mountain regions and population dependence, 2041–2050 (SSP2-RCP6.0)....................................22

Figure 1.3 Glacier mass changes from around the world, 1950–2020...........................................................................................................23

Figure 2.1 High mountain hydrological and cryospheric processes governing water supply......................................................................27

Figure 2.2 Key cryospheric and hydrological changes in high mountain regions under 21st century global warming...............................28

Figure 2.3 Percentage change per 1°C of warming in the frequency of rain-on-snow (ROS) melt events in high mountains
around the world, 1982–2014............................................................................................................................................................30

Figure 2.4 Global glacier surface elevation changes, 2000–2019...................................................................................................................31

Figure 2.5 Glacier melt and precipitation contributions to river discharge in example major basins with mountain headwaters...........34

Figure 2.6 Impact of climate, water and cryosphere changes on Indigenous Peoples and local communities in cold regions..............37

Figure 3.1 Sectional diagram of a slope terrace................................................................................................................................................45

Figure 5.1 Transport pathways and processes of deposition for contaminants within glaciated environments.......................................69

Figure 6.1 Ecosystem services provided by the mountain cryosphere and highland ecosystems (a), and links between these and
the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (b)..............................................................................................................................80

Figure 7.1 Water towers in Africa........................................................................................................................................................................91

Figure 7.2 Topographical map of the Alps.........................................................................................................................................................96

Figure 7.3 Tian Shan and Pamir mountain ranges in Central Asia..................................................................................................................99

Figure 7.4 Main mountain ranges and rivers in Latin America and the Caribbean........................................................................................101

Figure 7.5 Region-wide glacier mass balances, expressed in metres water equivalent (m w.e.) per year from different areas in
the Hindu Kush Himalaya region over the periods 1975–1999, 2000–2009 and 2010–2019.....................................................106

Figure 7.6 Number of recorded glacial lake outburst floods per decade in High Mountain Asia, 1830–2020...........................................107

Figure 7.7 Past and projected future decrease in renewable water per capita with estimated population growth in the Arab region,
2002–2050..........................................................................................................................................................................................111

Figure 7.8 Mountain peaks and ranges in the Arab region...............................................................................................................................112

Figure 7.9 Annual snow cover duration time series in Mount Lebanon (higher than 2,000 m above sea level), 1970–2100....................114

Figure 7.10 Annual snow cover duration time series in the Atlas Mountains (higher than 2,000 m above sea level), 1970–2100............114

Figure 7.11 Change in average seasonal snow depth (October–March) in Mount Lebanon over the periods 1981–2000, 2021–2040
and 2041–2060...................................................................................................................................................................................115

Figure 7.12 Change in average seasonal snow depth (October–March) in the Atlas Mountains over the periods 1981–2000,
2021–2040 and 2041–2060...............................................................................................................................................................115

Figure 8.1 Historical global distribution of hydrometeorological stations by elevation, 1750–2024..........................................................126

Figure 8.2 Components of a hydrological information system........................................................................................................................129

Figure 8.3 Conceptual framework integrating the effects of cryospheric shrinkage on provisioning, regulating and cultural
aspects of ecosystem services.........................................................................................................................................................130

Tables
Table P.1 Global freshwater withdrawals by sector, 2000 and 2021..............................................................................................................10

Table 5.1 Annual water footprint of bitcoin mining across the world, 2020–2021.......................................................................................70

ix
 Foreword
by Audrey Azoulay, Director-General of UNESCO

Regardless of where we live, we all depend in some way on mountains and glaciers – the water towers
of our planet.

Mountains cover 33 million km2 of the Earth’s surface and are vital for sustaining life. They are
home to over 1.1 billion people, or 15% of the world’s population. Moreover, a further 2 billion people
downstream depend on these natural reservoirs for freshwater resources from melting glaciers.

These glaciers – and the more than 3 billion people and countless ecosystems, such as forests,
wetlands, soils and rivers, that rely on them – are at great risk. The World Water Development
Report 2025 provides a comprehensive overview of the current state of glaciers and the cryosphere,
highlighting the immense economic, environmental and societal threats that we are facing.

The report reveals that the Andes, which supply 50% of the water flowing into the Amazon River,
have lost between 30% and 50% of their glaciers since the 1980s. It is projected that the Mount
Kenya, Rwenzori and Kilimanjaro glaciers will have disappeared entirely by 2040 if no action is taken,
while the ‘Third Pole’ – also known as the Hindu Kush–Karakoram–Himalayan system – could lose
50% of its glacier volume, which currently spans 100,000 km2, by the year 2100.

Critically, this report highlights that many of the issues surrounding climate adaptation and
water management are transnational, meaning that the most effective solutions require a
multilateral approach.

UNESCO, as a United Nations specialized agency in water sciences and cooperation, plays a critical
role in finding these solutions, through knowledge production and sharing, water education, and as a
platform for international dialogue.

If not properly managed, our mountain and glacier-fed water systems risk becoming a frequent
source of conflict, especially as these critical resources face growing challenges. However, we
believe that strengthened transboundary water governance, supported by international cooperation,
can serve as a powerful catalyst for fostering peace between neighbouring countries. In this spirit,
the Transboundary Water Cooperation Coalition was launched at UNESCO Headquarters in 2022 to
provide a platform for cooperation between countries that rely on shared water resources such as
aquifers, lakes and river basins.

x
Our World Water Assessment Programme, which has coordinated the production of this report, is at
the forefront of synthesizing and disseminating knowledge on sustainable water management on a
global scale. This work helps us understand what is at stake – and what action we can take.

It is essential that the international community joins hands and mobilizes to protect glaciers and the
cryosphere. To raise awareness and promote action, the United Nations General Assembly has
declared 2025 as the International Year of Glaciersʼ Preservation. This is also the first year of the
Decade of Action for Cryospheric Sciences, for which UNESCO has been appointed as the lead agency.

This report, published on behalf of the entire UN-Water family, would not have been possible without
the support of all our partners. In particular, UNESCO thanks the Italian Government, which has
supported the publication of the report for almost two decades.

We are at a crucial juncture for the protection of our world’s water systems. I hope that this report will
serve as a catalyst – locally, nationally and internationally – for rapid and collective action.

Audrey Azoulay

xi
 Foreword
by Alvaro Lario, Chair of UN-Water and
President of the International Fund for Agricultural Development

For billions of people, mountain meltwater is essential for drinking water and sanitation, food and energy
security, and the integrity of the environment.

But today, as the world warms, glaciers are melting faster than ever, making the water cycle more
unpredictable and extreme.

And because of glacial retreat, floods, droughts, landslides and sea-level rise are intensifying, with
devastating consequences for people and nature.

The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 – Mountains and glaciers: Water towers offers
solutions to help us simultaneously mitigate and adapt to rapid changes in our frozen water resources.

This report provides a clear overview of the current state of play and recommends what needs to change.

By detailing the connections between mountain fresh water, essential services and the natural world,
this publication highlights the critical importance of conserving the cryosphere to the achievement
of the Sustainable Development Goals. The urgent need to drastically reduce carbon emissions is
emphatically repeated.

Saving our glaciers is a survival strategy – one we must pursue together. To help coordinate the
United Nations system, 2025 has been declared the International Year of Glaciersʼ Preservation and
marks the start of the Decade of Action for Cryospheric Sciences, 2025–2034.

I would like to offer my sincere thanks to the various UN-Water Members and Partners and individuals
who contributed their expertise to this important and timely report, and to recognize the invaluable
coordination work of UNESCO and its World Water Assessment Programme in its production.

Alvaro Lario

xii
 Preface
by Michela Miletto, UNESCO WWAP Coordinator
and Richard Connor, Editor-in-Chief

“Please tell me what can I do. There must be something I can do.”

Ernest Hemingway, The Snows of Kilimanjaro and Other Stories

Like the images of polar bears sitting on shrinking slabs of frozen sea ice, dramatic photos documenting the rapid
retreat of alpine glaciers have become emblematic of humanity’s impact on our planet and its environment.

The General Assembly of the United Nations proclaimed 2025 as the International Year of Glaciers’ Preservation
to raise awareness on the vital role glaciers, snow and ice play in the climate system and water cycle, as well
as the far-reaching impacts of rapid glacial melt. However, the alpine cryosphere is not the only component of
mountain systems subject to climate change and unsustainable human activities, affecting the ‘water towers’
of the global water cycle. Mountains worldwide, including those in the tropics and small islands, are undergoing
unprecedented changes. And we all ultimately live downstream.

As the 12th in a series of annual thematic reports, the 2025 edition of the United Nations World Water Development
Report (UN WWDR) seeks to explore the importance of mountain waters for sustainable development, and the
policy and management responses that need to be taken to ensure their perenniality and maximize the many
opportunities they offer in a rapidly changing world of rising water demand and growing water scarcity.

As always, the report provides in-depth analyses of the subject through various social, economic and environmental
perspectives, ranging from food and energy security to water supply, sanitation and disaster risk reduction.
The analysis demonstrates how interventions in mountain regions affect people and ecosystems downstream,
highlighting the need to protect and sustainably manage our fragile and vulnerable water tower systems. This is
not only a local or regional challenge, but also a global one.

The UN WWDR 2025 presents the latest state-of-the-art scientific knowledge regarding the role mountains and
glaciers play in addressing the global water crisis. Again this year, we have endeavoured to produce a balanced,
fact-based and neutral account of the current state of knowledge, covering the most recent developments.

Although primarily targeted at policymakers and decision-makers, water resources managers, academics and
the broader development community, we hope this report will also be well received by non-water specialists,
including those who are engaged in the alleviation of poverty and humanitarian crises, in the pursuit of the human
rights to water supply and sanitation, and in the advancement of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

xiii
 This latest edition of the UN WWDR is the result of a concerted effort among the chapter lead agencies listed
in the Acknowledgements. The report also greatly benefited from the inputs and contributions of several
other UN-Water Members and Partners, as well as from numerous universities, research institutions, scientific
associations and non-governmental organizations, who all provided a wide range of relevant materials.

On behalf of the UNESCO World Water Assessment Programme (UNESCO WWAP) Secretariat, we would like to
extend our deepest appreciation to the aforementioned agencies, the Members and Partners of UN-Water, and the
writers and other contributors for collectively producing this unique and authoritative report. We are profoundly
grateful to the Italian Government for funding the UNESCO WWAP and the production of the UN WWDR since
2008, and to the Regione Umbria for generously hosting the UNESCO WWAP Secretariat in Perugia, Italy. Their
contributions have been instrumental to the production of the UN WWDR.

Our special thanks go to Ms Audrey Azoulay, Director-General of UNESCO, for her ongoing support to
UNESCO WWAP and the production of the UN WWDR, and to Alvaro Lario, President of the International Fund
for Agricultural Development and Chair of UN-Water.

Finally, we extend our most sincere gratitude to all our colleagues at the UNESCO WWAP Secretariat, whose
names are listed in the Acknowledgements. The report could not have been completed without their
professionalism and dedication.

Michela Miletto Richard Connor

xiv
 UN WWDR 2025 Team

Directors of the Publication

Michela Miletto (until January 2025) and Miguel Doria

Editor-in-Chief
Richard Connor

Process Coordinator
Engin Koncagül

Publication Assistant
Valentina Abete

Graphic Designer
Marco Tonsini

Copy Editor
Caren Brown

UNESCO World Water Assessment Programme (UNESCO WWAP) Secretariat (2024–2025)

Coordinator a.i.: Miguel Doria

Coordinator (until January 2025): Michela Miletto

Programmes: Chorong Ahn, Richard Connor, Laura Veronica Imburgia, Beobkyung Kim, Engin Koncagül,
Teresa Liguori, Bhanu Neupane and Laurens Thuy

Publications: Valentina Abete, Martina Favilli and Marco Tonsini

Communications: Simona Gallese

Administration and support: Barbara Bracaglia, Lucia Chiodini and Arturo Frascani

IT and security: Michele Brensacchi

xv
 Acknowledgements

This report is published by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), on behalf of
UN-Water, and its production is coordinated by the UNESCO World Water Assessment Programme (UNESCO WWAP).
Gratitude goes to UN-Water Members and Partners and other contributors that made the content preparation of this
report possible.

Chapter lead agencies

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), UNESCO (Intergovernmental Hydrological Programme –
IHP, UNESCO Office in Nairobi and UNESCO WWAP), United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat),
United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), United Nations Regional Commissions (Economic
Commission for Europe – UNECE, Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean – UNECLAC, Economic and
Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific – ESCAP, Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia – UNESCWA)
and World Meteorological Organization (WMO).

Contributors
ESCAP, Gdansk University of Technology, International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), Rural
Water Supply Network (RWSN), Scientific-Information Center of the Interstate Commission for Water Coordination
in Central Asia (SIC ICWC), Secretariat of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD),
UNESCO IHP, UNIDO, United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), United Nations University Programme on
Comparative Regional Integration Studies (UNU-CRIS), University of Bern, UNU Institute for Environment and Human
Security (UNU-EHS), UNU Maastricht Economic and Social Research and Training Centre on Innovation and Technology
(UNU-MERIT), Western Bug and Sian River Basin Management Authority, and WMO.

Donors
The development of the report was financially supported by the Government of Italy and the Regione Umbria. All who have
provided in-kind contributions, and their respective donors, are gratefully acknowledged.

xvi
 In alignment with the designation of 2025 as the International Year of Glaciers’ Preservation
and the 2022 resolution of the General Assembly of the United Nations on sustainable
mountain development, this report draws worldwide attention to the importance of mountain
waters, including alpine glaciers, in the sustainable development of mountain regions and
the downstream societies that depend upon them, in the context of the rapidly changing
mountain cryosphere.

Status of the world’s water resources

According to the most recent global estimates (from 2021), the agriculture sector dominates
freshwater withdrawals (72%), followed by industry (15%) and domestic (or municipal) use
(13%). Sector-specific freshwater withdrawals vary considerably as a function of a country’s
level of economic development. Higher-income countries use more water for industry,
whereas lower-income countries use 90% (or more) of their water for agricultural irrigation.

Over the period 2000–2021, global freshwater withdrawals increased by 14%, corresponding
to an average growth rate of 0.7% per year. Most of this increase occurred in cities, countries
and regions undergoing rapid economic development. Population growth does not appear
to play a highly significant role in increasing demand for water. In fact, countries where
per capita water use is the lowest, including several countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, are
Executive summary

often those with the fastest growing populations.

Twenty-five countries – home to one-quarter of the world’s population – face ‘extremely

high’ water stress every year. Approximately 4 billion people, or half the world’s population,
experience severe water scarcity for at least part of the year.

Climate change is increasing seasonal variability in, and uncertainty about, water availability
in most regions. Pollution, land and ecosystem degradation, and natural hazards can further
compromise the availability of water resources.

Progress towards Sustainable Development Goal 6

Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6 seeks to ensure the availability and sustainable
management of water and sanitation for all.

Progress towards all SDG 6 targets is off track – some severely.

For example, an estimated 2.2 billion people (27% of the global population) were without
access to safely managed drinking water in 2022, with four out of five people living in rural
areas lacking even basic drinking water services.

The situation concerning sanitation is worse, with 3.5 billion people worldwide lacking
access to safely managed sanitation in 2022. Only half of the population had access to these
services in Latin America and the Caribbean, and Central and Southern Asia. Coverage in
Sub-Saharan Africa was a mere 24%.

Data gaps and deficiencies in monitoring continue to impede accurate assessment of

the other SDG 6 targets, including on the management of water resources, water quality,
water-related ecosystems and the enabling environment.

Executive summary 1
 Mountain regions
As the ‘water towers’ of the world, mountains are an essential source of fresh water. They
are vital for meeting basic human needs such as water supply and sanitation. These waters
are also vital in ensuring food and energy security to billions of people living in and around
mountain regions and in areas downstream.

The main economic activities in mountain regions are agriculture, pastoralism, forestry,
tourism, mining, cross-border trade and energy production. Mountain regions provide
As the ‘water
high-value products such as medicinal plants, timber and other forest products, unique
towers’ of the mountain livestock and speciality agriculture products. They are global hotspots of
world, mountains agrobiodiversity, with a large fraction of the world’s gene pools for agriculture and medicinal
are an essential plants preserved in mountains.
source of fresh
Mountains feature a diverse range of ecological zones, each resulting from a specific
water
combination of factors such as elevation, geomorphology, isolation and microclimatic
conditions (e.g. insolation). Consequently, they often have higher endemic biodiversity than
lowlands, including important genetic varieties of agricultural crops and animals. They also
have an equally diverse range of human cultures.

Glaciers and the mountain cryosphere

The mountain cryosphere is one of the most-sensitive components of the Earth system to
global climate change. Mountains generally supply more surface runoff per unit area than
lowlands, due to higher precipitation and lower evaporation. Alpine glaciers also store and
release water, albeit over much longer time-frames. In many high mountain regions, the
formation of seasonal snow cover provides most of the freshwater storage.

Most of the world’s glaciers, including those in mountains, are melting at an increasing rate.
However, snow-melt accounts for a greater volume of streamflow in most river basins with a
cryosphere component, and is often substantially higher than glacier melt.

Global warming is accelerating glacier melt, decreasing snow cover, increasing permafrost
thaw, and prompting more extreme rainfall events and natural hazards. Water flows from
mountains will become more erratic, uncertain and variable. Changes in the timing and
volume of peak and low flow periods, increased erosion and sediment loads will affect water
resources downstream, in terms of quantity, timing and quality.

Dust, combustion-related soot deposits including black carbon, and microbial and algal
growth on snow and glacier surfaces are becoming more common due to increased
frequency and/or intensity of dust storms, air pollution and wildfires. They can accelerate
melt rates by decreasing surface albedo until the next snowfall.

The consequences of climate change, including higher temperatures, glacial recession,

permafrost thaw and changing precipitation patterns, can affect flood and landslide risks.
The processes associated with these risks, such as debris flows and floods, avalanches,
rock- and icefalls, landslide dam outburst floods and glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs),
can pose significant threats to communities, wildlife and infrastructure.

2 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
 Food and agriculture
Agriculture and pastoralism are essential sources of livelihoods for people in rural mountain
areas. One in two rural mountain dwellers in developing countries are vulnerable to food
insecurity. Remoteness and inaccessibility, as well as land degradation (which leads to poor
quality soils) and large variations in seasonal water supply, combine to create significant
challenges for mountain agriculture.

Mountain communities preserve many of the rarest crop varieties and medicinal plants. They
have developed valuable traditional knowledge and techniques in crop cultivation, livestock
production and water harvesting that help to sustain entire ecosystems.

Indigenous Peoples in mountains have unique and valuable local knowledge, traditions
and cultural practices that contribute to sustainable food systems, land management and
Global warming
biodiversity preservation. Terrace farming can be adapted to local slope conditions. Its
is accelerating numerous benefits include reducing surface water runoff, promoting water conservation,
glacier melt, reducing soil erosion, stabilizing slopes, enhancing habitat and biodiversity production, and
decreasing sustaining cultural heritage.

snow cover and

Responses to climate-driven impacts in mountains vary significantly in terms of goals and
prompting more priorities, speed of implementation, governance and modes of decision-making, and the
extreme rainfall extent of financial and other resources to implement them. Adaptation responses commonly
events and natural include changing farming practices, infrastructure development including for water storage,
hazards application of Indigenous knowledge, community-based capacity-building and ecosystem-
based adaptation (EbA).

Human settlements and disaster risk reduction

Roughly 1.1 billion people live in mountain regions, two-thirds of whom live in towns
and cities. The remoteness of mountain communities, difficult terrain and heightened
exposure to natural hazards often lead to higher costs for transport, infrastructure, goods
and services. These also pose particular challenges for the financing, development
and maintenance of water supply and sanitation systems, drainage networks and other
essential water infrastructure.

Rapid and unplanned urbanization in mountain regions is also placing pressure on fragile
mountain ecosystems, affecting water availability, quality and security. Decentralized water
and sanitation systems can be particularly effective in mountain regions, reducing the risk of
infrastructure damage in rugged terrain subject to frequent landslides.

Natural hazards such as landslides, earthquakes, floods, GLOFs and avalanches can damage
the water supply and sanitation infrastructure, and disrupt access to water, sanitation and
hygiene services. Such hazards increase the vulnerability of already vulnerable and often
marginalized mountain communities, and destabilize some of their wealth-generating
sectors, including agriculture, tourism and biodiversity.

Examples of adaptation actions in mountain regions include: feasibility studies for building
emergency storage and bypasses and controlled releases from glacial lakes; river basin
management and planning for basin optimization; monitoring temporal changes in glaciers;
and establishing GLOF risk reduction and early warning systems in glaciated river basins.

Executive summary 3
 Industry and energy
Water-dependent industries have developed in mountain areas where water and
other resources are found in relative abundance. In addition to industrial and energy
production, water is also required to process minerals, produce timber and develop
tourism in mountain areas.

Hydropower generation is one of the main industries in mountain areas. The presence
of a slope and the shape of mountain valleys make it possible to generate hydropower
without building large dams and reservoirs. However, the construction and presence of
dams and reservoirs, transmission lines and substations can have a significant negative
impact on fragile mountain ecosystems.

Beyond water availability, a significant challenge for industry and energy is the elevation
The remoteness at which it is possible to operate. As such conditions can generate huge investment
of mountain and running costs, industrial activities are typically limited to those with high returns on
communities, investment.
difficult terrain
Industrial and energy development can affect water quality. Remote mountain areas
and heightened
can be difficult to regulate, resulting in uncontrolled water withdrawals and discharges,
exposure to including pollutants.
natural hazards
often lead to Responses are available and are being developed to make industry and energy production
in mountain areas more sustainable. The circular economy promotes water-use reduction,
higher costs
recycling of used water and reuse of water resources. Environmentally sound technologies
for transport, encompass practices such as the use of less-polluting technologies, better resource
infrastructure, management and efficient waste recycling. The greening of grey infrastructure or its
goods and services replacement with green infrastructure can be particularly effective in mountain areas.

Environment
Mountain and highland ecosystems provide essential ecosystem services to people living
in mountains, and to billions in connected lowland areas. Water regulation (including
water storage and flood regulation) is one of the most important services.

Other key ecosystem services include reducing the risk of erosion and landslides, cooling
local temperatures, carbon sequestration, providing food and fibres, and maintaining
pools of genetic resources for locally adapted crops and livestock.

Forests cover an estimated 40% of mountain areas, performing a protective function

against natural hazards by stabilizing steep slopes, regulating flows to groundwater,
reducing surface runoff and soil erosion, and mitigating the potential for landslides and
floods. Unsustainable tree cultivation can lead to increased soil erosion and reduced soil
water infiltration.

Mountain soils develop under harsh climatic conditions. They differ significantly from
lowland soils, as they are shallower and more vulnerable to erosion. Such soils are easily
and often degraded by various human activities, especially removal of vegetation that
exposes the bare soil. The recovery of degraded soils and thus ecosystems at high
elevations is slow.

4 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
 At the ecosystem level, most of the options for addressing the impacts of changes in the
cryosphere and high mountains involve conserving or restoring ecosystem functionality to
maintain or enhance ecosystem services at local to regional scales through nature-based
solutions (NbS) or EbA. These approaches are now commonly seen as an adaptation
component in the nationally determined contributions of many mountain countries around
the world.

Regional perspectives
Sub-Saharan Africa
Of continental Africa’s land area, 20% is classified as mountains with an elevation over
1,000 metres above sea level (masl), with 5% rising above 1,500 masl. East Africa is the
most mountainous region in Africa. The mountain regions are characterized by high levels of
biodiversity; they provide ecosystem services, including water resources, to millions of people.
In tropical and subtropical Sub-Saharan Africa, mountains have favourable environmental
conditions and resources compared with the generally drier surrounding lowlands.

Agricultural production and food security within mountain regions and downstream lowlands
are critically dependent on mountain waters. The degradation of mountain ecosystems
In addition to reduces their ability to store and supply water downstream. This is particularly the case with
industrial and deforestation of critically important montane forests.
energy production,
water is also Considering farming is the principal livelihood in the mountains of Sub-Saharan Africa,
improving agricultural practices to reduce land degradation (soil conservation) is of critical
required to process
importance. Promoting EbA (e.g. reforestation and conservation of montane forests reducing
minerals, produce soil erosion) can enhance water retention and aquifer recharge and diminish the risk of
timber and natural hazards.
develop tourism in
mountain areas There are high population growth rates and density in the mountains of the region, with
widespread poverty and a lack of alternative and resilient livelihoods. In many areas, the
mountains are more densely populated than the lowlands.

Europe and Central Asia

Mountain ranges are the source of water for many rivers in Europe and Central Asia. Alpine
snow and glacial melt ensure a slow release of water to downstream areas. However, climate
change is leading to earlier seasonal snow-melt and smaller glaciers, thereby threatening the
availability of water in the summer season. This has serious consequences for populations in
downstream basins.

Water from the Alps is vitally important to large parts of Europe. Hydropower generation
is the main reason for water abstraction, while other uses include industrial purposes,
agricultural irrigation and snow-making.

The Carpathian Mountains are home to approximately 30% of European flora. Their semi-
natural habitats such as mountain pastures and hay meadows are of great ecological and
cultural importance.

Across the mountains of Central Asia, upstream countries experience energy shortages in
winter and would like to expand their hydropower production, while downstream countries are
largely dependent on water from the mountains for their agricultural production in the summer.
These conflicting seasonal demands lead to political tensions among the riparian countries.

Executive summary 5
 The improvement and exchange of knowledge and information, the strengthening of regional
cooperation, the strengthening of in-country capacities on the cryosphere and mountain
water management, and the raising of awareness and involvement of key stakeholders in
developing and implementing action plans are needed.

Latin America and the Caribbean

Mountains occupy about one-third of the territory in Latin America and the Caribbean. They
produce more water flow per land area than any other continent. Glaciers across the region are
experiencing a significant overall reduction in volume, with several having disappeared entirely.

Water originating in the mountains is essential for producing high-value agricultural crops like
coffee and cocoa. Mountain waters also generate most of the region’s hydroelectric power,
providing energy for cities and smaller communities downstream, as well as remote villages
in mountain areas.

The mountain areas in Latin America and the Caribbean are being increasingly affected
Alpine glaciers are by climate change and human activities. Water-related social conflicts have occurred in
high-elevation areas of Andean countries, many of which can be attributed partially to mining
disappearing at an activities, which can negatively affect the availability of water for downstream users.
alarming rate
In response, several countries have enacted policies and laws to protect these critical
ecosystems. However, some systems have already surpassed critical thresholds, making it
crucial to promote adaptive measures such as NbS (e.g. reforestation), cropping techniques
and expanding water collection infrastructure. To implement these measures effectively,
well-targeted funding, robust monitoring, capacity-building and inclusive governance
frameworks are needed, fostering dialogue and inclusion of local communities to apply the
best available practices adapted to local contexts in the mountain regions.

Asia and the Pacific

The Asia–Pacific region contains some of the world’s highest mountains and most extensive
glacier systems. This so-called Third Pole stores more ice and snow than any other region
outside the Antarctic and Arctic. It is the origin of more than ten river systems that are vital
for sustaining nearly 2 billion individuals in the river basins of Central, Northeast, South and
Southeast Asia. The Third Pole is also one of the most biologically diverse and ecologically
fragile areas in the world, and is home to a variety of cultures.

Alpine glaciers in the region are disappearing at an alarming rate, often faster than the global
average. Over the long term, reduced water flows and increased droughts are expected to
jeopardize food, water, energy and livelihood security in the Hindu Kush Himalaya region.

Energy use, environmental degradation and human activity are contributing to risks in
other ways, with black carbon, heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants showing an
increasing presence in the Third Pole.

Collaboration on engaging the diverse stakeholders and sectors affected by the trends
is essential. Glacial melt and water-related crises must be addressed by strengthened
adaptation measures, integrated water resources management (IWRM) and synergistic
solutions for climate, nature and pollution, supported by transboundary collaboration,
regional dialogue, advocacy and awareness-raising.

6 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
 Arab region
The mountain areas of the Arab region are often overlooked, despite the important role
they play in providing water resources and other ecosystem services. They are home
to thriving communities and centres of economic activity for tourism, agriculture and
industry, which are often reliant on the ever-dwindling availability of freshwater resources,
resulting in a reduced amount of renewable water per capita.

Meltwater can serve a crucial role for the agricultural sector, particularly in sustaining
crops during the summer when precipitation is limited. Some aquifer-fed springs within
There is a need
the Arab region are primarily recharged from snow-melt. In Mount Lebanon and the Atlas
for expansion of Mountains, seasonal snowfall and overall precipitation are expected to decrease, affecting
the observational snow cover duration and depth and availability of freshwater resources. These projected
infrastructure in reductions in snow cover signal an overall decrease in water supply, specifically during the
dry season when it is most needed for irrigation. Water, sanitation and hygiene services
high mountain
may also be affected by reduced overall water resources in the long term.
areas
Managed aquifer recharge is one adaptation measure that could be employed. Water
harvesting could be used in the winter to mitigate the decrease in water availability in the
summer resulting from climate change impacts on mountain areas in the Arab region,
including the loss of snowpack.

Knowledge- and capacity-building

The high variability in mountain climate, topography, geology and vegetation – all of which
influence the movement of water through the landscape – creates an exceptional need for
representative hydrometeorological networks and robust information systems.

The sparseness of cryosphere monitoring in mountain regions exacerbates uncertainties

in hydroglaciological predictions, enhancing the risk of water resources mismanagement.
To understand cryospheric changes and improve the sustainability of mitigation and
adaptation approaches, there is a need for expansion of the observational infrastructure in
high mountain areas, and also for data to be open access.

Engagement and meaningful collaboration with Indigenous Peoples and local

communities, with their prior informed consent, and the willingness to learn from
stewardship of water systems evolved over generations will improve the collective ability
to respond to changing mountain cryospheric and downstream hydrological conditions.

Institutional capacity can encompass the time and resources necessary to bring diverse
people and perspectives together. Collaborative governance models often imply trade-
offs that, while advantageous to society in the long term, may be undesirable to current
beneficiaries from the status quo.

Participation in citizen science projects can provide valuable avenues for public
engagement with the local environment, improve scientific literacy and encourage
research careers. Collaboration between research organizations and community groups,
where researchers develop the methods, education and training, is a common approach
to ensure this requirement is met. In this process, locals should provide input on project
scope to ensure the knowledge outcomes meet their community needs.

Executive summary 7
 Governance and finance
The role of water governance in mountains has not received as much attention as in lower-
lying lands, on which there has been a large amount of work, such as through IWRM.

International policy frameworks offer promising support to water governance and adaptation
to climate-related changes in the mountains. Treaties and conventions are relevant enablers
to promote cooperation and implementation at the mountain region scale.

Most large rivers originate in mountain areas and often cross international borders.
Transboundary water governance, based on a ‘basin-level view’ that considers mountain
In some cases, waters, can provide benefits to riparian countries. Regional cooperation among countries,
national policies including river basin governance initiatives, is an important mechanism for advancing climate
for water, adaptation in mountains. However, conflict between national interests within transboundary
agriculture, water agreements and the ineffectiveness of institutions to navigate coordination within the
local context has hindered effective cooperation.
industry and
energy are The management of mountain waters takes place primarily within country borders, through
developed to national legislation, policy and strategies. In some cases, national policies for water,
favour low-lying agriculture, industry and energy are developed to favour low-lying regions of river basins,
regions of river for instance, to serve more populous areas. National policies may often not fully reflect water
sectoral issues within the mountains; rather, they tend to focus on mountains as sources for
basins downstream users.

Development in mountains is generally more costly and difficult than in lowlands due to the
rugged terrain and poor accessibility, restrictions on economies of scale, long distance from
seaports and economic centres, and poorly developed industrial and service sectors. Costs
related to transport, infrastructure, goods and services increase with elevation and isolation.
These need to be considered in policy and financing, with calls for mountain-specific policies
and programmes in national and global development plans.

Climate adaptation finance and private sector inclusion and contribution are key enablers
for achieving the adaptation potential in mountains. While substantial funding is potentially
available for investment in sustainable development in mountain regions, access to major
support programmes has been relatively limited. This indicates a significant response option
is underutilized. More specifically, innovative and affordable international, regional, national
and local funds should be mobilized to support water, agriculture and energy planning and
infrastructure investments.

Coda
Mountains provide life-sustaining fresh water to billions of people and countless ecosystems.
As the world’s water towers, their critical role in sustainable development cannot be ignored.

Actions must be taken to better understand and protect these fragile environments,
increasingly threatened by climate change and unsustainable human activities.

Because nothing that happens in mountains stays in mountains.

In one way or another, we all live downstream.

8 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
Prologue

UNESCO WWAP
Richard Connor, Chorong Ahn and Beobkyung Kim
 Trends in water According to the most recent global estimates from 2021 (FAO, n.d.), the agriculture
demand and sector dominates total water withdrawals (72%), followed by industry (15%) and domestic
(or municipal) use (13%) (Figure P.1).
availability
Over the period 2000–2021, total water withdrawals grew by 14% globally (from 3,500 km3
in 2000 to just under 4,000 km3 in 2021), giving an average increase of 0.7% a year.
However, this growth has not been uniform across sectors. The greatest increase has
occurred in agriculture (which includes self-supplied water withdrawn for irrigation,
livestock and aquaculture), followed by the municipal use sector (which comprises water
withdrawn primarily for direct use by the population). Freshwater withdrawals by industry
(self-supplied) appear to have dropped by nearly 20% over the same period (Table P.1).

Figure P.1 Global total water withdrawals by major water-use sector, 2000–2021 (km3/year)

4 500

4 000

3 500
Water withdrawls by sector (km3/year)

3 000

2 500

2 000

1 500

1 000

500

0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021

Agriculture Industry Municipal

Source: Authors, based on data from AQUASTAT (FAO, n.d.).

Table P.1 Global freshwater withdrawals by sector, 2000 and 2021

Agricultural Industrial Municipal

Year Volume (km ) 3
Percentage Volume (km ) 3
Percentage Volume (km3) Percentage
of total (%) of total (%) of total (%)

2000 2 365 67 746 21 396 11

2021 2 855 72 601 15 528 13

Source: Authors, based on data from AQUASTAT (FAO, n.d.).

Sector-specific freshwater withdrawals vary considerably as a function of countries’ levels

of economic development. Higher-income countries use more water for industry, whereas
lower-income countries use 90% (or more) of their water for agricultural irrigation (Figure P.2).

10 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
 Figure P.2
Water withdrawal Total usage
by sector (% of total (billion m3)
freshwater withdrawal) High income
by income group, 2020
44% 39% 17% 870

Upper-middle income

66% 16% 17% 1 226

Note: The ‘domestic’
sector data in this
figure are the same
as those of the
Lower-middle income
‘municipal’ sector
in Figure P.1 and
Table P.1.

88% 4% 8% 1 657

Low income 90% 3% 7% 111

Source: Kashiwase and

Fujs (2023, based on
Agriculture Industry Domestic
data from AQUASTAT).
Licence CC BY 3.0 IGO.

However, the level to which the decrease in industry withdrawals mentioned

above is related to improved water-use efficiency by industries in high- and
upper-middle-income countries remains unclear, and this may be a topic
worth pursuing.

Future trends in water demand are notoriously difficult to estimate (United

Nations, 2023). In general, increases are due mainly to socio-economic
Most of the development and related changes in consumption patterns, including diet.
increasing water Most of the increasing water demand occurs in cities, countries and regions
demand occurs in undergoing rapid economic development, notably in emerging economies.
cities, countries However, population growth does not appear to play a highly significant role.
In fact, countries where per capita water use is the lowest, including several
and regions
countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, are often those with the fastest growing
undergoing populations (United Nations, 2024a).
rapid economic
development Although definitions vary, water availability (or scarcity) can be seen as a
purely volumetric measurement, while water stress corresponds to availability
as a function of demand (i.e. the ability, or lack thereof, to meet human and
ecological demand for water).

Twenty-five countries – home to one-quarter of the world’s population – face

‘extremely high’ water stress every year (Kuzma et al., 2023). Water availability
generally varies in terms of location and timing, such that annual averages of
water availability can mask severe water shortages (i.e. stress) that can occur

Prologue 11
 during specific months or seasons throughout the year. The Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change estimates that approximately 4 billion people, or half the entire
world’s population, experience severe water scarcity for at least part of the year
(IPCC, 2023).

Climate change is increasing seasonal variability in, and uncertainty about, water
availability in most regions (UNESCO/UN-Water, 2020; IPCC, 2023). Pollution, land
and ecosystem degradation, and natural hazards can further compromise the
availability of water resources and the sectors that depend upon them.

Progress towards Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6 seeks to ensure the availability and
Sustainable sustainable management of water and sanitation for all. It focuses on drinking water,
sanitation and hygiene, sustainable management of water resources, water quality,
Development Goal 6
integrated water resources management (IWRM), water-related ecosystems and the
enabling environment.

Progress towards all SDG 6 targets is off track – some severely (Figure P.3). Data
gaps and deficiencies in monitoring continue to impede accurate assessment and
effective implementation of necessary interventions.1

Figure P.3
Progress status of
Sustainable Development On track or target met

Goal 6 targets, 2024 Moderate progress, but acceleration needed

Marginal progress, and significant acceleration needed

Stagnation

Regression

Insufficient data

6.1 Safe drinking water

6.2 Access to sanitation and hygiene

6.3 Water quality

6.4 Water-use efficiency

6.5 Transboundary water cooperation

6.6 Water-related ecosystems

6.a International cooperation on water and sanitation

6.b Participatory water and sanitation management

Source: United Nations (n.d.a).

1
For detailed and up-to-date metrics, supplemental information and links to background reports on progress
towards all SDG 6 targets and indicators, see www.sdg6data.org.

12 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
 Target 6.1: Safe drinking water
An estimated 2.2 billion people (27% of the global population) were without access to safely
managed drinking water in 2022 (Figure P4). Four out of five people lacking at least basic
drinking water services lived in rural areas. The coverage gap between urban and rural was
greatest in Sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America and the Caribbean (UNICEF/WHO, 2023).

Figure P.4
Proportion of
100
population using safely
managed drinking
water services, 2022 80 Safely managed service
Proportion of population (%)

Basic service
60
Limited service

Unimproved
40

Surface water

20

Source: United Nations 0

(n.d.b, based on data from National Urban Rural

UNICEF/WHO (2023)).

Target 6.2: Access to sanitation and hygiene

As of 2022, 3.5 billion people worldwide lacked access to safely managed sanitation
(UNICEF/WHO, 2023). The situation was particularly dire in Sub-Saharan Africa, where a mere
24% of the population used safely managed sanitation services. Lack of access also persists
in other regions, such as Latin America and the Caribbean, and Central and Southern Asia,
where only roughly 50% of the population had access to these services (Figure P.5).

Figure P.5 Proportion of population using safely managed sanitation services (Sustainable Development Goal Indicator 6.2.1a)
in different regions, 2022

100

80
Proportion of population (%)

60

40

20

0
Australia and Central and Eastern and Latin America Europe and Sub-Saharan Northern Africa
New Zealand Southern Asia South-Eastern Asia and the Caribbean Northern America Africa and Western Asia

Source: United Nations (n.d.c, based on data from UNICEF/WHO (2023)).

Prologue 13
 Target 6.3: Water quality
SDG Indicator 6.3.1 tracks the proportion of total – industrial and household (domestic)
– wastewater flows safely treated in compliance with national or local standards. The
household component includes sewage and faecal sludge, treated on or off site, with
linkages to Indicator 6.2.1a on sanitation. Unfortunately, “There is an alarming lack
of countries’ reported wastewater statistics worldwide”, and “data are insufficient to
establish global statistics on the proportion of total wastewater treated and safely treated”
(UN-Habitat/WHO, 2024, p. xiii).

In 2023, data on 91,000 water bodies from 120 countries revealed that 56% had good water
quality (United Nations, 2024b). “However, data collection and reporting on basic water quality
parameters is beyond the capacity of many low- and lower middle-income countries. In 2023,
over 2 million water quality measurements were used to report on this indicator [6.3.2], but the
countries that represent the lowest-income half of the world contributed less than 3 per cent of
this total (60,000)” (UNEP, 2024a, pp. ix–x).

Target 6.4: Water-use efficiency and water stress level

“Increasing water-use efficiency, for example by repairing leaking water distribution systems,
using less thirsty crops and investing in new technology, results in more sustainable food and
industrial production systems. Water savings are also often associated with energy savings, as
less water needs to be extracted, treated, transported and heated” (United Nations, n.d.d). This
target’s indicator (6.4.1) monitors the change in water-use efficiency over time, estimated as
the ratio of dollar value added to the volume of water used.

Efficiency varies widely, influenced by a country’s economic structure and the sectoral
distribution of water. For example, “In 2021, estimates ranged from below $3/m³ in agriculture-
dependent economies to over $50/m³ in highly industrialized, service-based ones. Despite the
average increase globally, around 58 per cent of countries still exhibit low water use efficiency
(less than $20/m³)” (United Nations, 2024b, p. 21).

The monitoring of water stress levels provides an estimation of pressure by all sectors on
the country’s renewable freshwater resources. SDG Indicator 6.4.2 reached 18.6% in 2021, an
increase of 2.7% since 2015 (FAO/UN-Water, 2024).

Target 6.5: Transboundary water cooperation

Out of 153 countries sharing transboundary rivers, lakes and aquifers, only 43 have 90% or
more of their transboundary waters covered by operational arrangements. Only 26 countries
have all their transboundary waters covered by operational arrangements (UNECE/UNESCO/
UN-Water, 2024).

SDG Indicator 6.5.1 tracks the implementation of IWRM. “Global progress in implementing
integrated water resources management remains slow, however, edging up from a score
of 49 per cent in 2017 to only 57 per cent in 2023. […] Significant efforts to accelerate
implementation are needed, particularly in Central and Southern Asia, Latin America and the
Caribbean, Oceania and sub-Saharan Africa” (United Nations, 2024b, p. 21).

Target 6.6: Water-related ecosystems

This target encompasses the broad and ambitious goal of protecting and restoring water-
related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers and lakes.
Notably, the target is not quantified at the global level. As such, the target exists without
information on the level of ambition expressed as a number or area of water-related
ecosystems needing protection and/or restoration. However, “The SDG 6.6.1 data trends
show water-related ecosystems are continuing to face significant levels of degradation. This
is primarily driven by pollution, dams, land conversion, over-abstraction, and climate change”
(UNEP, 2024b, p. 2).

14 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
 Target 6.a: International cooperation on water and sanitation
Official development assistance (ODA) disbursements to the water sector steadily decreased
from 2018 to 2020, then rose by 11% to US$9.1 billion in 2021 (United Nations, n.d.e).
“However, water sector ODA disbursements as a percentage of total ODA across all sectors
decreased to 3.2% in 2022, a historical low, and continuing a downwards trend which has
accelerated since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020” (WHO, 2024, p. 40).

Target 6.b: Participatory water and sanitation management

Over 90% of countries reported having procedures for participation defined in law or policy
for rural drinking water and water resources management over the 2021–2022 reporting
cycle. However, “less than one third of countries reported high or very high participation of
communities in planning and management processes” (WHO, 2022, p. 48).

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Change. Geneva/Paris, United Nations/UNESCO. https://unesdoc.unesco. 2023: Partnerships and Cooperation for Water. Paris, United Nations
org/ark:/48223/pf0000391407?posInSet=1&queryId=1951bc54-df3b- Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). https://
44b4-9005-be568735fb16. unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000384655.

Prologue 15
 ——. 2024a. The United Nations World Water Development Report 2024: Water ——. n.d.d. Progress on Water-Use Efficiency (SDG Target 6.4). United Nations
for Prosperity and Peace. Paris, United Nations Educational, Scientific and website. www.sdg6data.org/en/indicator/6.4.1. (Accessed on 4 December
Cultural Organization (UNESCO). https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/ 2024.)
pf0000388948?posInSet=2&queryId=7d456b10-1bbb-4395-86fa-
063bc64acb8c. ——. n.d.e. Progress on International Water Cooperation (SDG Target 6.a).
United Nations website. www.sdg6data.org/en/indicator/6.a.1. (Accessed
——. 2024b. The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2024. New York, on 2 December 2024.)
United Nations. https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2024/.
WHO (World Health Organization). 2022. Strong Systems and Sound
——. n.d.a. SDG Progress by Target. United Nations website. https://unstats. Investments: Evidence on and Key Insights into Accelerating Progress
un.org/sdgs/report/2024/sdg-progress-by-target/. (Accessed on 2 on Sanitation, Drinking-Water and Hygiene. UN-Water Global Analysis
December 2024.) and Assessment of Sanitation and Drinking-Water (GLAAS) 2022 Report.
Geneva, WHO. https://iris.who.int/handle/10665/365297.
——. n.d.b. Progress on Drinking Water (SDG Target 6.1). United Nations website.
www.sdg6data.org/en/indicator/6.1.1. (Accessed on 2 December 2024.) ——. 2024. World Health Statistics 2024: Monitoring Health for the SDGs,
Sustainable Development Goals. Geneva, WHO. https://iris.who.int/
——. n.d.c. Progress on Sanitation (SDG Target 6.2). United Nations website. handle/10665/376869.
www.sdg6data.org/en/indicator/6.2.1a. (Accessed on 4 December 2024.)

16 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
Chapter 1

Introduction

UNESCO WWAP
Richard Connor and Philippus Wester

With contributions from: James Thornton (University of Bern)

 Mountains, often referred to as the world’s ‘water towers’, play a unique and critical role
in the global water cycle. They affect atmospheric circulation, which drives weather and
precipitation patterns. They can store water in the form of ice and snow during cold seasons,
releasing it during warmer seasons as a major source of fresh water for users downstream.

These mountain waters are vital for meeting basic human needs such as water supply
and sanitation. They are essential for ensuring food and energy security (from irrigated
agriculture to hydropower and thermal power cooling) to billions of people living in and
around mountain regions and areas downstream. They also support economic growth
through various water-reliant industries.

Alpine glaciers2 also store and release water, albeit over long time-frames. While continental
glaciers, notably those in Antarctica and Greenland, store vast amounts of fresh water in the
form of ice, mountain glaciers have a far more direct impact on the availability of freshwater
resources to meet human needs in the immediate and near future.

Healthy mountain ecosystems promote flow regulation, aquifer recharge and sediment
retention, among other environmental services. They often comprise robust plant, animal and
Water flows from
microbial species, yet the ecosystems are fragile and vulnerable to rapid shifts in land cover
mountains will and climate. Through erosion and sedimentation processes, mountain regions also provide
become more essential nutrients (e.g. minerals) that support terrestrial, estuarine and coastal ecosystems,
variable, erratic and fertilize soils downstream. Nevertheless, mountain regions are largely absent from the
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), with the exception of SDG Targets 6.6, 15.1 and 15.4.
and uncertain
Climate change is accelerating glacier melt, decreasing snow cover, increasing permafrost
thaw, and causing more extreme rainfall events and natural hazards. Water flows from
mountains will become more variable, erratic and uncertain. Changes in the timing and
volume of peak and low flow periods and increased erosion and sediment loads will affect
water resources downstream, in terms of quantity, timing and quality (Alder et al., 2022).
Many climate change adaptation strategies in mountains are fundamentally related to water.
However, although mountain regions are warming more rapidly than lowlands, the current
pace, depth and scope of (largely incremental) adaptation measures in mountain regions are
insufficient to address future risks to global water security.

Pollution and water quality deterioration upstream invariably affect users downstream.
Although little is known about trends in water quality in mountain regions, there is growing
evidence for increases in sediment yields in high mountain areas driven by land-use changes
(e.g. deforestation), climate change and cryospheric degradation (Li et al., 2021).

The already high dependence of lowland populations on mountain water resources will
increase further by mid-century, mainly driven by socio-economic development. This
highlights the urgency of improving mountain water governance through integrated river
basin management, finance, and knowledge- and capacity-building, in order to meet the
world’s ever-growing demand for water.

Previous editions of The United Nations World Water Development Report have given
only limited attention to the cryosphere3 – including glaciers, snow cover dynamics and
permafrost – or to alpine systems, both of which are closely related. In alignment with the
designation of 2025 as the International Year of Glaciers’ Preservation (General Assembly of
the United Nations, 2022a) and the 2022 resolution on sustainable mountain development

2
Alpine glaciers are glaciers confined by surrounding mountain terrain; also called mountain glaciers.
3
The part of the Earth’s surface covered by water in its solid form – including glaciers, ice caps, snow, permanently
frozen ground (permafrost), lake and river ice, ice sheets and sea ice. The cryosphere forms an important component
of the hydrosphere and the global water cycle.

18 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
 (General Assembly of the United Nations, 2022b), this report aims to draw worldwide
attention to the importance of mountain waters, including alpine glaciers, in sustainable
development of the mountain regions and the downstream societies that depend upon them,
with a focus on the impacts of the rapidly changing mountain cryosphere.

As such, this report examines:

• The dynamics of mountains and alpine glaciers, and their role in the global water cycle
as water towers, from a resources management perspective, with implications on water
supply, storage and quality.

• The services and benefits mountain waters provide in supporting societies, economies
and the environment, highlighting the challenges to users (e.g. human settlements,
agriculture and industry) and opportunities (potential benefits) in terms of water supply
and sanitation, climate change mitigation and adaptation, food and energy security, and
ecosystem protection, restoration and maintenance.

The report also seeks to cultivate a view from a basin perspective, encompassing integrated
water resources management, source to sea, transboundary cooperation and other similar
interlinking concepts. However, it primarily concentrates on upstream challenges and related
interventions, with a particular emphasis on glaciers, the cryosphere and alpine systems,
including the latest key global metrics and state-of-the-art knowledge.

1.1 Several delineations of the world’s mountain regions have been developed since the late
Mountain areas of 1990s, based on digital elevation models (Thornton et al., 2022), culminating with the one
from the United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre in
the world
2000 (Box 1.1; Kapos et al., 2000). This now serves as the basis for reporting under the 2030
Agenda for Sustainable Development.

Box 1.1 Delineating mountain regions

To delineate mountain regions, a combination of terrain characteristics is used: elevation,

steepness of slope and relative relief (ruggedness), also termed ‘local elevational range’ (the
difference between minimum and maximum elevation in a grid cell).

The United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre mountain
delineation uses elevation ranges, with all land lying higher than 2,500 metres above sea level
(masl) considered mountainous irrespective of ruggedness. Land lying between 300 masl
and 2,500 masl is considered mountainous if slope or ruggedness values exceed predefined
thresholds: between 300 m and 1,000 m elevation, a local elevation range of more than 300 m
in a grid cell of 7 km radius; between 1,000 m and 1,500 m elevation, more than 5° slope
or more than 300 m local elevation range (7 km radius); and between 1,500 m and 2,500 m
elevation, more than 2° slope. These thresholds have been proven to be appropriate to exclude
mid-elevation plateaux and include lower-elevation areas generally considered mountainous
such as the Scottish Highlands (United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland), the
Massif Central (France) and the low mountains of the Caribbean islands, as well as hills and
hilly forelands above 300 masl (Kapos et al., 2000).

Introduction 19
 Based on the World Conservation Monitoring Centre delineation, mountain regions cover
around 33 million km2 – or 24% of the global land surface, excluding Antarctica (Romeo et al.,
2020). In 2015, some 1.1 billion people (around 15% of the world’s population) resided in
mountain regions (Figure 1.1) – nearly doubling from just over 575 million in 1975 (Thornton
et al., 2022). For comparison, around 900 million people lived in deltas and low-lying coastal
regions, including islands, in 2020 (Glavovic et al., 2022).

In 2017, most of the global mountain population (around 91%) lived in developing countries.
Around 90% of the total mountain population lived at elevations between 1,500 metres
above sea level (masl) and 2,500 masl, with only around 75 million people living higher than
2,500 masl (Tremblay and Ainslie, 2021).

Figure 1.1 Delineation of mountain regions and population densities, 2015

720.32
• Global population in mountain regions 1 283 million people 115.85

• Global mountain area 31.74 million km2

Europe: 2.27

Asia: 15.92

63.75

North America: 5.42

16.58
227.8

138.26
Small Islands:
0.32 Africa: 3.85 0.53

Central and South

America: 3.58 Australasia: 0.38

IPCC WGII continental regions Population density Non-mountainous/out

in mountain regions of scope regions. The
Asia
(people/km2) assessment excludes
Africa Svalbard, Greenland
Small Islands and Antarctica
<1 1–5 5–25 25–100 >100
Australasia
North America
15 750
Central and South America
Europe 5 150
<1 15

Mountain area (million km2) Population in

characterized as a combination of mountain regions
elevation (greater than 300 masl), (millions of people)
slope and relative relief (ruggedness),
based on Kapos et al. (2000)

Note: IPCC WGII: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Working Group II; masl: metres above sea level.

Source: Adler et al. (2022, fig. CCP5.1(a), p. 2278).

20 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
 1.2 As the water towers of the world, mountains are an essential source of fresh water for
Mountain water (irrigated) agriculture, power generation, industry, and large and growing populations –
in the mountains and also downstream. Generally, due to higher precipitation and lower
usage and
evaporation, mountains supply more surface runoff per unit area than lowlands, providing
dependency 55–60% of global annual freshwater flows. However, specific values range from 40% to
over 90% in different parts of the world (Viviroli et al., 2020). Figure 1.2 illustrates the
dependencies of various lowland areas and populations on mountain water.

Key rivers that have been heavily influenced by water sources from mountains (>90% of the
mean annual flow) include the Amu Darya, Colorado, Nile, Orange and Rio Negro. Rivers that
have depended on mountain waters for more than 70% of their flow include the Euphrates,
Indus, São Francisco, Senegal and Tigris (Viviroli et al., 2020).

Major cities that have been critically dependent on mountain waters include Addis Ababa,
Barcelona, Bogotá, Jakarta, Kathmandu, La Paz, Lima, Los Angeles, Melbourne, Mexico City,
Mountains supply
New Delhi, New York, Quito, Rio de Janeiro and Tokyo (Kohler et al., 2015).
55–60% of global
annual freshwater The main economic activities in mountain regions are agriculture, pastoralism, forestry,
flows tourism, mining, cross-border trade and energy production (see Chapter 5). Mountains provide
high-value products such as medicinal plants, timber and other forest products, unique
mountain livestock (e.g. alpacas, goats, lamas, vicuñas and yaks) and speciality agriculture
products. They are global hotspots of agrobiodiversity, with a large fraction of the world’s gene
pools for agriculture and medicinal plants preserved in mountains (see Chapter 6).

Globally, up to two-thirds of irrigated agriculture may depend on mountain waters (see

Chapter 3), while the number of people in lowlands that strongly depend on water from
mountains increased worldwide from around 0.6 billion in the 1960s to some 1.8 billion in the
2000s. An additional 1 billion people in the lowlands benefit from supportive mountain runoff
contributions (Viviroli et al., 2020).

1.3 The majority (78%) of urban land cover globally is outside the mountains (i.e. in the
Mountain people lowlands). Nevertheless, urbanization is also an important aspect in mountain regions, with
a substantial share (66%) of the global mountain population living in towns and cities. In
and communities
2015, 34% of the global mountain population lived in cities with more than 50,000 inhabitants
(compared with 50% in lowlands), including capitals such as Kathmandu, La Paz, Mexico
City and Quito, 31% in towns and semi-dense areas (28% in lowlands), and 35% in rural areas,
defined as settlements with fewer than 300 people per square kilometre (25% in lowlands)
(Ehrlich et al., 2021).

Rapid urbanization in mountain regions poses particular challenges for the development
of water supply and sanitation systems (see Chapter 4). The remoteness of mountain
communities, the difficult terrain and heightened exposure to natural hazards often lead to
higher costs for transport, infrastructure, goods and services. These also pose particular
challenges for the financing, development and maintenance of water supply and sanitation
systems, drainage networks and other essential water infrastructure. Data on the proportion
of people with access to safely managed drinking water and sanitation services in mountain
regions are often sparse or incomplete.

Although most people living in rural areas are engaged in farming or pastoral livelihoods,
food and nutrition security in mountain regions is lower than in the lowlands, with 35–40% of
the mountain population being food insecure and half of them suffering from chronic hunger
(Romeo et al., 2020). Remoteness, inaccessibility, distance from roads and food markets,
shorter growing seasons, large variability of water availability, and fragmented and small
plots can contribute to shortfalls in local food production.

Introduction 21
 Figure 1.2 Projected importance of mountain regions and population dependence, 2041–2050 (SSP2-RCP6.0)

(a) Projected importance of mountain regions for lowland water resources (2041–2050, SSP2-RCP6.0)

Light shade = Lowland areas

(b) Projected lowland population dependence on mountain water resources (2041–2050, SSP2-RCP6.0)

Light shade = Mountain regions

Extent of importance and dependence

Essential but Essential Essential Supportive Minor Negligible No surplus Share of

vastly but and sufficient mountain
insufficient insufficient area in total
catchment
area <5%

Source: Adler et al. (2022, fig. CCP5.2(a, b), p. 2282).

22 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
 1.4 The mountain cryosphere is one of the components of the Earth system that is most
Mountain cryosphere, sensitive to global climate change (see Chapter 2). It is undergoing rapid and largely
irreversible changes because of pronounced warming. In several places, higher elevations
including glaciers appear to be warming faster than lower ones, and the impacts are becoming increasingly
evident (Pepin et al., 2022). Most of the world’s glaciers, including those in mountains,
are melting at an accelerated rate worldwide (Figure 1.3). Combined with accelerating
permafrost thaw, declining snow cover and more erratic snowfall patterns (Hock et al., 2019;
Adler et al., 2022), this will have significant and irreversible impacts on local, regional and
global hydrology, including water availability.

Figure 1.3
Glacier mass changes Decade
from around the world,
1951–1960 1971–1980 1991–2000 2011–2020
1950–2020
1961–1970 1981–1990 2001–2010
-0.0

-0.5
Annual mass change in m w.e.

0.4
0.2
-0.0
-0.2

-0.4

-0.6
Note: Top: Annual and
-0.8
decadal mass changes of
reference glaciers with more -1.0

than 30 years of ongoing -1.2

glaciological measurements. 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
Bottom: Cumulative mass
Year
change compared to in 1976
for regional and global means
based on data from reference Regional cumulative mass change of reference glaciers
glaciers. Annual mass change
Cumulative mass change in [m w.e.] or 1 000 kg m -2

values are given on the y-axis in

units of metres water equivalent 0
(m w.e.) that correspond to
tonnes per square metre
(1,000 kg/m2) and are calculated -10
Central Asia
as arithmetic averages of Arctic Canada North

regional means. Western Canada and USA

-20 Caucasus and Middle East
Southern Andes
Alaska
-30 Scandinavia
Svalbard and Jan Mayen
Central Europe
Mean of regions Cumulative values relative to 1976
-40
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
Source: WMO (2023, fig. 14,
Year
p. 18, based on data from
WGMS (2021)).

Snow-melt accounts for most cryospheric contributions to streamflow in most river basins
with a cryosphere component, and is often substantially higher than glacier melt. Snow
cover has decreased in nearly all mountain regions, especially in spring and summer, with an
expected further decrease in coming decades. The magnitude and timing of snow-melt have
already changed considerably, with trends in snow water equivalent being predominately
negative across the world in the past few decades (Hock et al., 2019).

Introduction 23
 Most of the Mountain hazards, such as flash floods, debris flows, glacial lake outburst floods,
landslides and avalanches, and the ensuing risks to societies, are expected to
world’s glaciers,
increase due to climate change, causing severe damage and disruption to people,
including those communities and infrastructure (Adler et al., 2022).
in mountains,
are melting at an
accelerated rate
worldwide

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24 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
Chapter 2

Changes in the
cryosphere and
impacts on water

UNESCO IHP*
Zoë Johnson, Chris DeBeer, Corinne Schuster-Wallace and John Pomeroy;1 James
Thornton;2 Sonam Wangchuk;3 James McPhee;4,5 Dhiraj Pradhananga;6 and Kerry Black
and Fred Wrona7

WMO*

With contributions from: Anil Mishra and Abou Amani (UNESCO IHP), Nilay Dogulu (WMO),
Tomasz Kolerski (Gdansk University of Technology) and Prashant Baral (ICIMOD)

*UNESCO IHP and WMO coordinated the chapter development with the participation of:
1
University of Saskatchewan, 2 University of Bern, 3 ICIMOD, 4 University of Chile,
5
International Association of Hydrological Sciences, 6 Tribhuvan University and 7 University of Calgary
 Mountain regions span a wide range of elevations. In this chapter, ‘high mountains’
are defined as mountains where snow and ice play an important role in global
freshwater provisioning (Viviroli et al., 2020; IPCC, 2023) and the local or regional
hydrological cycle. Although the two are related, hydroclimate – as opposed to
elevation – is a more relevant categorical basis for understanding impending
changes in the mountain cryosphere and the consequences for water. Often called
‘water towers’, high mountains receive greater amounts of precipitation than
High mountains
lower-lying areas and are responsible for generating large amounts of runoff and
receive greater streamflow (Immerzeel et al., 2020; Viviroli et al., 2020). Much of this precipitation
amounts of occurs as snowfall, which is stored as seasonal snowpacks and glacial ice during
precipitation cold periods and then released as meltwater during warmer periods.
than lower-lying
It is often stated that about 2 billion people depend on mountains – and therefore
areas and are on contributions from the melting cryosphere – for their freshwater supply. This is
responsible for a number derived from the estimate that 2 billion people live in drainage basins that
generating large originate in mountains (Immerzeel et al., 2020; Viviroli et al., 2020). Nevertheless,
the relative importance and contributions of melting snow, ice and frozen ground
amounts of runoff
to downstream water resources availability and quality are often poorly understood
and streamflow and mischaracterized (Gascoin, 2024). Generalizations such as “Himalayan glaciers
alone provide water to 1.4 billion people” (Milner et al., 2017, p. 9771) or “Glaciers
are crucial sources of life on Earth as they provide vital water resources to half of
humanity for domestic use, agriculture and hydropower” (UNESCO/IUCN, 2022, p. 3)
can leave the inaccurate impression that, without glaciers, billions of people will be
without water (Gascoin, 2024).

Glaciers play an important role in freshwater provisioning, but they do so with

far more nuance and regional variation than the above claims suggest. It must
be recognized that multiple other hydroclimatic processes are also involved in
freshwater systems. In fact, in most high mountain areas, the seasonal snowpack,
rather than glaciers, is the primary source of runoff (Barnett et al., 2005). Climate
change is radically affecting all components of the mountain cryosphere. Therefore,
the complexities of such impacts need to be explicitly examined and addressed.

This chapter describes why high mountains are hydrologically significant and
how the mountain cryosphere is changing. Global warming is amplified at most
high elevations, and is reducing snow accumulation and snow cover duration,
accelerating glacier mass loss and retreat, causing permafrost (permanently frozen
ground) thaw, and advancing the timing and sometimes the rate of snow and ice
melt, with high spatial and temporal variability (Pepin et al., 2022; IPCC, 2023).
The previously predictable timing of warm season melt is being replaced by more
variable rainfall-dominated runoff regimes, with complex downstream effects. The
potential impacts of these changes on freshwater systems and the occurrence of
extreme events (including droughts, floods, landslides and more) are discussed
below, along with implications for downstream ecosystems and communities.

2.1 2.1.1 High mountain hydrological processes

Dynamics of Mountains form the headwaters of many rivers around the world, and so play
the mountain a major role in the global hydrological cycle (Figure 2.1). Cyclical warm season
melting of mountain snowpacks and glaciers releases fresh water, which can
cryosphere
flow directly into streams and rivers or percolate into the ground, replenishing soil
moisture and groundwater.

26 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
Figure 2.1 High mountain hydrological and cryospheric processes governing water supply

Sublimation
Precipitation

Airflow

Sublimation Blowing snow

Preferential
deposition
Energy
Glaciers
fluxes
Avalanching Deposition

Permafrost

Evapotranspiration Infiltration
Snow-melt
Subsurface flow
Percolation Surface
runoff

Interception
Routing

Source: Adapted from Bertoncini (2024, fig. 1.1, p. 5).

In many high mountain regions, the formation of seasonal snow cover provides most of
the freshwater storage. This is referred to as ‘snow water equivalent’ (SWE) – the amount
of water that a given volume of snowpack would yield if melted (Barnett et al., 2005). As
shown in Figure 2.1, mountain snowpacks can be redistributed by wind through blowing snow
(Pomeroy and Li, 2000), by gravity through snow avalanches (Bernhardt and Schultz, 2010)
and by forests through interception (Hedstrom and Pomeroy, 1998). Mountain topography
In most high induces preferential deposition of snowfall on downwind slopes (Lehning et al., 2008).
mountain areas, Blowing and intercepted snow are subject to high sublimation4 losses that can reduce
the seasonal mountain SWE by up to half (Essery and Pomeroy, 2004; Pomeroy et al., 2022). Melt occurs
snowpack, rather preferentially on sunward-facing slopes, is faster during warm rainfalls, and is slower under
forest canopies. Therefore, slope orientation and forest cover strongly control the peak
than glaciers, is and duration of snow-melt streamflow hydrographs (Marks et al., 1998; Ellis et al., 2013).
the primary source Partitioning of meltwater between infiltration and runoff depends on melt rate, soil texture,
of runoff saturation and the presence of seasonally or permanently frozen ground. Frozen ground
reduces soil permeability; its occurrence diminishes with warming climate and increasing
snow-free season duration.

Snow redistribution processes cause snow-melt volumes to have a strong sensitivity

to changing vegetation. Expanding tundra shrubs can reduce snow redistribution and
sublimation, thereby increasing SWE. Conversely, afforestation increases sublimation losses,
thus reducing SWE. Snow-melt is especially sensitive to climate change, as it can increase
or decrease mountain precipitation and increase air temperature and humidity, thereby
decreasing the fraction of precipitation falling as snowfall, advancing the timing of snow-
melt, causing changes in rain-on-snow (ROS) melt events, and accelerating or decelerating
snow-melt rates. Melt rates generally decline with increasing vegetation.

4
Direct conversion of water from its solid form (snow or ice) to its gaseous form (water vapour), without first melting
into liquid water (USGS, 2019).

Changes in the cryosphere and impacts on water 27

 Climatic conditions permitting, not all snow will melt. If left for many years, perennial
snowpacks can develop into glacial ice (DeBeer et al., 2020). The seasonal accumulation
of snow and gradual compression into firn5 and then ice will increase the mass of a glacier,
whereas warm season ablation6 will decrease it. The glacier mass balance is the net
difference between snow accumulation and snow and ice ablation. Ablation via melt and
sublimation is strongly affected by snow cover duration, net radiation and temperature.
These are affected by air temperature, cloud cover, ice surface albedo, winter snowfall and
snow redistribution, and so are sensitive to climate change.

Dust, combustion-related soot deposits including black carbon, and microbial and algal
growth on snow and glacier surfaces are becoming more common due to increased
frequency and/or intensity of dust storms, air pollution and wildfires (Box 2.1). They can
accelerate melt rates by decreasing surface albedo until the next snowfall (Aubry-Wake et al.,
2022). However, if a rocky debris cover is sufficiently thick, an ice mass can be insulated from
external warming and persist long after the rest of a glacier recedes (Miles et al., 2020).

Glacierized mountain environments have complex hydrology. The presence of glaciers

increases snow accumulation and cold drainage winds, reduces stream temperatures and
delays streamflow generation. Subglacial pathways guide meltwater through various terrains,
including rock beds and moraines, and recharge groundwater, although these processes are
often poorly understood (Müller et al., 2022). Figure 2.2 summarizes some of the expected
shifts in high mountain environments due to atmospheric warming.

Figure 2.2 Key cryospheric and hydrological changes in high mountain regions under 21st century global warming

SNOW CHANGES
PERMAFROST THAW
• Shorter snow duration, earlier
• Decreased permafrost extent;
snow-melt and reduced
snow-covered area; • Changes in ground permeability.
• Decreased snow depth and snow
water equivalent at lower elevations
(and at all elevations in warmer
climates);
WARMER CLIMATE
• Decreased albedo due to melt, dust,
• More precipitation falling as rain
soot and pollution deposition;
as opposed to snow;
• Greater rain-on-snow events at high
• More and increasingly extreme
elevations and less at low elevations
heavy precipitation events.
due to shorter snow season.

VEGETATION RESPONSES
GLACIER DECLINE
• Extremes of drought causing moisture
• Negative mass balance and ice loss; stress and limiting evapotranspiration;
• Glacier retreat and disintegration; • Evapotranspiration losses and drier soils
• Rapid snow and ice melt rates during heatwaves. causing less effective rainfall runoff;
• Increasing susceptibility to wildfire and
wind erosion of soils, reducing albedo of
ALTERED RIVER FLOWS adjacent snow fields and glaciers.
• Earlier rising and peak flows in spring, and declining flows in summer and autumn;
• Reduced peak flow volumes;
• Shift from glacial and snow-melt dominated regimes to rainfall-driven flows and
increasing interannual variability and extremes of flood and drought.

Source: Authors.

5
An intermediate stage in the transformation of snow into glacial ice (USGS, 2013).
6
The loss of snow and ice from a glacier (e.g. through melt, evaporation, sublimation or calving) (USGS, 2013).

28 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
Box 2.1 Impact of black carbon, dust and other particulate matter deposition on snow and ice melt

With a warming climate, mountain regions globally are receiving emissions from an increasing number of wildfires and dust
storms. Together with human activities, these are leading to growing deposition of black carbon and other particulate matter
on glacier surfaces and perennial snowpacks. Such matter can be transported over vast distances, even from continent to
continent. The impurities darken snow and ice surfaces, thus causing greater absorption of solar radiation. In addition, they
may support microbial growth that can further darken the surface and hold impurities in place for long periods. This can
significantly influence the surface energy balance, thereby increasing melt rates, especially during periods and at locations of
high incoming solar radiation. This is increasingly being recognized as an important and influential factor (Zhang et al., 2021;
Bertoncini et al., 2022).

There are complexities and interacting processes that make the impacts of particulate deposition less straightforward than
simply enhancing melt rates. The deposition tends to be local to regional in scale, with considerable spatial variability. The
effects may be short lived as subsequent snowfall covers the previous surface and refreshes the albedo, or as melt or rainfall
events wash ice surfaces. However, in some locations, this can set up a positive feedback, where melting concentrates
impurities and further darkens the surface and enhances the melt. Wildfire smoke can also reduce incoming solar radiation to
the point of even causing surface cooling, counteracting the effect of a reduction in albedo (Aubry-Wake et al., 2022).

The deposition of black carbon and other particulates onto snow and ice surfaces can have a large impact on the surface
energy balance and melt. How this is changing, how long lived the effects are, what feedback and process interactions
are occurring, and how variable this is across the world are not well understood. It is therefore important to elucidate for
predicting future water resources in mountain regions.

Soot-free Athabasca Glacier, Canada, October 1993 Soot from wildfires and algae darken the Athabasca Glacier,
Photo: John Pomeroy. August 2019
Photo: John Pomeroy.

2.1.2 Trends in the mountain cryosphere

Evidence of atmospheric warming since the early 20 th century is present in all
mountain ranges. The effects are amplified at higher elevations in certain regions
(Mountain Research Initiative EDW Working Group, 2015; Hock et al., 2019a; Pepin
et al., 2022). The elevation at which rainfall transitions to snowfall is shifting upwards
due to warming. Lower elevations and warmer climates are therefore undergoing
greater decreases in snow cover depth and duration, whereas colder, higher
elevations may experience increased peak SWE where precipitation increases and
sublimation losses decrease with climate change (López-Moreno et al., 2020).

Changes in the cryosphere and impacts on water 29

 Trends across mountain basins include a greater fraction of precipitation falling as rain
rather than snow, reduced snow redistribution and snow-covered area, and earlier snow-
Evidence of melt (Figure 2.2). This results in decoupling of the streamflow generation regime from the
snow-melt regime, where the effect of ‘snow damming’ on the spring freshet7 is rapidly
atmospheric
reduced, leaving streamflows to respond rapidly to winter rainfall and associated melt events
warming since the (López-Moreno et al., 2020).
early 20th century
is present in all Snow accumulation and peak SWE decrease more quickly with warming than melt rates
increase (Pomeroy et al., 2022). The decrease of SWE with warming is greater on sunward-
mountain ranges
facing slopes, unforested areas and lower elevations, and the increase of melt rates with
warming is greater at lower elevations and in warmer climates. ROS events are projected to
decline with warming in most high mountain basins, with greater declines at lower elevations
and in warmer climates, whereas increases in ROS are projected at high elevations and in colder
climates (Figure 2.3; López-Moreno et al., 2021). As climate warming progresses, diminished
snowpacks and earlier snow-melt, including more midwinter melt events, will reduce freshet
volume and advance peak flows by weeks or months (López-Moreno et al., 2020).

Figure 2.3 Percentage change per 1°C of warming in the frequency of rain-on-snow (ROS) melt events in high mountains
around the world, 1982–2014

1:225 000 000

Percentage (%) per °C

< -35
-35 – -15
-15 – -5
-5 – 5
>5
4 000 8 000 12 000 km

Note: Pink dots correspond to mountains with the greatest increase in ROS event frequency with warming, and black dots the greatest decline.
Source: López-Moreno et al. (2021, fig. 6, p. 7). Licence CC BY 4.0.

Mountain regions where snowpacks no longer persist through the warm season will
inevitably see their glaciers disappear, as perennial snowpacks are necessary to sustain
glacier mass. The retreat and loss of glaciers have been ongoing since the 20 th century in
most parts of the world (DeBeer et al., 2020; IPCC, 2023), and have accelerated in recent
decades (Zemp et al., 2019). Most mountain glaciers around the world are thinning rapidly
(Figure 2.4; Hugonnet et al., 2021) and are out of balance with the current climate. This
means they will continue to shrink regardless of reductions in greenhouse gas emissions
(Cook et al., 2023). Further atmospheric warming will exacerbate the imbalance globally; with

7
A peak in streamflow arising from spring snow-melt.

30 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
 global warming of between 1.5°C and 4°C, mountain glaciers worldwide are projected to lose
26% to 41% of their total mass by 2100, relative to 2015. A great number of individual glaciers
will disappear entirely, leaving many currently glaciated mountain headwaters unglaciated
(Rounce et al., 2023).

Figure 2.4 Global glacier surface elevation changes, 2000–2019

Low latitudes (16) and Arctic (3–9)

Southern Andes (17)

A B
C
D
North Asia (10) B
C
Alaska (1) and Western Caucasus (12)
Canada and USA (2) Central Europe (11)
D

A E

High Mountain Asia (13–15)

New Zealand (18)

D
Antarctic and Subantarctic (19)
B

A C E

Low latitudes (16): Antarctic and Subantarctic (19): North Asia (10):
A. Tropical Andes A. West and peninsula A. Altay and Suyan
B. Mexico B. South Georgia and Central Islands -1.5 -1.2 -0.9 -0.6 -0.3 0.0 0.3 0.6 B. Ural
C. East Africa C, E. East C. North Siberia
D. New Guinea D. Kerguelen and Heard Islands Mean elevation change rate for D. Bulunsky
2000–2019 (m yr-1) E. Cherskiy and Suntar Khayata
Glaciers F. Kamchatka Krai
100 1 000 10 000 (minimap)
Glacierized area (km2)

Note: Declining glacier surface elevation and ice loss are seen in mountain regions worldwide, with only a few limited areas where increases have been observed.
Source: Hugonnet et al. (2021, fig. 2, p. 727). This figure is reproduced with permission from SNCSC; the Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 IGO (CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO) licence
does not apply to this figure.

2.2 2.2.1 Freshwater responses

Impacts of The relative contributions of different cryosphere components (e.g. snow, glacial ice
changing mountain and permafrost) to freshwater supply vary regionally, topographically, interannually and
seasonally. The impacts of cryospheric changes will depend upon how downstream
snow and ice
systems – human and natural – respond to emerging surface water and groundwater supply,
conditions including the quantity, timing, duration and reliability of streamflow discharge. The loss of
synchronization between the timing of mountain runoff and downstream demand is a great
concern for water users. Regions where water use has historically coincided with warm
season snow and glacier melt are the most vulnerable to change. Local variations must be
considered when designing policy responses for mitigation and adaptation.

The contributions of glacier melt to available water supply vary in importance. For example,
in the Tropical Andes, Buytaert et al. (2017) found that glacier melt contributed only 2.2%
of annual available water in Quito, Ecuador, in a normal year. Whereas further south in La
Paz, Plurinational State of Bolivia, they found glacier melt contributed 15% of the annual

Changes in the cryosphere and impacts on water 31

 water supply, and in Huaraz, Peru, melt contributed 19%. Meanwhile, in the Bow River basin
in Canada (home to 2 million people), snow-melt, rather than glacier melt, is of far greater
importance to annual streamflow volume – snow-melt accounts for 60–80% of available
flow (Fang and Pomeroy, 2023). As a major contributor to freshwater supply, mountain snow
regimes – and specifically how mountain snow regimes are changing – should be a priority
research area.
Glacier melt
drought buffering Although the significance of glaciers to freshwater supply is often overstated (Box 2.2), they
can be crucial do offer other important water security benefits. Drought buffering (referring to increases
in glacial melt during hot, dry periods that can compensate for an otherwise lack of fresh
for sustaining
water) can enhance downstream resilience to periods of water stress. Glaciers melt fastest
agricultural during the warmest, driest periods, and so, especially once the mountain snowpack has been
production depleted, their rapid melt can play a critical role in maintaining streamflow until the end of the
dry period (Hopkinson and Young, 1998).

In regions where the dry season coincides with the growing season, glacier melt drought
buffering can be crucial for sustaining agricultural production. Buytaert et al. (2017) found
that in the Tropical Andes, the monthly maximum area of irrigated land sourcing at least 25%
of water from glacier melt doubled during drought years. For high mountain communities
dependent on water derived from glacial inputs for food production or other crucial purposes,
glacial recession may force changes to historical practices (see Box 3.4) or may render
communities more dependent on increasingly uncertain surface water and groundwater
resources. As mountain glaciers recede and disappear, high mountain regions will lose their
valuable buffering capacity, and downstream regions may suffer decreased resilience to dry
or drought conditions (Fang and Pomeroy, 2023).

Box 2.2 Caution against applying the ‘peak water’ concept in water resources policy

The concept of peak water is commonly used to discuss the impacts of glacial recession. It suggests that as glacier melt rates
increase and glacier areas decrease with warming, there will be an initial increase in glacial discharge volumes to a ‘peak’ owing
to melt rate increase, followed by a decline due to shrinking glacier coverage (Huss and Hock, 2018; Hock et al., 2019b).

This is an idealized concept that should be applied for glacier discharge only, and which may not be reflected in overall
mountain headwater streamflows. Most streams in glacierized basins are not glacier fed only, and so other hydrological
changes must be considered when making streamflow predictions (e.g. precipitation regime shifts, snowpack change,
vegetation change and groundwater interactions).

For instance, mountain precipitation is predicted to increase in many parts of the world. Streamflow responses are unlikely
to all follow a glacial melt peak and then decline trend, as most streamflow volumes are also influenced by snow-melt and
rainfall runoff. Glaciers around the world are retreating; many of their seasonal contributions to discharge have expanded
and will decline. For water resources management purposes, the idealized peak water trend weakens as the size of the basin
increases where the basin outflow is further downstream from the glaciers.

It must also be emphasized that while high mountains are indeed ‘water towers’, the reliance of downstream communities
on glaciers for their water resources is often mischaracterized (Viviroli et al., 2020). Claims overstating the importance of
glaciers to global water resources are often made (e.g. that the “Himalayan glaciers alone provide water to 1.4 billion people”
(Milner et al., 2017, p. 9771)), and leave the public with the inaccurate impression that, without glaciers, half of humanity will
be without water (Gascoin, 2024).

The mountain cryosphere (including glaciers) plays an important role in freshwater provisioning; however, the relative
significance of glaciers, snow and ice to freshwater resources is highly variable across time and space. Water resources
managers and policymakers should be wary of this ‘glacier sensationalism’ and recognize if and how their local contexts
differ from globally themed messages.

32 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
 The relative contribution of glaciers to freshwater supply decreases with distance
downstream from the glaciers. The examples in Figure 2.5 (Kaser et al., 2010) show that
the downstream impact of glacier hydrology on river discharge declines substantially
with distance from glaciers, and that contributions are insubstantial at the river outlet.
Communities living closest to glacier termini will therefore be most vulnerable to the
impacts of glacier recession, although the drought-resilience benefits remain relevant, even
for distant downstream communities otherwise not overwhelmingly dependent on glaciers
for their water resources. And although not well understood, mountain groundwater and the
impacts of thawing permafrost on baseflow are expected to grow increasingly important as
receding glaciers disappear (Arenson et al., 2022; van Tiel et al., 2024).

2.2.2 Ecological responses

Climate-induced changes in the mountain cryosphere are altering hydrological and water
quality regimes. Snow and ice are habitats for many species, and are biologically active
ecosystems (Jones et al., 2001). They play a key role in the biogeochemical cycling
of carbon, nitrogen and other elements (Sharp and Tranter, 2017). In high mountain
environments, anticipated ecological responses to a snowier and rainier climate include
increasing availability of liquid water near the surface throughout the year, tree and shrub
colonization of higher elevations, enhanced nutrient and contaminant mobility, growth of
algae and other microorganisms, and greater organic carbon production (Rasouli et al.,
2019; Verrall and Pickering, 2020).

Feedback effects between wildfires, dust storms and glacier algal growth have been
observed with nutrients in the carbon deposits, creating fertile algal habitats that can
Deglaciation is
accelerate melt by decreasing glacier and snow albedo (Williamson et al., 2019; Aubry-
projected to have Wake et al., 2022). Water quality in mountain regions is also of concern. Some studies
major implications have suggested that permafrost degradation in mountain regions underlain by sulphide-
for aquatic food bearing bedrock may facilitate the previously inhibited oxidation of sulphide minerals,
webs thereby increasing heavy metal concentrations in groundwater stores (Ilyashuk et al., 2018)
(see Chapter 6).

Hydroecological impacts extend downstream into riverine, lake and nearshore marine
environments. Impacts include changes in sediment and thermal regimes, shifts in
biogeochemical and contaminant fluxes, changes in habitat availability and quality, and
modifications in species biodiversity patterns (Milner et al., 2017; Somers and McKenzie,
2020). Vanderwall et al. (2024) found that glacier-influenced lakes possess biogeochemical
characteristics distinct from those of snow-fed mountain lakes. Deglaciation is projected
to have major implications for aquatic food webs, with impacts in glacially fed lakes and
streams being the most significant.

Glaciers play an important thermoregulating role in freshwater and nearshore marine

habitats, with glacier meltwater and groundwater emanating from ice-bearing rock
glaciers helping to maintain consistent, cool temperatures crucial for some fish
species (Harrington et al., 2017; Somers and McKenzie, 2020). Alterations in mountain
glacial runoff and temperature regimes have been found to have positive and negative
effects on the sustainability of anadromous fish species, such as salmon (O’Neel et al.,
2015). A significant proportion of the variation in nearshore pelagic algal abundance
and distribution and abundance of zooplankton, fish and seabirds in Alaskan coastal
ecosystems has been linked to changes in glacial freshwater input, particularly
temperature and turbidity (Arimitsu et al., 2016). In high mountain arid regions, glaciers
can also sometimes be the main source of fresh water supporting wetlands (Azócar and
Brenning, 2010; Schaffer et al., 2019).

Changes in the cryosphere and impacts on water 33

 Figure 2.5 Glacier melt and precipitation contributions to river discharge in example major basins with mountain headwaters

Rio Santa
400 26% 400

300 300
mm

mm
200 200

100 100

0 0
Jan Dec 4 300 m 3 840 m 3 160 m 2 180 m 0m

51% Rhône
400 400

300 300
mm

mm

200 200

100 100

0 0
Jan Dec 1 960 m 840 m 460 m 260 m 0m

400 79% 400 Aral Sea

300 300
mm

mm

200 200

100 100

0 0
Jan Dec 3 080 m 520 m 200 m 120 m -20 m

Note: Left: Mass budget of glacierized areas (snow + ice), with monthly accumulation (dark blue), monthly ablation (turquoise) and volume of glacier snow
and ice melt runoff (turquoise shading). Percentages indicate the annual precipitation on the glacier that runs off as seasonally delayed meltwater. Right:
Effect of seasonally delayed snow and ice runoff on river discharge as a function of elevation (x-axis), starting at the glacier terminus and ending at the river’s
outlet, with annual precipitation (dark blue) and glacier snow and ice melt (turquoise).

Source: Adapted from Kaser et al. (2010, fig. 1, p. 20224). The Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 IGO (CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO) licence does not apply to this figure.

34 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
 2.2.3 Hazards
The consequences of climate change, including higher temperatures, glacial recession,
permafrost thaw and changing precipitation patterns, can affect flood and landslide risks
(Carrivick and Tweed, 2016; Chiarle et al., 2021). The processes associated with these risks,
such as debris flows and floods, avalanches, rock- and icefalls, landslide dam outburst
floods and glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs)8, are collectively referred to as ‘geohazards’.
They can pose significant threats to communities, wildlife and infrastructure in mountain
regions (Chiarle et al., 2021). Although these events may occur in isolation, cascading effects
(whereby one process triggers another) are possible, as are feedback effects between them
(Box 2.3; Chiarle et al., 2021).

Geohazard events are being observed in mountain regions globally. For example, along the
Teesta River in India, a GLOF in 2023 caused a rapid water surge reaching a height of 5–6 m.
At least 30 fatalities were reported, and a hydroelectric dam was destroyed (ESCAP, 2023). In
the Andes of central Chile, deglaciation likely played a role in the Parraguirre Creek landslide,
which evolved into a debris flow event that travelled 57 km, killing 37 people and generating
severe infrastructure damage in 1987 (Sepúlveda et al., 2023).

Box 2.3 Snow drought–wildfire–debris flow feedback

Feedback effects between snow and ice melt and downstream hydrological impacts and wildfire occurrences can
exacerbate geohazard events. Severe wildfire seasons usually start with snow droughts consisting of early melt of a low
snow water equivalent snowpack owing to warm, dry winters and exceptional spring heat (Westerling et al., 2006). Burned
mountain forests can reduce interception capacities for rainfall and snowfall, soil moisture storage capacity due to
burning of organic soils, and infiltration capacity, which increases the risk of snow-melt runoff and rain-on-snow floods.

The potential for debris flows and landslides can also increase, as ash and burned soils can increase the depth of loose,
movable terrain. Along with dead or decaying vegetation, these factors may result in large volumes of debris entrainment
during flood or slide events (Jakob et al., 2022; Vahedifard et al., 2024).

Climate change can increase the vulnerability of a slope to geohazard events. Through extreme precipitation events and
heatwaves, it can trigger the onset of such events.

The consequences of geohazards include threats to human health and safety, wildlife
habitat, infrastructure vitality and tourism industries. Landslides and avalanches can block
and damage transport infrastructure and cause devastation to human settlements and
activities (Carey et al., 2012; 2021). Flooding, especially ROS events and GLOFs, in mountain
environments is equally concerning. Depending on the size, intensity and origin of the
flood, debris entrainment and torrential currents can cause similar damage (Haeberli et al.,
2017; Clague and O’Connor, 2021). These geohazards may also affect mountain tourism,
mountaineering activities and emergency response capabilities, as such events can damage
accessibility infrastructure, destroy sought-after sites, routes and scenery (Hanly and
McDowell, 2024), and generate visitor hesitation (Wedgwood, 2014).

Geohazards result in real costs to people, livelihoods, infrastructure and economies. GLOFs
alone have resulted in more than 12,000 deaths in the past 200 years, and have caused
severe damage to farmland, homes, bridges, roads, hydropower plants and cultural assets,

8
Sudden and catastrophic floods caused by the failure of natural dams, typically formed by glacial moraines or
ice, which contain glacial lakes. These events occur when water pressure builds up behind the dam, leading to its
collapse, which can happen due to erosion, seismic activity or the sudden influx of meltwater.

Changes in the cryosphere and impacts on water 35

 often prompting further internal displacement (Shrestha et al., 2010; Carrivick and Tweed,
2016). The total area and number of glacial lakes have increased significantly since the 1990s
as glaciers have receded. More of these lakes will develop over the next decades, creating
new hotspots of potentially dangerous GLOF hazards and risks (Adler et al., 2022). As with
many geohazards, damage is often higher in low- and middle-income countries (Box 2.4) than
in high-income countries (Carrivick and Tweed, 2016).

Although not constrained to cryospheric geohazards, Stäubli et al. (2018) calculated that the
absolute economic losses in mountain regions across 713 events between 1985 and 2014
exceeded US$56 billion, affected over 258 million people and resulted in over 39,000 deaths.
Increases in population and urbanization in mountain regions may also increase the exposure
of people and property to geohazard events and associated loss and damage (Thornton
et al., 2022).

Box 2.4 Glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF) management in Peru

Communities in the Cordillera Blanca of Peru have long been managing GLOFs. Rockfalls, landslides and
glaciers calving into water bodies have triggered events with devastating impacts. These have resulted
in substantial engineering mitigation efforts to mitigate GLOF occurrences, including lowering of lake
levels and reinforcing moraine dams to prevent erosion and failure.

There are now drainage pipes and tunnels, artificial dams and early warning systems across multiple
lakes throughout the Andes (Mergili et al., 2020). These include drainage pipes leading away from Lake
Palcacocha, which, in 1941, was the source of a GLOF that killed an estimated 1,600 people (Emmer,
2017; Carey et al., 2021).

The consequences of cryosphere changes are amplified for vulnerable populations (ICIMOD,
2022). For Indigenous Peoples and local communities (IPLCs) in mountain regions, the
human impacts of cryosphere changes are profound and include the reduced ability to source
food, pasture degradation, loss of culturally significant snow covers and deterioration of
essential water sources (Figure 2.6) (Caretta et al., 2022). Women within such communities
are especially vulnerable, as they often bear disproportionate responsibilities for food and
water (ICIMOD, 2022).

2.3 Water systems influenced by the mountain cryosphere extend far beyond mountain valleys.
Water management Snow and ice changes may affect downstream communities that do not necessarily identify
with the mountains. Increased awareness of the cryosphere and its role in the global water
challenges
cycle is thus important, especially among water managers and other decision-makers.
Management and infrastructure planning are often based on historical data assuming
stationarity. However, a changing climate has shown the fallacy of this assumption, especially
for snow and ice-fed systems (Milly et al., 2008). This increases the need for modelling future
risk to support long-term planning.

However, modelling requires inputs from global climate models, which have high uncertainty
in high mountain areas (see Chapter 8). Filling monitoring and information gaps must be
a priority, including capturing the real health, social and economic costs and identifying
potentially disproportionate impacts across populations. Vulnerable and marginalized
groups including women, people who are poor and IPLCs in high mountain areas will be
disproportionately affected by the impacts of climate change (Caretta et al., 2022).

36 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
Figure 2.6 Impact of climate, water and cryosphere changes on Indigenous Peoples and local communities in cold regions

Alaskan Natives Inuit Saami Jagshung pastoralists

• Hazard: Temperature increase; • Hazard: Temperature increase; • Hazard: Winter temperature • Hazard: Temperature increase
• Water impact: Permafrost melt; increased precipitation increase; summer precipitation • Water impact: Glacier melt
thinning ice; temperature increase; • Water impact: Changing ice increase
• Human impact: Pasture loss
freshwater lakes conditions; early snow-melt • Water impact: Harder and deeper to inundation; loss of livestock
• Human impact: Negative effects • Human impact: Trail access snow; increased ice formation; river (Nyima and Hoping, 2019)
on availability and access to (Ford et al., 2019); decline of flooding and wet ground
culturally significant species culturally significant species • Human impact: Pasture
(Norton-Smith et al., 2016) (Cunsolo et al., 2020) degradation; impacts on herding
and winter feed (Forbes et al., 2019;
Rasmus et al. 2020)

Dokpa

• Hazard: Temperature increase

Kashechewan • Water impact: Decreasing snowfall
First Nation • Human impact: Pasture
degradation; loss of sheep
• Hazard: Temperature increase (Ingty, 2017)
• Water impact: Flooding
• Human impact: Negative effects
on culturally significant species
(Khalafzai et al., 2019)

Quelcaya pastoralists Aymara Manangi Gurung

• Hazard: Temperature increase; • Hazard: Temperature increase • Hazard: Temperature increase; • Hazard: Temperature increase
rainfall reduction; increasing • Water impact: Glacier loss precipitation increase • Water impact: Decreasing
rainfall variability • Water impact: Glacier retreat; snowcover; increasing snow-melt
• Human impact: Degradation of
• Water impact: Decreased snow pastures; outmigration (Yager decreased permanent snowcover • Human impact: Deterioration of
and ice et al., 2019) • Human impact: Spiritual loss culturally significant water sources;
• Human impact: Decreasing access due to declining snowcover changes in camp locations and
to culturally significant water (Konchar et al., 2015) routes (Gentle and Thwaites, 2016)
sources; deterioration of pastures
(Postigo, 2020)

Source: Caretta et al. (2022, fig. 4.6, p. 572).

As water towers, mountains play a vital role in freshwater storage and runoff generation.
Shifts in the timing of seasonal snow-melt and from relatively reliable snow-melt freshets to
Snow and ice more variable and less predictable rainfall-runoff regimes, coupled with losing the buffering
capacity of glaciers, may decrease community resilience in times of stress (Somers et al.,
changes may
2019; Carroll et al., 2024). Downstream lowlands often contribute little to mountain-sourced
affect downstream river streamflow. Therefore, even communities residing thousands of kilometres away can
communities that depend on high mountains for their water resources (including groundwater) and derive
do not necessarily important resilience benefits from the mountain cryosphere (Whitfield et al., 2020).

identify with the Awareness of, and preparedness for, declines in the ecosystem services that the cryosphere
mountains provides must be integrated into regional, national and global policymaking. Mitigation and
adaptation efforts include: urban and agricultural water use with alternative storage systems
to make up for lost cryosphere water storage; preserving timing of flows through surface

Changes in the cryosphere and impacts on water 37

 and subsurface storage; improving irrigation technology and efficiency; and enhancing
water-use efficiencies. However, while efficiency is important, strategies to reduce absolute
water demand will be critical. Such interventions must be locally borne and will require
a multifaceted approach including strategies for reducing poverty and achieving gender
equality and recognition of different cultural values and uses associated with water.

2.4 The impacts of mountain cryospheric decline on water resources are complex and vary
Conclusions across headwater basins and downstream regions. A decline in seasonal SWE and snow
duration will cause a forward shift in melt timing, and declining freshet hydrograph peak with
lower late season baseflows and greater dependency on rainfall runoff and groundwater
discharge. This will affect water supplies and increase summer drought for vast downstream
regions. Acceleration in timing and increasing magnitude of glacier melt with atmospheric
warming can appear to mitigate diminished water supply from snow-melt, especially in the
hottest, driest periods, in the short term. However, the increased timing and magnitude are
transient, limited in volume and will diminish greatly later this century.

The timing and duration of meltwaters are crucial for ecosystem integrity, groundwater
recharge and food security. Natural hazards, including landslides, floods and debris flows, and
slow-onset disasters such as those associated with drought are influenced by the state of the
cryosphere. The impacts on water availability and hazard levels are influenced by many factors;
simple, one-size-fits-all analyses are not possible. This creates challenges for sustainable
and equitable management of water quality and quantity for human health and well-being,
terrestrial and aquatic ecosystem integrity, and strong economies and communities.

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Changes in the cryosphere and impacts on water 41

Chapter 3

Food and
agriculture

FAO
Matthew England, Patricia Mejías-Moreno, Jippe Hoogeveen,
Rosalaura Romeo, Sara Manuelli and Fabio Parisi
 This chapter is structured around three main topics: the state of mountain food security and
agriculture, challenges due to climate change and other drivers affecting water availability for
agriculture and food security, and potential response options.

3.1 3.1.1 Food security in mountains

Food security and Agriculture and pastoralism are essential sources of livelihoods9 for people in mountain
agriculture areas10 (FAO, 2019), where an estimated 1.1 billion live. In developing countries, an estimated
648 million people in mountain areas live in rural areas, where most of the population is
engaged in agricultural and pastoral livelihoods. More than half (346 million) were estimated
to be vulnerable to food insecurity in 2017. In other words, one in two rural mountain dwellers
in developing countries lived in areas where the daily availability of calories and protein was
estimated to be below the minimum threshold needed for a healthy life (Romeo et al., 2020)
In the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) region, more than 30% of the mountain population suffers
from food insecurity, with women and children being most at risk (Wester et al., 2019).

Factors contributing to food insecurity in the mountains include climatic variability,

extreme weather events, disasters caused by natural hazards, physical geography and
socio-economics (Box 3.1). Food security can be further constrained by remoteness and
Agriculture and inaccessibility (e.g. distance from roads and food markets), growing seasons, conflicts, land
pastoralism are degradation (which leads to poor quality soils), large variations in water supply for agriculture
and low levels of mechanization (Romeo et al., 2020).
essential sources
of livelihoods Within river basins fed by cryosphere melt, agricultural productivity downstream in lowlands
for people in is threatened by the upstream cryosphere melt. Increasing levels of snow and ice melt are
mountain areas leading to greater seasonal variability (timing and volume) of runoff and river flow (Viviroli
et al., 2020). This has been documented, for instance, in the Indo-Gangetic plains of
South Asia, where it poses challenges for farmers within the Indus River basin who rely on
cryosphere melt for dry season irrigation (Biemans et al., 2019).

3.1.2 Mountain agriculture

Mountain agriculture is broadly defined as agricultural activities on land surfaces at high
elevations and on mountain slopes, including water harvesting and conservation practices.
Agricultural production systems in mountains include the production of rainfed and irrigation
crops, pastoral and agropastoral farming, forestry and agroforestry, freshwater fish capture
and aquaculture (FAO, 2022). Small and fragmented plots of land – predominately cultivated
by smallholder farmers11 – characterize mountain agriculture. It has been estimated that
45% of the world’s mountain areas are not, or are only marginally, suitable for growing crops,
pastoralism or carrying out forestry activities (Romeo et al., 2020). As elevation increases,
soils become shallower and less fertile, with lower temperatures that limit biological activity.
Soils are often subjected to nutrient leaching through water and wind erosion in exposed
areas. As a result, mountain soils are often less productive and more vulnerable than lowland
soils (FAO, 2015a).

9
Along with non-agricultural income sources such as remittances, small businesses, medicinal plants, wage labour
and tourism (FAO, 2019).
10
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations uses the United Nations Environment Programme World
Conservation Monitoring Centre definition of mountains (Romeo et al., 2020, p. 8).
11
Small-scale farmers, pastoralists, forest keepers and fishers who manage areas varying from less than 1 ha to 10 ha.
Smallholders are characterized by family-focused motives such as favouring the stability of the farm household
system, using mainly family labour for production and using part of the produce for family consumption.

Food and agriculture 43

 Box 3.1 Food security and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

“Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and
nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life” (FAO, 1996,
item 1). Food security has four dimensions: availability, accessibility, utilization and stability (FAO, 2014).

Food availability refers to the physical availability of adequate levels of food in a particular area.

Food accessibility refers to the physical and economic access to food.

Food utilization refers to food quality, safety and absorption, supported by an adequate health status.

Food stability is ensured when food availability, accessibility and utilization remain secure throughout the
year and over a long period (World Bank Group, n.d.).

Food security is therefore critical for achieving numerous SDGs, including SDG 1 (no poverty), SDG 2 (zero
hunger), SDG 3 (good health and well-being), SDG 6 (clean water and sanitation), SDG 12 (responsible
consumption and production) and SDG 13 (climate action), and also SDG Indicator 15.4.2 (mountain green
cover index).

Mountains have distinct features that affect agriculture development, including steep,
sloping sides and sharp or rounded ridges and peaks. Cultivation areas are often small,
and there is limited use of mechanization. Numerous mountain farmers have abandoned
traditional agricultural systems, and increasingly rely on cash crops for their livelihoods (FAO,
2019). Climatic conditions due to elevation vary significantly, with large daily and seasonal
temperature fluctuations. Crop growth is slower due to the lower temperatures at high
elevations, with farmers typically harvesting one crop per year (FAO, 2015b).

Mountain communities preserve many of the rarest crop varieties and medicinal plants. They
have developed valuable traditional knowledge and techniques in crop cultivation, livestock
Mountain
production and water harvesting that help to sustain entire ecosystems (Romeo et al., 2020).
communities
preserve many Irrigated and rainfed agricultural production systems
of the rarest crop Irrigated agriculture is typically practised in arid and semi-arid mountain areas, with annual
varieties and rainfall less than 350 mm. The sources of water for irrigation include deep artesian wells, river
medicinal plants water, locally stored water and harvested rainwater in catchments. Farmers using irrigation
systems tend to diversify production to ensure food security, including growing high-value
crops, vegetables, fruit trees and ornamentals. Field crops such as rice, wheat and maize are
also cultivated (FAO, 2022).

Rainfed mountain agriculture is practised when there is more than 400 mm of rainfall during
the wet season. It is often used as a conservation agriculture approach, with minimum soil
disturbance or zero tillage, stubble retention and crop rotation. Rainfed crops include: cereals
such as barley, maize, rice and wheat; legumes such as chickpeas, peas and lentils; and
horticultural crops such as fruit trees, grapes, vegetables and medicinal plants (FAO, 2019; 2022).

Mountain terrace agriculture

Terrace farming is widely practised on the slopes of mountains throughout the world
(Chapagain and Raizada, 2017; FAO, 2022). It is an important source of food production and
livelihood income generation for smallholder farmers. It has been practised for thousands of
years, dating back to the 5th century bce in China and Yemen (FAO, 2019).

44 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
 Terrace farming is innovatively adapted to local slope conditions. Cut and fills of land/soil are
constructed along the slope gradient (Figure 3.1). Arable land is expanded by constructing
filling areas. The width of a terrace depends on the slope gradient: the steeper the slope,
the narrower the terrace and the higher the terrace wall. Ridges or embankments play an
important role in the interception of water runoff (Deng et al., 2021).

Figure 3.1 Sectional diagram of a slope terrace

Field surface

Terrace wall or terrace riser B: Width of the field surface

β: Slope gradient of the terrace wall
Ridges or
embankments H: Height of the terrace wall

Cut

Fill
Original slope

Source: Based on Deng et al. (2021, fig. 1, p. 345).

Appropriately designed, constructed and maintained terrace farming offers numerous

benefits (FAO, 2019). These include reducing surface water runoff and promoting water
conservation, reducing soil erosion, stabilizing slopes, enhancing habitat and biodiversity
production, and sustaining cultural heritage (Box 3.2) (Deng et al., 2021).

Terrace farming supports the cultivation of numerous crops. These include field and
horticultural crops, fodder and other crops that require specific management practices
Terrace farming is
(e.g. irrigation), as well as agroforestry systems and aquaculture. Most terrace farms are
widely practised under rainfed conditions. As a result, many terraces are not as productive as farms that have
on the slopes appropriate mechanization and irrigation (Chapagain and Raizada, 2017).
of mountains
One challenge to cultivation is the risk of terraces collapsing – the higher the terrace wall,
throughout the
the greater the risk of failure. Other challenges that constrain production include: narrow and
world limited land for cultivation; significant labour input requirements; difficulties in the use of
mechanization beyond traditional tools; and poor access to agricultural inputs, markets and
services (Deng et al., 2021). Most terrace farms are managed traditionally using simple tools,
limited animal draught power and relatively abundant household labour. Nevertheless, a small
proportion of terrace farms have shifted from ancient to modern techniques (FAO, 2019).

Food and agriculture 45

 Box 3.2 The Honghe Hani rice terraces system

The Honghe Hani rice terraces system, covering an area of around 70,000 ha, is located
in Yunnan Province, China, on the southern slopes of Honghe Ailao Mountain. A complex
system of channels has been constructed to divert water from the forested mountain tops
to rice terraces. It provides multiple goods and services for local livelihoods, contributing to
food and fuel requirements, while promoting ecological conservation and preserving local
cultural practices (FAO, 2019). The system sustains traditional food crops and agricultural
diversity, with 195 varieties of rice grown in the area, including 48 varieties of local rice.
However, cultivation practices for high yield and uniform variety cropping, in addition to
increasing tourism, are threatening the equilibrium of the Honghe Hani rice terraces system
(Yang et al., 2017).

Honghe Hani rice terraces system in Yunnan Province, China

Photo: © FAO/Min Qingwen.*

The Honghe Hani rice terraces system was designated a Globally Important Agricultural
Heritage Systems (GIAHS) site in 2010, as a ‘forest–village–terrace–water–culture’ system.
GIAHS are defined as remarkable land-use systems and landscapes rich in globally significant
biological diversity, evolving from the co-adaptation of a community with its environment
(FAO, 2019). The initiative aims to establish a basis for international recognition, dynamic
conservation and sustainable management of such systems. Agricultural functions of
GIAHS include livelihoods, landscape conservation, agrobiodiversity conservation, traditional
knowledge and ecosystem services.

The GIAHS initiative was launched in 2002 and became an official programme of the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations in 2015. As of 2024, 89 sites in 28 countries
received this global recognition (FAO, 2024). GIAHS are living examples of sustainable
agricultural practices, contributing to the food and livelihood security of small-scale rural
communities, while conserving cultures, traditional knowledge and building resilience (FAO,
2019). A high percentage of GIAHS sites are located in the mountains, where traditional tools
and methods practised over centuries are used.

46 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
 Pastoral and agropastoral livestock production systems
Pastoral livestock are fed on rainfed vegetation such as grasses, legumes, shrubs and
other natural vegetation that provides forage. This practice remains common across many
mountain and high-elevation areas, such as in the Tibetan steppe higher than 4,000 m above
sea level (Sheehy et al., 2006). Excessive grazing may cause degradation of rangelands, soil
erosion and loss of biodiversity. Agropastoral systems integrate the production of different
types of livestock, natural pastures and various field crops such as barley, forage, shrubs and
trees (FAO, 2022).

Forestry and agroforestry production systems

Forestry and agroforestry systems are important sources of livelihoods in mountains,
Unsustainable tree providing essential environmental goods and services such as timber, fuelwood,
cultivation can carbon storage and other products that improve the lives of people living in mountains
(see Chapter 6). Forests cover an estimated 40% of mountain areas, performing a protective
lead to increased
function against natural hazards by stabilizing steep slopes, regulating flows to groundwater,
soil erosion and reducing surface runoff and soil erosion, and mitigating the potential for landslides and
reduced soil water floods. Unsustainable tree cultivation can lead to increased soil erosion and reduced soil
infiltration water infiltration (Romeo et al., 2021; FAO, 2022).

Aquaculture and freshwater fish capture

Within landlocked mountain areas with no access to marine fishery resources, fish from
lakes, rivers and reservoirs are an important source of animal protein, often on a seasonal
basis (Petr and Swar, 2002; Alpiev et al., 2013). Fisheries in the mountains are relatively small
scale (FAO, 2003), and so integrated agriculture–aquaculture systems can be particularly
important in such areas. For example, fish farming in mountain rice terraces optimizes land
productivity, profitability and sustainability. Fish improve soil fertility through increasing the
availability of oxygen and by depositing nitrogen and phosphorus. They help to regulate the
presence of rice pests, as fish control aquatic weeds and algae acting as hosts for pests
that compete with rice for nutrients. In return, rice cultivation provides fish with planktonic,
periphytic and benthic food. The water temperature is also maintained by the shading effect
of rice, enabling fish to thrive during hot summer months (Chapagain and Raizada, 2017).

3.1.3 Downstream reliance on mountain waters for (irrigated) agriculture

At the global scale, water from the mountains makes a significant contribution to supplying
irrigation in the lowlands. The contribution has been estimated to vary with different river
basins and regions (Viviroli et al., 2020). For instance, some areas of the Indus basin
particularly depend on mountain waters including cryosphere melt to supply lowland
irrigation in the dry season (Biemans et al., 2019). The contribution of mountain water to
supplying irrigation is of relative more importance in basins with limited alternative blue
water resources (Viviroli et al., 2020).

3.2 In high mountain areas such as in Afghanistan, India and Pakistan, snow and glacial
Challenges meltwater is used for irrigation and helps retain soil moisture on pastures and grasslands
(Rasul and Molden, 2019).

3.2.1 Climate-induced cryosphere melt impacts

Changes in the rate of glacier- and snow-melt affect the timing and volume of water runoff,
and hence its availability for irrigated agriculture. This is of critical importance for agricultural
production within the mountains and also in downstream lowlands (Milner et al., 2017; Hock
et al., 2019). The high levels of poverty and food insecurity in some mountain communities

Food and agriculture 47

 contribute to their vulnerability to the impacts of such cryosphere changes on agriculture
(Adler et al., 2022). This has been observed, for instance, in the HKH region (McDowell et al.,
2019; Rasul and Molden, 2019).

At the intra-annual timescale within glacial-fed basins and rivers, a shift in timing towards
an earlier spring snow-melt peak has been observed. This poses challenges to farmers to
accurately predict the timing of water intake for irrigation systems and to manage spring
crop planting schedules. Glacial melt and runoff are greatest in the summer and during the
daytime, when air temperatures and solar radiation are highest. Within certain catchments
dependent on glacial mass balance and local hydrological conditions, greater summer melt
and runoff can benefit farmers through increased water availability for irrigation in the dry
season. However, there are associated risks of local flooding due to additional summer
meltwater (Hock et al., 2019).

Over time as glacier mass reduces, annual runoff initially increases within glacier-fed basins
and rivers. After some years or decades, a certain point is reached – referred to as peak
water (see Box 2.2) – after which runoff from glacial meltwater declines as glacial mass
decreases, which can lead to decreased water availability for irrigation and agriculture. There
is strong evidence that peak water has already passed in the glacier-fed rivers of the Tropical
Andes, western Canada and the Swiss Alps (Hock et al., 2019). The limit and timing of glacier
meltwater increase has not been explored in the extended HKH region (Wester et al., 2019).

Cryosphere melt impacts on agriculture within mountain areas

Irrigated and rainfed agriculture

There is some evidence that reduction in streamflow due to glacier melt or reduced snow
cover has led to reduced water availability for irrigation of crops, leading to a decline in
Reductions in
agricultural yields in several mountain localities (Hock et al., 2019). This includes the
snow cover Peruvian Andes – which have experienced reduced seasonal runoff due to glacier retreat
can also affect negatively affecting crops (Bury et al., 2011) – and the Karakoram Mountains in Pakistan –
agriculture with reduced seasonal water availability for irrigated crops due to glacial retreat and reduced
snow cover (Nüsser and Schmidt, 2017; Nüsser et al., 2019). Conversely, an increase in water
through direct
availability for irrigation leading to increased agricultural yields has been observed in the
effects on soil southern Andes, due to increased meltwater as a result of glacier retreat (Young et al., 2010).
moisture
Reductions in snow cover can also affect agriculture through direct effects on soil moisture.
Rural communities depend on adequate levels of soil moisture at planting time, often derived
from irrigation dependent on glacier- and snow-melt (Hock et al., 2019). This reduction has
been reported in Nepal, where less snow cover has led to the drying of soils and lower yields
of potatoes and fodder (Smadja et al., 2015).

Pastoralism

Changes in temperature and water regimes can affect mountain pastoralism (Hock et al.,
2019). “The changes in snow and glaciers adversely affect herders at their summer residences
and winter camps in the Himalaya (Namgay et al., 2014) and in Scandinavian mountains
(Mallory and Boyce, 2018). Reduced winter snowfall has led to poorer pasture quality [for
livestock grazing] in Nepal (Gentle and Maraseni, 2012) and India (Ingty, 2017). […] Herders in
Nepal reported of water scarcity in traditional water sources along migration routes (Gentle
and Thwaites, 2016). Increased glacier melt water has caused lakes on the Tibetan Plateau
to increase in size, covering pasture areas and leading pastoralists to alter their patterns
of seasonal movement (Nyima and Hopping, 2019). However, rising temperatures, with
associated effects on snow cover, have some positive impacts. Seasonal migration […] start[s]
earlier in Northern Pakistan, and residence in summer pasture lasts longer (Joshi et al., 2013),
as it does in Afghanistan (Shaoliang et al., 2012)” (Hock et al., 2019, p. 172).

48 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
 Cryosphere melt impacts on agriculture in downstream river basins
Glacial meltwater contributes an important source of water in the dry season for summer
irrigation in the downstream lowlands. It can reduce the variability of river runoff from year to
year, at distances of hundreds of kilometres away in some cases (Hock et al., 2019).

Lowland agricultural areas that receive irrigation water from rivers fed by glacier- and snow-
melt are projected to face negative impacts in some regions, owing to reduced melt and
runoff as glacial mass and snow cover decline over time (Hock et al., 2019; Viviroli et al.,
2020). For example, river systems originating in the HKH region, such as the Indus River,
depend significantly on glacier and snow meltwater for dry season pre-monsoon irrigation,
and are particularly vulnerable to reduced melt as glacial mass and snow cover decreases
over time (Biemans et al., 2019; Nie et al., 2021; Lutz et al., 2022; Molden et al., 2022) (Box 3.3).
Furthermore, changes in the onset of spring melt and peak snow water melt are predicted to
alter the timing of irrigation water delivery downstream in the HKH region and Central Asia
(Hock et al., 2019), such as from the snow cover and glaciers of the Tien Shan mountains in
Central Asia (Xenarios et al., 2018).

3.2.2 Other climate-induced impacts

Irrigated agriculture and rainfed agriculture are affected through the increasing variability
Climate-related of seasonal and annual rainfall, making it difficult for farmers to accurate predict planting
schedules and crop water management. Rising air temperatures lead to greater crop
disasters have led evapotranspiration, thus increasing water demand for crop production to maintain optimal
to outmigration, yield. Rainfall and snow variability – in some cases leading to drought – have affected
with indirect pasture and rangeland vegetation growth, negatively impacting livestock and the livelihoods
negative impacts of pastoralists (Hock et al., 2019). For instance, herders in Afghanistan, Nepal and Pakistan
have perceived that erratic snowfall patterns and a decrease in rainfall resulted in vegetation
on labour
of lower quality and quantity (Gentle and Thwaites, 2016).
to support
agricultural Disasters caused by natural hazards – such as those due to erratic and heavy precipitation
practices events, floods, droughts and landslides – have negatively affected the stable supply and
transport of agricultural products within remote mountain areas, thus increasing food
insecurity. Climate-related disasters have led to outmigration, with indirect negative impacts
on labour to support agricultural practices, as witnessed for instance in Ghana, Thailand,
United Republic of Tanzania and the HKH region. From 2003 to 2013 in developing countries,
the agricultural sector has been affected by 25% of climate-related hazards, which were
responsible for 80% of the damage and loss to livestock and crop production in mountain
areas (Romeo et al., 2020).

Box 3.3 Indo-Gangetic basin reliance on cryosphere meltwater for irrigation

Within the Indus River basin during the pre-monsoon season, up to 60% of the total irrigation
withdrawals originate from mountain glacier- and snow-melt, contributing to an additional 11%
of total crop production. In some irrigated areas in the downstream Indus basin, over 50% of
the rice and cotton yields can be attributed to glacier- and snow-melt. Although dependence
in the floodplains of the Ganges is comparatively lower, meltwater is still essential during the
dry season, in particular for crops such as rice and sugar cane. Based on data from 1981 to
2010, it has been estimated that 129 million farmers in the Indus and Ganges basins depend
substantially on glacier- and snow-melt for their livelihoods. Such melt provides enough water
to grow food crops to sustain the diet of an estimated 38 million people.

Source: Biemans et al. (2019).

Food and agriculture 49

 3.2.3 Additional challenges
Access to food markets
For smallholder farmers, achieving and sustaining food security is related to their
ability to sell produce, and to access and use market facilities (Romeo et al., 2020).
Travel time to markets can increase the vulnerability of rural people, by reducing
their access to alternative sources of food and their capacity to cope with food
shortages. Transport challenges to food markets include road conditions, terrain,
navigable rivers, watercourses and natural barriers.

Access to infrastructure and services

Food security at the household level is determined by factors such as education,
health, gender, assets and expenses, as well as by regional-level conditions such
as infrastructure, markets and enabling institutions. Mountain communities living
in marginal areas often have limited capacity to develop adaptive measures for
facing crises and emergencies, owing to relatively low income levels and access to
external support and resources (Romeo et al., 2020).

Land degradation and deforestation

Land degradation in mountains detrimentally affects agricultural productivity,
endangering the sustainability of crop production and animal husbandry, and
threatening water security (UNCCD, 1994). In many developing countries, the
impact of unsustainable agriculture practices on land degradation is high. In cases
driven by agricultural expansion, deforestation negatively affects the regulation of
water flows to groundwater and rivers, thus increasing soil erosion and contributing
to increased likelihood of landslides and floods (FAO/UNEP, 2023).

Hazards
The frequency and intensity of hazards and disasters in mountains have increased
in recent decades. Floods, debris flows, landslides and avalanches are the most
often occurring hazards affecting the highest number of people in mountain
regions. Such hazards have an overall detrimental impact on smallholder
agricultural activities and food security (Adler et al., 2022). The migration and
availability of agricultural labour is also affected by the incidence of hazards
(Hock et al., 2019).

3.3 Responses to climate-driven impacts in mountains vary significantly in terms of

Responses goals and priorities, speed of implementation, governance and modes of decision-
making, and the extent of financial and other resources to implement them (Adler
et al., 2022). Adaptation responses commonly include changing farming practices,
infrastructure development including water storage, application of Indigenous
knowledge, community-based capacity-building and ecosystem-based adaptation
(EbA) (McDowell et al., 2021).

Observed adaptation responses are largely incremental and mainly focus on early
warning systems and the diversification of livelihood strategies in smallholder
agriculture and pastoralism. However, there is limited evidence of the feasibility
and long-term effectiveness of these measures in addressing climate-related
impacts and related loss and damage (Hock et al., 2019; Adler et al., 2022).

50 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
 3.3.1 Climate adaptation techniques in the mountains
Irrigated agriculture
Enhancing (liquid) water storage infrastructure is an effective strategy to mitigate water
shortages, particularly in the dry season. The type and scale of storage vary depending on the
hydrological site specifics and available materials. Common water storage infrastructure in
mountains includes ponds, tanks, check-dams and reservoirs. These storage systems offer
viable water sources to supplement irrigation systems in mountain regions (Viviroli et al.,
2011; Hock et al., 2019; Adler et al., 2022).

Adaptation approaches for irrigation systems include: the adoption of new irrigation
technologies and infrastructure, or the upgrade of existing infrastructure; the adoption
of water conservation measures; system water rationing; efficiency improvements; and
changing cropping patterns, all of which can be promoted through mountain-specific water
user associations (Box 3.4) (Nüsser et al., 2019; Rasul et al., 2019; Rosa, 2022). These
approaches represent robust, low-regrets adaptation measures (McDowell et al., 2019;
Adler et al., 2022).

Rainfed agriculture
Mountain farmers practising rainfed agriculture have learned to adapt to varying rainfall and
water availability through a variety of ways. These include adopting climate-smart agricultural
Indigenous
practices, crop diversification, use of drought-resistant crops, soil conservation, water
Peoples in harvesting, building conservation ponds, developing drought early warning systems and
mountains applying Indigenous knowledge (Adhikari, 2018; Adler at al., 2022).
have valuable
knowledge that Pastoralism
contributes to Pastoral adaptation options include seasonal migration of livestock herds to more fertile
sustainable food pastures, as well as utilizing livestock insurance schemes, if they exist (Fassio et al., 2014;
Gentle and Thwaites, 2016; Tiwari et al., 2020).
systems, land
management
Freshwater fish capture
and biodiversity
Managers can use lake-priority levels and ecosystem-specific strategies to decide about
preservation where and when to apply fisheries management action. These include using traditional
stocking, preventing aquatic habitat loss, controlling invasive species and modifying
harvesting practices (FAO, 2003; Tingley et al., 2019).

Watershed management
Watershed management approaches that include agricultural water requirements
encompassing components of soils, biodiversity, forestry and ecosystems will strengthen
overall resilience to climate change impacts, including cryosphere melt (Adler et al., 2022;
FAO, 2023). Reforestation offers a sustainable land-use practice that promotes water
retention in the soils and catchments, thus increasing water availability for agriculture.
Mountain soils are particularly vulnerable and sensitive to degradation processes such as
water erosion and loss of chemical and physical quality (FAO, 2015b).

Hazards
Most adaptation responses to natural hazards in mountain regions are reactive to specific
climate stimuli or involve post-disaster recovery (McDowell et al., 2019). Hard structural
measures such as constructing dykes, dams, reservoirs and embankments have been
widely employed to contain hazards, along with the use of early warning systems, zonation
and land management (Adler et al., 2022). EbA is widely recommended to mitigate risks

Food and agriculture 51

 from landslides (e.g. afforestation, reforestation and improved forest management), floods
(e.g. river restoration and renaturation) and droughts (e.g. adapting watersheds) (FAO, 2023).
Experience from Nepal highlights that introducing agroforestry to mountain agriculture
promotes effective disaster risk reduction (Schick et al., 2018).

Box 3.4 Innovative adaptation to glacier melt affecting water availability for
irrigated agriculture

In Ladakh, northern India, the storage of ice has a long history of providing water
during the agricultural season (Hasnain, 2012). To cope with seasonal water
scarcity at critical times for irrigation, villagers in the region have developed four
types of ice reservoirs: basins, cascades, diversions and a form known locally as
ice stupas. These ice reservoirs capture water in the autumn and winter, allowing it
to freeze and holding it until spring, when it melts and flows down to fields (Clouse
et al., 2017; Nüsser et al., 2019). They retain a previously unused portion of the
annual flow and facilitate its use to supplement the flow in the following spring.

Increased irrigation frequency, yield, soil moisture and groundwater recharge are
among the benefits observed. However, questions remain regarding this as a long-
term adaptation strategy, as its operation depends on winter runoff and freeze–
thaw cycles, both of which are sensitive to interannual variability. It also raises
questions about the financial costs and labour requirements, which vary across the
four types of ice reservoirs.

Ice stupas in Ladakh, India

Photo: © Naveen Macro/Shutterstock.*

Source: Adapted from Hock et al. (2019, box 2.3, p. 156).

3.3.2 Knowledge and capacity

Hydrological monitoring networks are extremely sparse within mountain regions, particularly
in developing countries. Non-existent or limited hydrological data collection and monitoring
severely limit anticipatory hazard planning and accurate hydrological assessments for water

52 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
Box 3.5 The Global Mountain management and agricultural production (Wilby, 2019; GEO Mountains, 2022).
Participatory Guarantee Hydrological assessments are urgently required in many mountains ranges
System (PGS) Network globally. This includes the HKH region, where mountain waters support the
agricultural livelihoods and water and energy requirements of over 2 billion
[The Global Mountain PGS] people (Immerzeel et al., 2010; Wester et al., 2019). There is also the potential
Network represents [a] valid for citizen science to increase hydrological monitoring in mountains.
example of knowledge-sharing For instance by involving local populations in research and data gathering
processes among mountain (Njue et al., 2019), thus representing an opportunity for data collection and
peoples, including Indigenous public participation in water-related projects (Hegarty et al., 2021).
communities. Created in
2019 by 13 organizations of Indigenous Peoples in mountains have unique and valuable local knowledge,
smallholder mountain producers traditions and cultural practices that contribute to sustainable food systems,
from the Plurinational State land management and biodiversity preservation (FAO, 2021). For instance, in
of Bolivia, India, Kyrgyzstan, the Andes, Indigenous knowledge has promoted access to local and regional
Mongolia, Nepal, Panama, Peru seed supply networks and the adoption of new crop varieties (Skarbø and
and the Philippines, the Global Van der Molen, 2014) (Box 3.5).
Mountain PGS Network is the
first international network
3.3.3 Governance
of Participatory Guarantee
Systems. […] The network links The Mountain Partnership is the only global governance structure for
small-scale mountain farmers mountain regions. This voluntary alliance, established by the United Nations
around the globe, promotes in 2002, brings together governments, intergovernmental organizations,
horizontal knowledge-sharing non-governmental organizations and local communities. Through
among partners and innovative collaboration, knowledge-sharing and advocacy, the Mountain Partnership
south–south cooperation. tackles challenges faced by mountain environments and communities,
Thanks to this network, including food security and nutrition.
mountain farmers’ experiences
This collaborative approach to mountain governance empowers various
can be shared, communicated
stakeholders to work together for a common goal – a thriving future for
and scaled up, maintaining the
mountain people and places. The Food and Agricultural Organization of the
context-specific approach typical
United Nations hosts the Secretariat, and is the lead agency for mountains
of PGS initiatives.
within the United Nations system, as agriculture and food production are
important drivers in mountain areas. The Framework for the Five Years of
Source: Extracted from FAO (2021, p. 90). Action for the Development of Mountain regions (2023–2027) groups and
guides activities on sustainable mountain development. The Mountain
Partnership leads a commitment to action submitted at the United Nations
2023 Conference on the Midterm Comprehensive Review of Implementation
of the Objectives of the International Decade for Action, “Water for
Sustainable Development”, 2018–2028, titled ‘Advancing sustainable
mountain development and protecting the “water towers” of the world’.

Regionally, several mountain organizations address specific challenges and

opportunities in their respective areas (see Chapter 9). The Alpine Convention
and the Carpathian Convention focus on sustainable development and
conservation in the European mountain ranges of the Alps and Carpathians,
respectively (Permanent Secretariat of the Alpine Convention, 2017).
Meanwhile, the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development
in the HKH region promotes cooperation and knowledge-sharing across
borders. The Consortium for the Sustainable Development of the Andean
Ecoregion network works on sustainable development in the Andes Mountain
range, focusing on community-driven initiatives and knowledge exchange
between Andean nations.

Food and agriculture 53

 3.4 Mountain agriculture faces numerous obstacles in achieving food security through
Conclusions sustainable and enhanced production. Climate change affecting rainfall variability, along with
global warming leading to glacier- and snow-melt, will increasingly affect mountain water
availability across different timescales, thus posing challenges to farmers in the mountains
and to irrigated agriculture downstream. In addition to the remoteness and inaccessibility
of mountains, climate change impacts are exacerbating the food security dimensions of
availability, accessibility, utilization and stability.

To create an enabling environment for implementation of adaptation interventions, important

considerations include: capacity-building and strengthening knowledge management,
It is necessary
including an increase in hydrological monitoring and data generation; developing agricultural
to ensure plans and policies that fully take on board mountain communities context-specific
sufficient water requirements; enhancing local governance institutions including farmer organizations;
downflow from supporting mountain farming systems that preserve agricultural diversity; and providing
back-up with sufficient funds for implementation.
the mountains
to serve lowland The need for effective governance to sustain highland and lowland food security is more
irrigation important than ever. It is necessary to ensure sufficient water downflow from the mountains
to serve lowland irrigation, and equally to preserve and enhance unique and diverse
agricultural mountainscapes.

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56 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
Chapter 4

Human settlements
and disaster risk
reduction

UN-Habitat
Hezekiah Pireh, Avi Sarkar, Sudha Shrestha and
Shobana Srinivasan

With contributions from: Nidhi Nagabhatla (UNU-CRIS),

Sanae Okamoto and Serdar Turkeli (UNU-MERIT),
Dipesh Chapagain and Navneet Kumar (UNU-EHS) and
Narayan Singh Khawas, Chicgoua Noubactep, Darren
Saywell and Sean Furey (RWSN)
 Mountain regions are important water towers, sustaining human settlements home to 14% of
the world’s population (Ehrlich et al., 2021). Such regions face a unique set of challenges that
affect the provision of water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) services (De Jong, 2015; Clerici
et al., 2019; Zogaris et al., 2021). They are often exposed to natural hazards such as floods,
landslides induced by extreme rainfall, debris flows, ice and snow avalanches, earthquakes
and droughts.

This chapter focuses on the challenges and responses to WASH service provision and
disaster risk reduction (DRR) in mountain regions. It highlights the impacts of rapid and
unplanned urbanization, natural hazards and climate change on water availability, quality and
security in such areas.

4.1 4.1.1 Urbanization

Challenges Rapid and unplanned urbanization in mountain regions is placing pressure on fragile
mountain ecosystems, affecting water availability, quality and security. Despite the
challenges associated with difficult terrain and fragile ecosystems, the population in
mountain regions has been steadily growing. Between 1975 and 2015, approximately 35% of
mountain subregions experienced at least a twofold increase in population (Thornton et al.,
2022). The proportion of urban residents within these mountain areas ranged from 6% to 39%
over the same period (Ehrlich et al., 2021; Thornton et al., 2022).

Understanding urban expansion modes specific to mountain cities is therefore essential for
sustainable planning, including for water resources (Jia et al., 2020). About 1.1 billion people
Rapid and
live in mountain regions. Although the urbanization rate varies considerably across mountain
unplanned ranges, approximately 34% of the population in mountains lives in cities, 31% in towns and
urbanization semi-dense areas, and 35% in rural areas. Although the urbanization rate in mountains (66%)
in mountain is lower than in lowlands (78%), the most populated and urbanized mountain ranges such as
the Himalayas, Andes, Rockies and Alps are also those where urbanization rates are highest
regions is placing
(Ehrlich et al., 2021).
pressure on
fragile mountain Urbanization in mountain regions has major impacts on surface water and groundwater flow
ecosystems (Somers and McKenzie, 2020), and also on water quality (De Jong, 2015). It significantly
alters the hydrological cycle, affecting the volume and quality of surface water. Steep slopes,
altered natural water drainage patterns and paved surfaces decrease groundwater recharge
and increase runoff, resulting in flash floods and soil erosion. Water quality may decline
due to pollutants from increased tourism, untreated wastewater and industries. Legacy
pollutants such as persistent organic pollutants, particularly polychlorinated biphenyls and
dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and heavy metals may
be released into water sources due to ice- and snow-melt associated with climate change
(Hodson, 2014).

For example, the Himalayan region in South Asia is densely populated and has experienced
rapid urban growth in recent decades. Undoubtedly, urbanization in the region has created
jobs and improved infrastructure, but it has also caused significant environmental and
socio-economic issues. Disrupted hydrological regimes have reduced groundwater
recharge and water availability, exacerbating water insecurity amid the impacts of climate
change. Deforestation, biodiversity loss and the likelihood of natural hazards such as
floods and landslides occurring have been increasing (Tiwari et al., 2018). Urban expansion
has degraded fragile ecosystems, including forests, wildlife habitats and water sources.
Addressing these challenges requires nature-based solutions (NbS) and mountain-specific
urban planning to ensure sustainable development and resilience.

58 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
 4.1.2 Natural hazards
Box 4.1 Impacts of the 2021 Natural hazards such as landslides, earthquakes, floods, glacial lake outburst
Nepal flood disaster floods (GLOFs) and avalanches often occur in mountain regions (see Section 2.2.3).
These can damage the water supply and sanitation infrastructure, and disrupt
On 15 June 2021, Melamchi
access to WASH services. For example, from 850 to 2022, 3,151 GLOF events
Bazar in Nepal experienced a
were recorded across the world’s major glaciated regions (Lützow et al., 2023).
devastating flash flood from the
The damage to critical infrastructures such as roads, bridges, dams, water
Melamchi and Indrawati Rivers,
intake and flood protection structures, hydropower plants and power lines,
resulting in 5 deaths, 20 missing
and communication networks has been significant. Such hazards increase the
persons and extensive damage.
vulnerability of already vulnerable and often marginalized mountain communities,
The Melamchi Drinking Water
and destabilize some of their wealth-generating sectors, including agriculture,
Project was also affected. This
tourism and biodiversity (Alfthan et al., 2018; Hock et al., 2019).
event was part of a series of
floods that, over 3–4 days, led
For instance, the April 2015 Nepal earthquake damaged water and sanitation
to 337 houses being damaged
facilities in surrounding areas: “Out of a total 11,288 water supply systems in the
and 525 families being
14 most affected districts, 1,570 sustained major damages, 3,663 were partially
displaced. Critical infrastructure
damaged and approximately 220,000 toilets were partially or totally destroyed”
– such as 13 suspension
(UN-Habitat, 2016, p. 4). As another example, Box 4.1 highlights the impacts of
bridges, 7 motorable bridges
the 2021 Nepal flood disaster.
and numerous roads – was
destroyed, severely affecting
human settlements, agriculture 4.1.3 Climate change
and river-based livelihoods Mountain habitats are highly sensitive to climate change. Increasing frequency,
across a large area. severity and intensity of extreme weather events can result in poor living
conditions with compromised access to (often fragile) water and sanitation
The floods also carried services. Rising temperatures and changing precipitation patterns due to climate
large debris from upstream, change may affect water availability in mountain regions through increased
depositing it as far as 54 km exposure to hazards such as droughts and floods (Adler et al., 2022).
away in Dolalghat. Additionally,
a landslide on 18 June 2021 An increase in the intensity, frequency and duration of extreme precipitation can
blocked the Tama Koshi River, lead to a sudden rise in peak river flow, triggering flash floods in river valleys. In
forming a lake that threatened Nepal, a one-unit increase in the maximum 1 day precipitation led to a 33% rise
downstream areas. The National in flood-related fatalities, and a one-unit rise in the number of heavy rain days
Disaster Risk Reduction and consecutive wet days increased landslide-related fatalities by 45% and 34%,
and Management Authority respectively (Chapagain et al., 2024). Conversely, a precipitation deficit, especially
reported the initial casualties due to decreases in scattered and consecutive low-intensity rainy days, reduces
and damage, and highlighted water percolation into the subsurface in steep areas. This adversely affects
the urgent need for effective groundwater recharge and subsequently diminishes baseflow contributions to
disaster risk management. streams, natural springs and aquifer storage (Chapagain et al., 2021; Seneviratne
et al., 2021).
Source: Maharjan et al. (2021).
Increased water stress has resulted in migration and displacement in highlands
(Joshi and Dongol, 2018; Almulhim et al., 2024). During dry and hot seasons,
water scarcity has resulted in poor hygienic practices and increased the risk
of disease prevalence (Dhimal et al., 2015; Bhandari et al., 2020). Furthermore,
pollution from poor sanitation, depletion of water sources, forest fires, mining and
unsustainable agriculture can affect water availability and quality.

Regions that rely on mountain snowpack as a temporary water reservoir may

also experience severe hydrological droughts as global temperatures increase
(Seneviratne et al., 2021).

Human settlements and disaster risk reduction 59

 4.1.4 Mountain terrain
Mountain terrain – characterized by steep slopes, often difficult weather conditions, remote
locations and poor road networks – poses significant challenges for the construction and
maintenance of water and sanitation infrastructure. The topography of mountain regions
favours the natural occurrence or construction of water reservoirs at high elevations and
gravity-flow water systems, which can operate without costly energy requirements. However,
constructing and maintaining water reservoirs, water treatment plants and distribution
pipelines can be tedious and expensive. For communities not served by piped water, steep
slopes and rocky terrain also limit the availability of surface water sources, making fetching
water time-consuming and physically demanding, especially for women and girls, who are
culturally the primary purveyors of water at the household level (Shrestha et al., 2019).

4.1.5 Mental health and psychosocial well-being

Extreme weather events in mountain regions can significantly affect health, not only in
Mountain terrain terms of physical injuries (Sumann et al., 2020) but also mental health and psychosocial
well-being (Poudyal et al., 2021). For instance, communities in the Hindu Kush Himalaya
poses significant
region have been suffering with the impacts of climate change, particularly in recent years.
challenges for Local populations in Ghizer district, in the Gilgit-Baltisan region of northern Pakistan, have
the construction experienced flash floods and landslides that destroyed the local infrastructure, agricultural
and maintenance lands and housing (Abbas and Khan, 2020).

of water and Many mountain communities that rely on agriculture, tourism or forestry industries are
sanitation vulnerable to the impacts of extreme weather events. Loss of livelihood due to crop failure
infrastructure and damage to infrastructure and tourism could potentially lead to economic instability.
Inevitably, these events have a huge toll on the mental health of the local communities. Such
experiences can cause stress, anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder among those
affected (WHO, 2022).

Populations may be hesitant to openly discuss mental health issues due to a fear of the
social stigma associated with such conditions (Ebrahim, 2022). Furthermore, extreme
weather conditions can isolate communities by disrupting routes and communication
networks, leading to limited or no access to health and mental health services (Dewi et al.,
2023). This challenge is exacerbated by the existing difficulties in accessing these services
due to geographical remoteness or a shortage of trained professionals.

4.2 Improving access to WASH services and DRR in mountain regions requires prioritizing water
Responses in urban planning, and integrating WASH and DRR into nationally determined contributions
(NDCs) and national adaptation plans (NAPs). Investment in climate-resilient infrastructure
and community-based adaptation strategies, including local knowledge, is essential.
Additionally, fostering cross-border collaboration will enhance resilience and help to mitigate
the impacts of extreme weather events.

4.2.1 Urban and land-use planning

Urbanization in mountain regions can be planned better by putting WASH at the centre of
urban and land-use planning. Effective urban land-use policies need to be developed and
implemented for the protection and conservation of the urban environment and ecosystem
services and for making urban systems climate resilient (Tiwari et al., 2018).

Sustainable land management practices, including reforestation and controlled grazing,

have helped reduce soil erosion and improve water retention, for example, in the Alps. Soil
management and reforestation efforts reflect the intent to stabilize slopes and increase the
infiltration of melting snow and rainwater, boosting groundwater recharge and reducing the
risk of flash floods (Repe et al., 2020).

60 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
 4.2.2 Disaster risk reduction management
In mountain regions, DRR necessitates a blend of climate change adaptation and mitigation,
strategic urban and land-use planning, use of engineering solutions, and development of
early warning systems (EWS).

Through the Nepal Karnali Water Activity, donors like the United States Agency for
Investment in International Development have utilized hydrological models such as the Soil & Water
Assessment Tool and Water Accounting+ to assess water resources use and availability in
climate-resilient
the Karnali River basin. These assessments inform local DRR management plans, guiding
infrastructure mitigation and adaptation strategies like pond construction, spring conservation and
and community- afforestation, and identifying flood- and drought-resistant crops.
based adaptation
Integrating climate change efforts and informed urban planning decisions is crucial to
strategies is minimizing vulnerabilities, including for WASH provision. Collaborative research and
essential policymaking is essential to address the unique challenges of mountain regions and protect
their vital ecosystem services. Initiatives like the Global Mountain Safeguard Research and
the Mountain Partnership aim to foster sustainable and resilient mountain communities,
ensuring social and economic well-being while conserving mountain ecosystems (FAO, 2022;
UNU-EHS, 2023).

4.2.3 Financing adaptation and climate-resilient infrastructure

A review of countries’ NDCs12 and NAPs13 submitted to the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change prior to June 2024 suggests WASH and disaster management
are priority sectors in mountainous developing countries (MDCs). Examples of adaptation
actions in mountain regions include: feasibility studies for building emergency storage and
bypasses and controlled releases from glacial lakes; river basin management and planning
for basin optimization; monitoring temporal changes in glaciers; and establishing GLOF risk
reduction systems and EWS in glaciated river basins.

The estimated adaptation finance needs specifically for MDCs amounts to US$187 billion
per year (in 2021 prices), equivalent to 1.3% of their gross domestic product, for this decade.
Adaptation finance needs in the health and sanitation, water supply and DRR sectors
together account for almost 20% of the MDC total adaptation finance needs. However, the
available international public adaptation finance flow in these countries in 2022 was only
US$13.8 billion, thus indicating a large adaptation finance gap (see Chapter 9), including in
the water supply, DRR, and health and sanitation sectors in mountain regions. Even though
there are huge adaptation finance gaps, these sectors collectively account for nearly 30% of
the current adaptation finance flow in MDCs (UNEP, 2024).

Climate-resilient infrastructure, such as reinforced embankments and flood diversion

channels, can protect mountain communities and downstream users from the impacts of
extreme weather events and changing hydrological patterns. The report Climate Change
2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability (IPCC, 2022) highlights that infrastructure
projects can be designed to withstand increased runoff from melting snow and ice, ensuring
continued water provision for urban and agricultural use.

The case of the Rocky Mountains illustrates the importance of understanding seasonal water
flux (summer, autumn and winter flows) in designing effective water service interventions
(Rood, 2008; IPCC, 2022).

12
https://unfccc.int/NDCREG.
13
https://napcentral.org/submitted-NAPs.

Human settlements and disaster risk reduction 61

 The short-term cost of delivering climate-resilient infrastructure is generally higher
than that of conventional technologies. The additional cost can be prohibitive, thereby
halting the development of appropriate technologies. Financial markets alone cannot
be expected to absorb this additional cost, which therefore needs to be provided for
by the state – until a critical mass is achieved and the technology cost can be driven
down. Service providers may need support to develop technological solutions while
maintaining their financial viability.

4.2.4 Promoting participatory, community-based strategies and actions

Communities in mountain regions have depended on Indigenous knowledge to build
resilience to water- and sanitation-related challenges. Progress in civil engineering
has aided the application of such knowledge, with the opportunity to construct
modular systems such as reservoirs and tanks for water storage. Installing rainwater
harvesting infrastructures in locations struggling for drinking water can also benefit
mountain communities.

The use of community-based adaptation strategies – particularly involving the

recognition of Indigenous Peoples’ voices – can empower local communities to
participate in water management decisions and incorporate local and traditional
knowledge in designing and implementing solutions tailored to their specific needs.

4.2.5 Integrated water resources management

Adapting the integrated water resources management (IWRM) blueprint to the local
context in mountain regions can potentially help to address some water-related
Communities in
challenges such as the impacts of changes in snow cover and glacier retreat on
mountain regions water availability (see Box 2.2). For example, enhancing the water storage capacity by
have depended constructing new reservoirs and restoring traditional water storage systems like ponds
on Indigenous and tanks can help buffer against seasonal water variability and mitigate the impacts of
knowledge to flash floods. It is also important to consider technological innovations such as efficient
glacier monitoring and EWS (see Chapter 8) that can provide critical information on
build resilience
glacier melt and GLOFs (Taylor et al., 2023).
to water- and
sanitation-related In some Andean nations, IWRM systems have been established to monitor glacier
challenges retreat and formation of glacial lakes, thus providing communities with early warnings,
reducing the risk of sudden floods, and protecting lives and WASH infrastructure.
National GLOF hazard and risk assessments in the Plurinational State of Bolivia and Peru
are functioning to ensure water security – including provisioning services challenges –
can be addressed in tandem with climate change impacts (Emmer et al., 2022).

4.2.6 Developing decentralized water and sanitation systems

Decentralized water and sanitation systems can be particularly effective in mountain
regions (e.g. Box 4.2), reducing the risk of infrastructure damage during hazards in
rugged terrain subject to frequent landslides. For instance, in the mountain regions
of the Lao People’s Democratic Republic and Nepal, community-led initiatives have
successfully established resilient and sustainable water and sanitation solutions,
demonstrating the effectiveness of decentralized approaches in challenging
environments (IUCN, n.d.).

62 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
Box 4.2 A community-based gravity-fed piped water supply and sanitation system

In Xieng Ngeun, Luang Prabang, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, 85% of households had no access to basic sanitation
facilities, and the infrastructure was inoperative due to neglect. Villagers often had to walk long distances to collect water,
which was frequently contaminated, leading to widespread health issues like diarrhoea.

To address the challenges, which were typical of most mountain areas (e.g. steep slopes, remoteness and a sparse
population density), the United Nations Human Settlements Programme implemented a community-based water, sanitation
and hygiene (WASH) pilot project targeting 1,221 households across six villages. A key component of the initiative was
developing a gravity-fed piped water system, which leveraged the local topography to deliver water efficiently without the need
for energy-intensive pumping systems. This approach, and revolving funds for community-managed sanitation improvements,
successfully provided connections for over 90% of households in the target villages to the water supply network, up from 0%.
Community involvement was emphasized, with residents trained to protect and maintain the water supply infrastructure.

The project also addressed several enduring challenges. For example, the absence of a formal drainage system was
a significant issue for residents in low-lying areas prone to flooding. Moreover, the low population density previously
complicated efforts to achieve economies of scale in WASH service provision, making it difficult to justify the cost of
constructing and maintaining infrastructure extended to sparsely populated areas in such a rugged terrain.

With over 80% of households now connected to the water supply network and over 90% having access to basic sanitation, the
Xieng Ngeun pilot project demonstrates the potential of community-based approaches in overcoming the unique challenges
of water service provision in mountain regions.

Source: UN-Habitat (n.d.).

4.3 The multifaceted challenges facing human settlements in mountain regions, particularly
Conclusions with regard to water resources management, WASH, DRR and health issues, are subject to
the increasing frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, such as GLOFs, landslides
and flash floods. While there is a need to examine the extent to which WASH services are
disrupted, community-level involvement has been an enabling factor in reducing public health
risks in vulnerable mountain communities.

Responses to improve access to WASH and DRR include: prioritizing water in urban and land-
use planning; prioritizing WASH and DRR in NDCs and NAPs; investing in climate-resilient
infrastructure; and promoting community-based adaptation strategies that recognize and
incorporate local and Indigenous knowledge. Adapting the IWRM blueprint to the local
context can potentially address challenges such as the impacts of glacier retreat on water
availability. Cross-border collaboration and strengthening DRR measures can help to mitigate
the impacts of extreme events.

Coordinated policy actions to address these challenges point to IWRM as a framework that
prioritizes balancing social, economic and environmental needs, incorporating traditional
knowledge and modern technologies. The use of decentralized water and sanitation systems
can enhance resilience and reduce infrastructure damage during disasters. Such systems
empower local communities through capacity-building and participatory approaches, and
ensure WASH strategies are culturally appropriate and locally relevant, which is crucial for
effective climate adaptation and health support services in high-elevation landscapes.

This chapter also calls for investments in water- and climate-resilient infrastructure, such
as reinforced embankments and flood diversion channels, and the application of NbS.
Climate action and water security strategies for vulnerable communities living in high-
elevation landscapes need to integrate health support services, including support systems
for mental health.

Human settlements and disaster risk reduction 63

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Human settlements and disaster risk reduction 65

Chapter 5

Industry and
energy

UNIDO
Jon Marco Church

With contributions from: John Payne and Christian Susan (UNIDO)

 It is a paradox that industry and energy are both perpetrators and victims of climate
change in mountain areas and the cryosphere. Records from the middle of the
19 th century point to glaciers retreating abruptly as the result of radiative forcing
produced “by increasing deposition of industrial black carbon to snow” (see Box 2.1),
particularly in western Europe (Sigl et al., 2018, p. 50; Beard et al., 2022a; 2022b).
Global warming is exacerbating this retreat.

This chapter demonstrates how water use by the industry and energy sectors in
mountain areas can be adapted to a rapidly changing cryosphere (IPCC, 2019), because
of glacial melt and decrease in snow cover, and the changes this implies for water on
the surface and underground.

Just as industry and energy are important for water and glaciers in mountain areas,
water is also important for industry and energy. Water-dependent industries have
Water-dependent
developed in mountain areas where water and other resources are found in relative
industries have abundance (Perlik, 2019; Modica, 2022). This has contributed to industrialization of
developed in mountain areas (Collantes, 2009). As a result, mountain areas in Europe have relatively
mountain areas more people employed in the industrial sector than in lowland areas (Nordregio, 2004).
In Latin America, it has been estimated that 85% of hydropower generated in Andean
where water and
countries is produced in mountain areas (Mountain Partnership, 2014). The provision of
other resources are mineral drinking water is an important industry, as the resource is often extracted from
found in relative mountain areas.
abundance
In addition to industrial and energy production – particularly in hydropower plants, and
also in coal- and wood-fired power plants – water is also required to process minerals,
produce timber and develop tourism in mountain areas (Talandier and Donsimoni,
2022). For instance: water is needed to make the artificial snow used in the ski industry
when natural snow is not sufficient; water is the basis for rafting and sailing; and water
is essential to recreational fisheries and the hospitality business (FAO/UN Tourism,
2023). The quantity and quality of water and aquatic biodiversity are affected by
industry and energy production, as well as by climate change, for example, through
glacier and permafrost melting and changes in the upper limits of tree and other
vegetation lines (Zou et al., 2023).

There is a lack of evidence about trends in water-intensive industrial and energy

development in mountain areas. As the economies of developing nations evolve, the
shift away from agriculture and resource-extracting industries as the main economic
drivers (Connor and Chaves Pacheco, 2024) has also reached mountain areas, with
the services sector – including tourism, commerce, education and health care – often
representing the largest employer.

Owing to the global expansion of water-dependent industries, it is likely that industrial

use of water is also growing in mountains. For instance, at the global level, material
resource extraction could increase by almost 60% above the 2020 level by 2060 (UNEP,
2024). In addition, importation of virtual water – meaning the flow of water hidden
in the exchange of products and materials – is a significant factor of production for
mountain industry.

The water going back to mountains in terms of traded goods and services should not
be underestimated. Mountain areas can be constrained environments that require
importing more virtual water than is being exported (Cabello et al., 2015; Malo-Larrea
et al., 2022; Church, 2024).

Industry and energy 67

 5.1 A significant challenge for industry and energy is the elevation at which it is possible to
Challenges operate. This is related to slope, and also to temperature because frozen water is unsuitable
for consumption and other uses. Nevertheless, there are industrial practices in glacier areas,
as well as polar regions, such as mining, power transmission, telecom infrastructure and
some tourism industry (Smith López et al., 2024). As such conditions can generate huge
investment and running costs, industrial activities are typically limited to those with high
returns on investment.

Global warming is making investment riskier owing to uncertainties and higher and cascading
risks of natural hazards – such as glacial lake outbursts, avalanches, mudflows and floods
– as well as technological ones – such as the failure of tailing dams and other infrastructure
(Tuihedur Rahman et al., 2024).

At some point, temperatures increase and ice starts melting, mainly depending on elevation,
latitude and season. The changing cryosphere is quickly moving the limits of how high it is
possible to operate, as an increasing number of mountains do not have glaciers and snow. Rain
and groundwater, including karst aquifers, are important for industry and energy. Changes in
precipitation and soil permeability in mountain areas also represent a major technical challenge.

Managing a resource often perceived as locally abundant is challenging. People may take it
for granted, particularly in areas that are fed by glaciers (but which are expected to melt faster
with global warming). This may lead to overuse and drought – downstream and also in the
mountain areas themselves (Orr et al., 2024). Climate change and changes in precipitation
patterns often exacerbate drought.

The biggest challenge is the disconnect between local water availability and supply and
water use to meet industrial and energy demand, which depends on local, national and global
economies and markets. There may be demand for water-intensive products at times of water
scarcity, which can lead to conflicts of use locally in mountain areas and between upstream
and downstream communities (Füreder et al., 2018).

5.2 Industrial and energy development can affect water quality (Figure 5.1). In addition, because
Impact of of progressive population and economic decline, remote mountain areas can be difficult to
regulate, resulting in uncontrolled water withdrawals and discharges, including pollutants
industrial pollution
(Machate et al., 2023). Industrial development and brownfield sites alter the water regime of
on water quality sites and water-related ecosystems, and can result in the infiltration of pollutants into surface
water and groundwater (Modica, 2022).

Industrial wastewater management can represent a major challenge in mountain areas, where
slope can make it difficult to develop systems for on-site storage, treatment and reuse of
water and waste. Insufficiently regulated activities such as mining and fish farming can result
in significant leakage of pollutants, including heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants
such as pesticides and antibiotics (Wright et al., 2011; UNIDO, 2017). The management of
Mountain mining tailings, including from closed mines, is of critical importance, also considering the
communities can risk of natural hazards in mountain areas (Zoï Environment Network, 2013; UNECE, 2014).
be vulnerable to
Mountain communities can be vulnerable to industrial water pollution. Insufficiently
industrial water regulated industrial and energy development can have negative repercussions for upstream
pollution and downstream areas. Downstream areas are dependent on and vulnerable to upstream
developments, even if lowland areas are typically wealthier than mountain areas and
therefore can count on more resources for their resilience (Perlik, 2015). In addition, negative
transboundary impacts and industrial accidents involving water can exacerbate relations
between upstream and downstream communities (UNECE, 2016).

68 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
 Women, children, older people and persons with disabilities are often over-represented in
mountain communities because of labour migration to wealthier areas (Mishra, 2002). This
means that in mountain areas, industrial pollution particularly affects these groups.

Figure 5.1
Precipitation and
Transport pathways and dry deposition
processes of deposition Long-range transport
for contaminants within
Regional
glaciated environments transport

Geological
erosion
Mining Animal dispersal
and ARD
Bioaccumulation and
biomagnification
Marine
ecosystems
Agriculture
Note: ARD: acid rock drainage. and irrigation Lake and fjord
sediments
Fires and
biomass Powered tools
burning and machinery
Fertilizer and
pesticide use Water
resources

Industry and Residential Transport pathways of

energy production activities contaminants from source
into glacial environments

Urbanization
and transport Areas of potential risk
from the reintroduction
Source: Based on Beard et al. of contaminants into
(2022a, fig. 2, p. 635). downstream environments

5.3 One example of industrial and energy use of water in mountain areas is the large-scale
Examples of extraction of lithium, used to produce batteries and derived from evaporation-based
lithium brine mining methods, in the area spanning the southwest of the Plurinational
industrial and
State of Bolivia and northern Argentina and Chile. This area accounts for 56% of the
energy water use world’s total identified lithium resources. The activity exerts significant stress on surface
water and groundwater, as well as on wetlands and other water-related ecosystems. This
stress is consequently exerted also on the communities that depend on those waters.
Around 2,000 m³ of water is required to produce 1 tonne of lithium; this is in an area with
an arid climate and low rainfall (UNECLAC, 2023).

Small-scale and artisanal mining can also have huge impacts upstream and downstream.
For instance, the use of mercury in gold mining is dangerous for water quality and
availability and public health (UNEP, 2012). Community and environmental movements
play a key role in raising awareness and helping address these issues – the Pascua-Lama
gold mine is a specific example (Box 5.1).

Industry and energy 69

 Box 5.1 Protecting glaciers from the impacts of mining: Pascua-Lama, Chile

Pascua-Lama is an open pit gold mining site located in the Andes, 3,800–5,200 m
above sea level and straddling the border between Argentina and Chile. It
illustrates the complex interplay of corporate, government and Indigenous
interests, perspectives and perceptions through the lens of glaciers and water
supply (Kronenberg, 2009; Amos-Landgraf, 2021).

The three glaciers involved are on the Chilean side and are small. Initially, a
mining company received approval after an environment impact assessment
to move the glaciers and put the ice on a nearby glacier. This plan met with
opposition from local communities, internationally and the Chilean Government,
based on potential threats to agriculture, the environment and health.

In 2006, the Chilean environmental authorities ruled that the mining company
should not touch glaciers, but should protect and monitor them. The value of
water availability through glacial runoff to downstream communities strongly
influenced the decision. Smaller glaciers are more susceptible to global warming,
and their value is likely to be more site specific (Kronenberg, 2009). As melting
glaciers have come to symbolize global warming, political and societal issues
may also have been factors.

In 2013, the mining project was put on hold after a petition from the Diaguita
Indigenous community near the mine, citing overextraction of water from
glaciers and the Estrecho River. In 2020, the First Environmental Court of Chile
ordered the mine to be closed and fined the mining company. Among charges
facing the company were contaminating the glacier-fed Estrecho River – an
important regional water source for domestic and irrigation water – and not
adequately evaluating the impact of the mine on the Andean glaciers. It was
also stated that exploration boreholes had compromised groundwater filtration,
causing pollution in local rivers.

The Pascua-Lama situation reflects changing preferences towards the

preservation and value of glaciers, and resulted in legal protection of the
glaciers involved. The project has encouraged a broad discussion of mining and
its potential effects on glaciers.

Furthermore, the rapid development of hydropower-related cryptomining in

The rapid mountain areas is a threat to the industry and energy sectors. Cryptomining is a
development of key process in the issuance of cryptocurrency that uses specialized computing
resources requiring vast amounts of cheap energy. Coal is the main source of
hydropower-
energy used, with a 45% share, and hydropower the main source of renewable
related energy, with 16% (Chamanara and Madani, 2023). Both are often produced in
cryptomining in mountain areas, with significant impacts on the quantity and quality of water
mountain areas resources (Table 5.1), as well as on power networks. For instance, in Central
Asia, several cryptomines are operating in the mountains of Kazakhstan and
is a threat to the
Kyrgyzstan, where inexpensive electricity is available. This has increased the
industry and pressure on the power system to the point that, in January 2022, the whole
energy sectors Unified Energy System of Central Asia temporarily collapsed, resulting in a
large-scale blackout that affected millions of people in the southern part of
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan.

70 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
 Table 5.1 Annual water footprint of bitcoin mining across the world, 2020–2021
Country Water footprint (million m³) Water footprint (m³/person)

China 780.05 0.55

United States of America 205.73 0.62

Canada 150.01 3.85

Kazakhstan 104.18 5.31

Russian Federation 94.11 0.65

Malaysia 64.57 1.90

Germany 51.94 0.62

Norway 39.91 7.31

Iran (Islamic Republic of) 19.25 0.22

Thailand 17.98 0.25

Other countries 119.84 0.02

Sources: Elaboration by the author, based on data from Chamanara and Madani (2023, fig. 7, p. 17) and UNSD (n.d.).

The production of artificial snow uses a significant amount of water. For instance, in the
Alps alone, it has used an estimated 280 million m3 of water (Unbehaun and Pröbstl, 2006)
and 2,100 GW of electricity (Hamberger and Doering, 2015). In 2009, the Alpine Convention
reported that in two Swiss ski resort towns “snowmaking accounts for 22% and 36% of the
annual water abstraction” and that “artificial snowmaking can lead to conflicts with other
water demands (e.g. drinking water supply)” (Permanent Secretariat of the Alpine Convention,
2009, p. 65). To secure the necessary water supply for artificial snow production when water
is scarce in winter, storage ponds have been built to store water when it is abundant in the
summer and autumn.

Forestry and timber production are important for mountain areas, even if elevation and other
factors make mountain forests on average less productive and profitable than lowland ones.
Timber production and processing have therefore often shifted to lowlands (Price et al.,
2011). Yet, mountain forests play a key role in water management (Schyns and Vanham,
2019). Depending on the types of trees, mountain forests can retain significant amounts of
water and humidity in upper catchments, stabilize the soil and reduce erosion, thus helping
to reduce the risk of water-related hazards. As such, they can be considered nature-based
solutions. This is not so much the case of tree plantations for timber production, whose
absorption capacity is typically lower than that of natural forests. Forestry impacts on water
quality include “sediment delivery, nutrient losses, carbon transport, metal and base cation
releases”, as well as “changes to acidity and temperature” (Shah et al., 2022, p. 1).

5.4 Hydropower generation has been one of the main industries in mountain areas (WWAP, 2014).
Hydropower in Its development started at the end of the 19th century in Europe and North America, where
it slowed until the 1970s, because of increased resistance from environmental movements
mountain areas
and shortage of suitable sites. In the rest of the world, hydropower development picked up
after the Second World War and continues to be significant. Hydropower plants can be large
(>100 MW), medium (15–100 MW) and small (<15 MW) in capacity.

Industry and energy 71

 A typical example of a large hydropower development in mountain areas is the Nurek dam,
reservoir and hydropower plant in Central Asia. Located along the Vakhsh River in Tajikistan,
it is part of a cascade that includes the Rogun hydropower plant, currently under construction
(Rahimzoda, 2024). Nurek was part of an integrated development programme conceived
in the 1960s, when the area was part of the former Soviet Union. It was meant to generate
electricity for industrial development and to expand mountain farming through pumped
irrigation, while regulating water for downstream irrigation and flood control for Tajikistan
and downstream countries (Kalinovsky, 2021).

After generating most electricity produced in the country for four decades, Nurek is being
modernized to optimize its functionality. However, the reservoir is progressively shrinking
Hydropower owing to siltation, and is thus losing its capacity to regulate water and generate power. The
generation has completion of other projects along the Vakhsh cascade, particularly Rogun, will help address
been one of the this issue. The required financing is huge compared with the size of the country’s economy,
main industries in and so are the social and environmental impacts, which were assessed in cooperation with
neighbouring countries (World Bank, 2014).
mountain areas
There are also many examples of medium and small hydropower plants in mountain areas,
including run-of-the-river plants. The presence of a slope makes it possible to generate
hydropower without building large dams and reservoirs. The design and siting of small
hydropower plants usually lower the impact of hydropower generation on water resources,
biodiversity and landscape. However, at high elevations, small hydropower plants are often
not operational in cold weather due to freezing and a lack of precipitation (Katsoulakos and
Kaliampakos, 2014).

Unregulated and badly planned development of small hydropower plants can have negative
impacts on water resources. For instance, in Georgia, some rivers have dried up because of
too many small hydropower plants (Japoshvili et al., 2021). In 2018, the Alpine Convention
– a regional environmental agreement – published specific guidelines for the use of small
hydropower plants (Platform Water Management in the Alps, 2018).

Hydropower plants in mountain areas can therefore be too large for the context but also too
small to be effective. Their design is thus extremely important. Several important documents,
taking into consideration the specificities of mountain areas, including cascade effects, are
required to guide their development. For instance, a river basin management plan, a strategic
environmental assessment, a national energy policy, a climate change risk assessment,
an environmental and social impact assessment (not always for smaller projects), an
environmental and social management plan, and operational rules may be necessary.

Glacier melt and precipitation runoff can flow down steep slopes over relatively short
distances, making it suitable for generating power. The shape of mountain valleys is
amenable for constructing dams. Building materials for coffer-dams14 and other relevant
structures can also be found locally in mountain areas. When machine rooms are built inside
mountains, turbines and other hydropower plant components are protected from flooding,
mudflows and other hazards.

Reservoirs in mountain areas can store large amounts of water to generate hydropower when
it is needed and thus reduce seasonal dependency. Hydropower is becoming increasingly
important with the development of renewable sources of energy, such as solar and wind,
whose output is variable and needs to be balanced quickly to operate power networks. As
such, hydropower reservoirs act as storage for water resources as well as for renewable
energy (Permanent Secretariat of the Alpine Convention, 2017). Reservoirs can generate new
ecosystems that may become biodiversity hotspots. For example, Vlasina Lake in Serbia is
now protected under the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands.

14
Temporary watertight enclosures to exclude water.

72 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
 Mountain areas globally tend to have lower population density and less economic
revenue than adjacent lowlands (Thornton et al., 2022). For this reason, the
development of hydropower can have lower social and economic impacts upstream
than in lowlands. Mountain communities and their leaders also tend to have limited
human and financial resources to resist such developments. However, mountain
areas are not disconnected from other regions. Mountain dwellers, urban elites and
other stakeholders, even from the other side of the world, can join forces to propose
alternatives for the development of areas otherwise destined for hydropower and
large infrastructure projects (Perlik, 2019).

Environmental protection is a major driver of resistance to hydropower development,

Environmental as mountain ecosystems are fragile. The construction and presence of dams and
reservoirs, transmission lines and substations can have a significant impact. For
protection is a example, dams create barriers to aquatic biodiversity, lengthy reservoirs create
major driver barriers to migration of large mammals, and construction works unsettle river beds,
of resistance destroy wetlands, change habitats, hydrogeology and local climate, and disturb
to hydropower aquatic life (WWAP, 2014).

development, Fish passes and other techniques used to mitigate or compensate for damage are
as mountain only partially effective (FAO/DVWK, 2002; Venus et al., 2020). River-bed designs, such
ecosystems are as the ones piloted in the Loisach and Iller Rivers in Germany, can also help reduce
fragile some environmental impacts. However, they still depend on the availability of water
(UNIDO/ICSHP, 2022). Sediments typically present in mountain waters also damage
components and fill reservoirs, thus reducing the lifespan of hydropower plants.
Sediment flushing and other techniques help to manage this problem. Hydropower
plants can also be built in cascade along the same river to contain impact. The
water–energy–food–environment nexus approach can be useful to address these
issues (Wymann von Dach and Fleiner, 2019).

Mountain reservoirs have a role in adaptation to climate change, by storing water for
use in times of drought and by storing high river flow, thus reducing the likelihood of
flooding downstream (French Presidency of the Alpine Convention, 2020; Adler et al.,
2022). They can be key infrastructure for disaster risk reduction, but can also be
affected by earthquakes, landslides, mudslides, floods and structural deterioration. A
well-known example is the Chamoli disaster of 2021 in northern India (Shugar et al.,
2021), when a rock and glacier ice avalanche caused a mud and debris flood that
destroyed two hydropower plants under construction downstream and worth over
US$223 million. In 1963, 1,917 deaths were attributed to a similar event on the Vajont
creek in northern Italy, when the dam overflowed, flooding a whole valley (Merlin,
2001). The mismanagement of mountain reservoirs can contribute to incidents,
including transboundary ones.

Climate change is affecting hydropower generation owing to factors such as melting

glaciers, changing patterns of precipitation and increasing evaporation. There are no
data on how much existing and planned hydropower generation depends on glacier
melt at the global level. It is therefore difficult to assess how the changing cryosphere
is affecting hydropower and whether this is positively or negatively compensated
for by other factors, such as increased precipitation and evaporation. There is also
no evidence that global warming will increase the amount of water available for
hydropower. It appears that increases in glacial melt are counterbalanced by increased
evaporation (Cooley, 2023). Satellites reveal widespread decline in global lake water
storage, including artificial reservoirs (Yao et al., 2023). Therefore, peak melt (see
Box 2.2) may have already been reached globally, especially for hydropower plants with
large reservoirs in lower elevations and latitudes, where evaporation is higher.

Industry and energy 73

 5.5 Responses are available and are being developed to make industry and energy production in
Responses for mountain areas more sustainable. They can be clustered into three groups: the promotion of
a circular water economy, the development of environmentally sound technologies (as well as
inclusive and
the increase of environment, social and governance investment) and water stewardship.
sustainable industrial
development The circular economy promotes water-use reduction, recycling of used water and reuse
of water resources (WBCSD, 2017; Delgado et al., 2021). For instance, in Arequipa, Peru, a
mining company in a mountain area addressed its need for water and the city’s wastewater
issues through a public–private partnership with the municipal water utility. The mining
company funded and built a wastewater treatment plant, processing 95% of the city’s
sewage, using some for mining operations and releasing clean water into the local river. This
solution enabled the mine’s expansion, saved the city over US$335 million and revitalized the
river, benefiting local farmers and residents (World Bank, 2019).

Pumped storage hydropower (PSH) utilizes excess off-peak electricity to pump water back
The greening of into a reservoir, thus storing water and potential energy. PSH accounts for 95% of the world’s
electricity storage capacity, mostly in mountain areas (IRENA, 2023). The stored water is
grey infrastructure released to generate electricity during periods of high demand. Although consuming more
or its replacement energy than it generates and holding water upstream that can be lost to evaporation, the
with green ability of PSH to provide water and energy storage and load balancing is valuable for power
infrastructure grid stability. For example, the Fengning power station in China is the world’s largest pumped
storage hydroelectric facility, with a 3,600 MW capacity. Construction began in 2013 and was
can be the
completed in 2021 at a cost of US$1.87 billion. The station operates with two reservoirs: the
best available lower can hold 66.15 million m³ of water and the upper 48.83 million m³. The Fengning power
technique for station is designed to provide 6,612 GWh of power generation capacity from storage a year
mountain areas (IRENA, 2020; Morales Pedraza, 2024).

Environmentally sound technologies (ESTs) encompass practices such as the use of less-
polluting technologies, better resource management and efficient waste recycling. ESTs
can form integrated systems that combine technical knowledge, operational procedures
and organizational structures aimed at fostering sustainability. These technologies serve
as greener alternatives to conventional methods, including efforts to reduce water and
energy consumption in the production of artificial snow (Grünewald and Wolfsperger, 2019).
Companies are improving valve technology to increase water-use efficiency and use oil-free
compressors to ensure no oil ends up in the environment. Also, data can be harnessed to
produce the right quantity and quality of snow, thus reducing the wasteful use of resources.
A co-benefit is providing training opportunities and creating awareness about water and
energy efficiency (TechnoAlpin, 2023).

When existing industry and power infrastructure does not meet modern standards of ESTs,
the greening of grey infrastructure or its replacement with green infrastructure (WWAP/
UN-Water, 2018), including rewilding, can be the best available technique for mountain areas.

Water stewardship, environment, social and governance investment, research and

development, and regulatory oversight are key ingredients in cases where circular economy,
EST and other effective responses are found (Kohler et al., 2012). There are few specific
approaches for water use by industry and energy production in mountain areas (Scott et al.,
2023). Attempts to develop specific bans on hydropower development and other types of
infrastructure in mountain areas have failed to make it into binding legal instruments and
strong policy tools, such as in the case of the 2005 Energy Protocol to the Alpine Convention,
which provides only generic guidance (Austria/European Community/France/Germany/Italy/
Liechtenstein/Monaco/Slovenia/Switzerland, 2005; ARE, 2014). Given the specificities of
water use by the industry and energy sectors in mountain areas, particularly in a context of
melting glaciers, it is hoped this example will inspire more specific approaches in the future
(Katsoulakos and Kaliampakos, 2014).

74 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
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Industry and energy 77

Chapter 6

Environment

UNESCO WWAP
David Coates and Richard Connor

With contributions from: Elisabeth Bernhardt and Ansgar Fallendorf (UNEP)

and Birguy Lamizana Diallo (UNCCD)
 Mountains feature a diverse range of ecological zones, each resulting from a specific
combination of factors such as differences in elevation, geomorphology, isolation
and microclimatic conditions (e.g. insolation). Consequently, they often have
higher endemic biodiversity than lowlands, including important genetic varieties of
agricultural crops and animals (FAO, 2019). They also have an equally diverse range
of human cultures (UNEP/GRID-Arendal, 2022). Mountain systems are generally
characterized by lower temperatures and higher precipitation than other landscapes
(FAO, 2022), and host 25 of the world’s 34 biodiversity hotspots (FAO/UNEP, 2023).

In mountain ecosystems, forests cover approximately 40% of the global mountain

area. At higher elevations, forests give way to grasslands and alpine tundra, including
permafrost and glaciers. Mountain soils develop under harsh climatic conditions.
They differ significantly from lowland soils, as they are shallower and more vulnerable
to erosion (Repe et al., 2020). Such soils are easily and often degraded by various
human activities, especially removal of vegetation that exposes the bare soil. The
recovery of degraded soils and thus ecosystems at high elevations is slow.

The Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) mountain range is the largest and highest alpine
ecosystem in the world, with an average elevation of 4,000 m above sea level.
Covering an area of more than 5 million km2, it is the largest storehouse of snow and
ice outside the Arctic and Antarctic, with about 100,000 km2 of glaciers providing
fresh water to more than 12,000 lakes and more than 10 river systems (UNEP, 2022a).
Sixty per cent of the HKH region features seasonal cryosphere – snow, glaciers,
permafrost and glacial lakes (ICIMOD, 2023). Other examples of unique ecosystems
include the paramo ecosystem of the South American Andes (Box 6.1), the Carpathian
Mountain range, the vast Antarctic, and the transition from lush rainforest to alpine
meadows and snow-covered peaks on Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa.

Box 6.1 The paramos – a unique mountain ecosystem in South America

The paramos are distributed along the Neotropical Andean mountain range in Colombia, Ecuador, northern Peru and the
Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela. They make up one of the most biodiverse high-elevation ecosystems, and are critical
for the survival of millions of people – providing the main source of clean water for inhabitants of capital cities such as
Bogotá and Quito.

Vegetation plays a major role in regulating

the amount and quality of water supplied by
these Andean ‘water sponges’. In addition
to aiding infiltration of water to the ground,
plant cover also reduces evaporation
compared with bare ground. Plants can
also capture water from fog.

The paramos have also provided a source

of medicinal plants, grazing and agricultural
land for Indigenous Peoples. However,
the landscapes are changing, and their
Siecha lagoons, Chingaza paramo, Colombia
functionality is being reduced.
Photo: © Matthieu Cattin/Shutterstock.*

Source: Baruffol (2020).

Environment 79
 6.1 Mountain cryospheres and highland ecosystems provide essential ecosystem services to
Ecosystem services people living in mountains, and to billions in connected lowland areas (Figure 6.1a). These
services contribute to the Sustainable Development Goals (Figure 6.1b). Water regulation
of the mountain
(including water storage and flood regulation) is one of the most important services –
cryosphere for example, an estimated two-thirds of irrigated agriculture globally depends on runoff
contributions from mountains (Adler et al., 2022; see Chapter 3). Other key ecosystem
services include reducing the risk of erosion and landslides, cooling local temperatures,
carbon sequestration, providing food and fibres, and maintaining pools of genetic resources
for locally adapted crops and livestock (FAO/UNEP, 2023).

Mountain soils with permafrost contain approximately 66 Pg of soil organic carbon, which
is 4.5% of the global pool (FAO, 2022). High-elevation peatlands are particularly important
global carbon stores (UNEP, 2022b). Larger mountain ranges, such as the Andes, Greater
Caucasus and HKH, are also significant in terms of climate regulation.

Figure 6.1 Ecosystem services provided by the mountain cryosphere and highland ecosystems (a), and links between these
and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (b)

(a) Rangeland
Snow
Fresh water
Glacier
Forest
Permafrost
Lake
HIGHLAND Peatland
CRYOSPHERE ECOSYSTEMS Agriculture
River ice
Barren land

SUPPORTING
Habitats for Soil formation Primary Nutrient cycle
flora and fauna production

PROVISIONING REGULATING CULTURAL

• Water for household use, • Climate regulation • Research and education
electricity and irrigation • Regulation of runoff • Traditional knowledge and
• Wild food and other hazards practices
• Cultivated food • Nutrient regulation • Inspiration
• Dung for heat • Tourism and mountaineering
• Firewood for heating and • Identity associated with
cooking glaciers and mountains
• Fodder for livestock • Spiritual and religious values
• Medicinal and aromatic plants • Transhumance
• Stone, boulders and gravel

SECURITY BASIC MATERIALS HEALTH GOOD SOCIAL

(personal safety, safe FOR GOOD LIFE (strength, feeling of RELATIONS
resource access and (food, shelter and well-being and access (social cohesion,
security from disasters) livelihoods) to clean air and water) mutual respect and
ability to help others)

FREEDOM OF CHOICE AND ACTION

(opportunity to be able to achieve what the individual values and wishes to be)

80 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
 (b)
SDG 1

SDG 2

SDG 3
Rangeland Provisioning
SDG 4
services
Snow SDG 5
Forest
SDG 6

SDG 7
Permafrost SDG 8
Peatland
SDG 9
Cultural
services SDG 10
Fresh water
Lake and river ice
SDG 11

SDG 12
Agriculture
Glaciers Regulating SDG 13
services
SDG 15
Barren land
Supporting
services SDG 16
SDG 17

SDG 1: No poverty SDG 8: Decent work and economic SDG 13: Climate action
SDG 2: Zero hunger growth SDG 15: Life on land
SDG 3: Good health and well-being SDG 9: Industry, innovation and SDG 16: Peace justice and strong
infrastructure institutions
SDG 4: Quality education
SDG 10: Reduced inequalities SDG 17: Partnerships for the goals
SDG 5: Gender equality
SDG 11: Sustainable cities and
SDG 6: Clean water and sanitation
communities
SDG 7: Affordable and clean
SDG 12: Responsible consumption
energy
and production

Source: Chaudhary et al. (2023, figs 4.2 and 4.3, pp. 132–134).

Agriculture, including livestock, timber and other forest resources are often a mainstay of
local livelihoods. High-elevation fisheries based on adapted fish species can be an important,
and often overlooked, source of local livelihoods and food and nutrition security (FAO, 2003).
Climate change has been altering glacial lake fisheries (Tingley et al., 2019).

6.2 Regions worldwide are facing profound impacts from climate change and uncontrolled
Trends in cryosphere human activities, such as deforestation, intensive agriculture, pollution and construction
of infrastructure. In mountain areas, these can cause irreversible losses of biodiversity
and mountain and ecosystems services (FAO/UNEP, 2023). As of 2020, 57% of the global mountain area
ecosystem services was under intense pressure, with ecosystem degradation concentrated at lower mountain
elevations, where most human activities occur (Elsen et al., 2020). For example, increased
urbanization and mining have degraded several mountain ecosystems (Jiang et al., 2021).
Extensive removal of vegetation and soil is required for the installation of skiing facilities,

Environment 81
 thereby affecting native vegetation and the structural properties of soils (Pintaldi et al., 2017).
Poorly designed or managed waterworks, such as river channelization, can result in river bank
erosion and sediment liberation, which affect water quality and the ecology of aquatic
ecosystems (Mikuś et al., 2021).

There is a trend of increasing frequency and intensity of natural hazards in glacial and high
mountain areas (see Chapter 2.). But not all hazards in mountain areas are due to climate
change. Ecosystem degradation is implicated as a cause of or factor initiating or increasing
the impact of many hazards. For example, severe deforestation and poor urban planning
exacerbated a landslide in Freetown, Sierra Leone, in 2017, that killed over 1,000 people
(Kargel et al., 2021).

Hydrological changes will determine how most mountain ecosystems change, more so than
the direct impacts of changes in temperature. Such hydrological changes are predicted to
Agriculture,
include short- to medium-term increases of seasonal runoff as the mountain cryosphere
including warms. And in the longer term, these changes include reduced runoff as the volume of water
livestock, timber that mountains store decreases, but with changes in overall annual water supply depending
and other forest on accompanying changes to precipitation (Adler et al., 2022). For example, in the Bolivian
Cordillera Real, where wetland cover increased over the period 1984–2011 due to increases
resources are often
in extreme precipitation events and glacier melting, this trend is likely to be reversed with
a mainstay of predicted future decreases in total precipitation and glacier runoff (Dangles et al., 2017). In
local livelihoods the Greater Kinggan Mountains in northeastern China, about 30% of the wetland area has
been projected to disappear by 2050, with this value doubling by 2100 under an alternative
climate change scenario (Wang et al., 2022). In the Neotropical Andes, the size of the paramo
ecosystem (Box 6.1) has been predicted to decrease in area by 30% by 2050 without factoring
in destruction because of land-use change (Alfthan et al., 2018).

There are significant feedback loops with climate change. As high-elevation and high-latitude
soils experience warmer air temperatures, and as permafrost is exposed as glaciers retreat,
the increased thickening of the thawed and active layer results in significant carbon emissions.
Unless rapidly covered with new vegetation growth, bare soils are subject to increased erosion
and landslides (FAO, 2022). Under two climate change projection scenarios, the near-surface
permafrost area will decrease by up to 66% and up to 99% by 2100. This is projected to release
up to 240 Gt of carbon as carbon dioxide and methane to the atmosphere with the potential to
significantly accelerate climate change (Meredith et al., 2019).

As mountains warm and the cryosphere retreats, species and ecological communities tend
to shift to higher elevations, resulting in an overall greening of higher mountain elevations.
The trend can have positive and negative impacts. “Warming increases the net primary
productivity as well as carbon uptake of tundra and alpine vegetation and elevates respiration,
which may result in a significant change to the terrestrial carbon cycle and soil carbon storage”
(UNEP, 2022a, p. 17). The increase in vegetation coverage also strengthens the water-holding
capacity of soil as the active layer thickens with permafrost warming and vegetation cover
aids infiltration. However, desertification is expanding in some river source regions (ICIMOD,
2023). “Upslope advances of non-native species are also becoming more common in mountain
ecosystems, causing the suppression [and in extreme cases extinction] of native species and
impacting the provision of ecosystem services” (FAO/UNEP, 2023, p. 6).

While an increase in temperature at high elevations can contribute to the expansion of

agricultural and plantation areas, it can be challenging to distinguish between the impacts
of climate change and the direct influences of humans on these ecosystems. For example,
some forests in the HKH region have undergone several phases of clearing, preservation
and restoration (ICIMOD, 2023). The sharp decline in the cropland in some areas of the HKH
region has been attributed to grassland protection projects and urbanization in the past two
decades (Luan and Li, 2021).

82 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
 During the snow-melt season in the spring and summer months, red snowfields – known
as ‘glacier blood’ or ‘watermelon snow’ – have been found ubiquitously across the
world, and are caused by blooms of red algae. These areas decrease surface albedo and
enhance solar energy absorption, ultimately accelerating ice- and snow-melt (Lutz et al.,
2015). Snow algae can be the main albedo reducers on wet snowpacks, and glacier ice
algae can become the dominant albedo reducer (Halbach et al., 2022). In North America
for example, individual glaciers had up to 65% of their surface area affected by bloom
in one melt season, estimated to cause as much as 3 cm of snow meltwater equivalent
averaged across the glacier surface (Engstrom and Quarmby, 2023). It is assumed this
will affect runoff water quality, although detailed studies are lacking.

Observations and modelling indicate the influence of long-range transport of

atmospheric pollution. For instance, ice cores and lake sediments have shown a dramatic
Hydrological
increase in black carbon (see Box 2.1) and heavy metals like mercury since the 1950s
changes will in the HKH region, which reflects the increased emissions of air pollutants in South
determine how Asia (UNEP, 2022a). Once deposited on snow and ice surfaces, black carbon lowers the
most mountain albedo of snow and ice surfaces (making them less reflective and more light absorbent),
ecosystems thus accelerating melting and increasing the rate of glacier retreat (Kang et al., 2020).
This will accelerate the release of deposited persistent organic pollutants and heavy
change, more
metals from the cryosphere.
so than the
direct impacts In general, water quality data are particularly scarce for mountain water bodies
(Machate et al., 2023), despite pollution being widespread in mountain areas, chiefly
of changes in
from agricultural, urban, mining and industrial activities (Elsen et al., 2020). Reliable data
temperature exist only for persistent organic pollutants, with increasing evidence that even remote
mountain lakes are exposed to a wide range of organic pollutants with widespread
chronic toxic risks to high-elevation aquatic biodiversity (UNEP, 2022a). For instance,
in the Caucasus Mountains, the Georgian rivers of the Caspian Sea basin drainage area
have been found to be polluted with heavy metals, oil and pesticides caused by drainage
from large agricultural and mining enterprises. Pollution by heavy metals is reported for
the Baksan River that originates in the Mount Elbrus region of the Russian Federation.
And increased concentration of pesticides has been identified in groundwaters that
provide a source of mineral waters in the North Caucasus (UNEP, 2024).

Trends in biodiversity in high mountains show a mixed picture. Biodiversity at the global
level is being challenged with an extinction rate of about 20%. However, the rate in the
HKH region is about 9% for vertebrates and 5% for plants (UNEP, 2022a). The region
has undergone several successful conservation efforts, with an increase in populations
of some species (e.g. Przewalski’s gazelle and the Tibetan wild ass) and an expansion
of protected areas (Fu et al., 2021). In recent decades, there has been growing concern
in relation to the prevalent drivers of change such as climate change, the lack of
transboundary conservation approaches, major infrastructure projects and the arrival and
spread of alien invasive species (ICIMOD, 2023).

6.3 At the ecosystem level, most of the options for addressing the impacts of changes in the
Responses cryosphere and high mountains involve conserving or restoring ecosystem functionality
to maintain or enhance ecosystem services at local to regional scales through nature-
based solutions (NbS) or ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA). NbS for water was the
topic of the 2018 edition of The United Nations World Water Development Report (WWAP/
UN-Water, 2018). Ecosystem restoration is becoming increasingly applied in mountain
areas (FAO/UNEP, 2023).

Environment 83
 Box 6.2 Land degradation neutrality These approaches are commonly seen as an adaptation component in the
(LDN) approaches in mountains nationally determined contributions of many mountain countries around the
world. In a meta-review of 928 NbS projects assessed globally, 37% were
A resilience framework for LDN
designed to address flooding and 28% drought (UNEP, 2021a). A global
applied at the national level helps
review of 93 NbS in mountains, such as those deploying climate-smart
achieve Sustainable Development
agriculture, protection of existing forests, afforestation and agroforestry,
Goal Target 15.3 – a land degradation
confirmed the potential of NbS to promote sustainable trajectories (Palomo
neutral world by 2030. Applicable
et al., 2021).
to all land, including mountains,
the framework uses a holistic, Where important ecosystem components are still in relatively good
inclusive and landscape-based condition, the priority response is their conservation. Multiple benefits
approach governed by social and for vulnerable people can be provided by: restoring grasslands using
environmental safeguards to protect native species to increase slope resilience, grazing opportunities and
people and nature. It encourages forage available during dry periods; water conservation and management
the pursuit of long-term, integrated using ‘grey–green’ approaches, including restoring riparian zones to
and nature-positive strategies that reduce flooding and help maintain water quality; and using diversified
focus simultaneously on improving agroecological farming practices to help improve food security and
land productivity and rehabilitating, livelihoods (Swiderska et al., 2018).
conserving and sustainably managing
land and water resources, leading to Much work has been done on the protective functions of mountain forests.
healthier ecosystems and improved Teich et al. (2022) noted that effects differ greatly among countries, and
livelihoods for local communities. also the need for standardized definitions and improved understanding and
assessment of the protective functions. Food security, increasing resilience
Central to achieving LDN is the use and climate change mitigation are widely cited as being delivered through
of integrated land-use planning and agroforestry (Gidey et al., 2020). EbA has been effective in mountain
integrated landscape management regions at reducing risks from floods and landslides, improving water
to manage the inevitable trade-offs quality and supporting biodiversity conservation (Lavorel et al., 2019).
between competing demands on land However, recurrent disturbances can increase recovery times and reduce
and to optimize the spatial mix of the effectiveness of NbS and EbA (Scheidl et al., 2020).
interventions.
For cryosphere and mountain areas, a key response is to conserve or
The positive impacts that have been improve the health and stability of soils – and the ecosystem services they
demonstrated in montane ecosystems support – in the face of threats from human-induced degradation or global
range from reducing soil loss and warming. Achieving land degradation neutrality is an overarching globally
improving production and income agreed goal that is particularly relevant to mountain areas in view of their
locally and more reliable streamflow vulnerability (Box 6.2). NbS actions often involve conserving, restoring or
downstream in times of drought and expanding grasslands at higher elevations or forests below the tree-line,
flood control after heavy precipitation. which usually deliver multiple benefits, locally and regionally (Box 6.3).
As of November 2024, 131 countries
that were signatories to the United Regional approaches often focus on land or soil management. For example,
Nations Convention to Combat the Soil Conservation Protocol of the Alpine Convention emphasizes soil
Desertification had set LDN targets to conservation and restoration, particularly regarding restoring skiing areas
prevent the future loss of land-based (Repe et al., 2020). However, using non-native tree species that typically
natural capital by scaling up sound absorb large amounts of water can also have negative impacts on water
land management and restoration supplies (Xiao et al., 2020). For instance, afforestation in the mountain
practices. The resilience framework for region of Chongqing and the Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau, southwest China,
LDN is also an appropriate and nature- resulted in the uptake of an estimated 10% of the annual water supply,
positive way forwards for other nations triggering water shortage events in 2015. Although changes in land use,
that are committed to the preservation including afforestation and reforestation, have had small inhibitory effects
of their pristine mountain regions. on water yield in some lowland sites in northeast China, they also had
large positive impacts on stopping soil erosion (Wang et al., 2022). The
Sources: Critchley et al. (2021) and Orr et al.
management practices involved must also be considered. For example,
(2017; 2024). forest management can significantly affect sediment delivery, nutrient
losses, carbon transport, metal and base cation releases, and changes to
acidity and temperature (Shah et al., 2022).

84 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
 Box 6.3 Acción Andina: Forest landscape restoration in the high Andes

The mountains in the high Andes host rich forest ecosystems that support diverse wildlife and hundreds of millions of
people across South America. They supply fresh water that feeds into the headwaters of the Amazon and directly to
nearby villages and cities. Centuries of deforestation have reduced high Andean native forests to just 3–10% of their
original extent, while climate change has accelerated glacial melt. Those who are most vulnerable – the people of the
high Andes and their unique Indigenous culture – are disproportionately affected.

Global Forest Generation and Asociación Ecosistemas Andinos launched Acción Andina in 2018. The initiative aimed
to protect and restore 1 million ha of critical native Polylepis high Andean forest ecosystems over the next two decades
across the seven Andean countries (Argentina, Plurinational State of Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and
Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela). Traditional knowledge and modern technology are integrated to restore forests,
secure water, and protect landscapes and ecosystems, biodiversity and culture.

More than 6.5 million native trees have been planted across 3,359 ha of high Andean forests, with an additional
11,253 ha of native forests in new or renewed protected areas. Enhanced climate resilience and water security have also
improved habitats for native species such as the Andean condor and the spectacled bear.

Source: FAO/UNEP (2023).

There is increasing recognition of the role that local communities and their knowledge play
in identifying needs and implementing solutions. For example, in the paramos in central
Ecuador, community-led efforts have proved to be far more effective than a government-led
protected areas approach for improving water supplies to lower basin populations (Torres
et al., 2023).

NbS, including EbA, are often combined with small-scale physical interventions in green–
grey applications in mountain areas. For example, the physical sculpting of terraces on hill
There is increasing
slopes (see Section 3.1.2) to reduce erosion and landslides is commonly combined with tree
recognition of planting to improve overall benefits (Box 6.4). Local communities are often highly motivated.
the role that local In some cases, additional incentives (financial or other) are important to increase community
communities and involvement until restoration results become visible and the financial sustainability of local
their knowledge livelihoods, through the creation of additional sources of income, increases the effectiveness
of NbS measures (FAO/UNEP, 2023).
play in identifying
needs and Major challenges remain. The following have been identified by the International Centre for
implementing Integrated Mountain Development in the HKH region (ICIMOD, 2023):
solutions
• the large variations in ecosystems and cultures, and local communities depending heavily
on natural resources, require area-specific solutions with NbS that consider customized
interventions grounded in an ecosystems-based understanding

• stronger science on mountain ecosystems is needed to increase understanding of the

complex interlinkages among climate change, the cryosphere, ecosystems and society;
conservation of shared heritage requires regional cooperation

• limited funding and policy gaps

• limited exchange and development of best practices

• insufficient monitoring and data

Environment 85
 Box 6.4 Building mountain resilience: Torrent Specific knowledge gaps requiring critical attention
Catchment restoration in the Pamir Mountains of include: limited understanding of connectedness at the
Afghanistan species, genetic and ecosystem levels and the impacts of
climate change on this; interactions among permafrost,
In the mountainous and vulnerable area of Torrent rangelands, wetlands and peatlands; and climate-
Catchment in the Pamir Mountains of Afghanistan, driven hazards and their cascading impacts on species
a blend of small-scale physical interventions and extinction and range retraction (ICIMOD, 2023).
agroforestry or forest restoration has been used
to protect local communities from landslides, Reliable long-term planning strategies for industrial and
avalanches and other hazards. This has also contaminated sites that consider the impacts of climate
increased water security and improved livelihoods in change are needed to avoid future environmental hazards
the area. Local communities led and implemented from these sources (Langer et al., 2023). The need to
the interventions. Local tree species planted included better acknowledge the importance of high-elevation
fruit and nut trees that are tended by, and benefit the fisheries and incorporate into policies, management and
livelihoods of, local women (UNEP, 2021b). investment has been recognized for decades (FAO, 2003).

Response options are context and site specific, often

share enabling factors such as community support
and co-benefits, often are not implemented within the
context of climate change or ecosystem restoration, and
are weakly linked to the implementation of national or
regional policies (UNEP/GRID-Arendal, 2022).

The following key factors have been identified as

important for mountain ecosystem restoration: local
people and their involvement and empowerment; gender-
Terraces constructed to stabilize slopes and
responsive and socially inclusive approaches; exploring
limit soil erosion
viability and mobilizing stakeholders; understanding
Photo: © UNEP; source: UNEP (2021b, p. 18).
the ecosystem and livelihoods context; analysing
climate risks and vulnerability; understanding the
role of ecosystem services in adaptation; developing
an NbS or EbA strategy and designing actions
accordingly; monitoring and evaluation for learning; and
mainstreaming NbS and EbA and promoting synergies
(Swiderska et al., 2018).

“The strong support of governments, civil society and the

private sector is essential to ensure and scale up adequate
nature-positive investments, connect policy agendas and
Check-dams, soil bunds and tree plantations to actions for mountains, boost regional coordination, and
help stabilize slopes implement the Five Years of Action for the Development
Photo: © UNEP; source: UNEP (2021b, p. 22).
of Mountain Regions’ global framework for action”
(FAO/UNEP, 2023, p. 47).

A wood-lot from tree stem cuttings to protect

sloping lands
Photo: © UNEP; source: UNEP (2021b, p. 35).

86 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
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88 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
Chapter 7

Regional
perspectives
7.1 Sub-Saharan Africa

UNESCO WWAP and UNESCO Nairobi Office

Matthew England, Richard Connor, Alexandros Makarigakis and Mary Nyasimi

7.2 Europe and Central Asia

UNECE
Jos Timmerman1 and Hanna Plotnykova2

With contributions from: Nataliia Kruta (Western Bug and Sian River Basin Management Authority) and Dinara
Ziganshina (SIC ICWC)

7.3 Latin America and the Caribbean

UNECLAC
Silvia Saravia Matus, Alba Llavona, Lisbeth Naranjo, Natalia Sarmanto, Josefa Asmussen and Romeo Moers

7.4 Asia and the Pacific

ESCAP
Hitomi Rankine and Anshuman Varma

With contributions from: Marisha Wojciechowska, Yi-Ann Chen, Sanjay Srivastava and Nadezhda Dimitrova
(ESCAP)

7.5 Arab region

ESCWA
Ziad Khayat, Marlene Ann Tomaszkiewicz, Sara Hess, Tracy Zaarour and Dima Kharbotli

1
Waterframes and 2 Water Convention Secretariat
 7.1 Africa accounts for 11% of the global mountain area, covering an area of around
Sub-Saharan Africa 1.5 million km2 (Alweny et al., 2014). Of continental Africa’s land area, 20% is classified as
mountains with an elevation over 1,000 metres above sea level (masl), with 5% rising over
1,500 masl (FAO, 2015). East Africa is the most mountainous region in Africa. The mountains
are characterized by high levels of biodiversity; they provide ecosystem services, including
water resources, to millions of people (Capitani et al., 2019; Trisos et al., 2022). In tropical and
subtropical Sub-Saharan Africa, mountains have favourable environmental conditions and
resources compared with the generally drier surrounding lowlands. Mountains are important
areas of agricultural production to support food security (Romeo et al., 2020).

This section on Sub-Saharan Africa comprises four parts. The first introduces the water
towers in the region, including the hydrological significance to mountain communities and
downstream users. The next discusses the challenges to the sustainability of water towers
to store and supply water, including human impacts and climate change. An overview of
management approaches and responses is then provided, highlighting the importance of
mountain forest ecosystems to the sustainability of water towers. These are followed by
conclusions for the region.

7.1.1 Sub-Saharan Africa’s water towers

The mountains of Sub-Saharan Africa (Figure 7.1) are a critical source of water for mountain
communities and downstream users. Within a continent dominated by arid and semi-arid
The mountains
land areas, the mountains act as water towers – generating, storing and supplying water for
of Sub-Saharan agriculture, domestic and industrial requirements, including hydropower (Viviroli et al., 2007;
Africa are a critical 2020; UNEP, 2010; Nsengiyumva, 2019). The mountains are critical for water, food and energy
source of water security across the region.
for mountain
Orographic rainfall provides Africa’s mountains with high levels of water. This results in
communities and surface runoff, infiltration, groundwater flow and storage, or water stored seasonally or over
downstream users many years as snow and ice (WMO, 2024a). Water is stored as glaciers within the mountains
of East Africa, within the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Kenya, Uganda and the United
Republic of Tanzania. Prior to 2019, these glaciers covered an estimated area of 4.4 km2
(Veettil and Kamp, 2019), providing seasonal runoff to downstream catchments. Within
Southern Africa, seasonal snowfall occurs on the summits of the Drakensburg Mountains
bordering Lesotho and South Africa (Taylor et al., 2016). Through surface runoff, infiltration
and groundwater flow, water is delivered from the mountains to the downstream lowlands.

African water towers are a critically important source for the transboundary rivers and basins
of the Congo, Niger, Nile, Orange, Senegal, Tana and Zambezi Rivers. Within East Africa, the
Ethiopian Highlands supply water to the Blue Nile, which makes a significant contribution to
the annual flow of the River Nile (Awange, 2022). In West Africa, the Fouta Djallon Plateau
is an important source for the Gambia, Niger and Senegal Rivers (Descroix et al., 2020).
The Jos Plateau supplies numerous rivers including the Benue, Gongola, Niger and other
rivers that discharge into Lake Chad. In Southern Africa, the Lesotho Highlands including
the Drakensberg Mountains are a critical source of water (UNEP, 2012). The Angolan plateau
is the primary source of the Okavango Delta (Lourenco and Woodborne, 2023). The water
towers of Africa are also important for water resources in the lowlands, serving a variety of
users. For instance, agricultural production and food security within mountain regions and
downstream lowlands are critically dependent on mountain waters and the ecosystems that
provide these services (Box 7.1).

90 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
 Figure 7.1
Water towers in Africa

Note: In this index map, colour

coding is related to topographic
height, with brown and yellow
at the lower elevations, rising
through green, to white at the
highest elevations. Blue areas on
the map represent water within
the mapped tiles, each of which
includes shorelines or islands.

Source: JPL (2004).

7.1.2 Challenges
The capacity of Sub-Saharan Africa’s water towers to accumulate, store and supply
water to downstream users and mountain communities faces numerous challenges,
particularly from intensification of human activities and the impacts of climate change.

There are high population growth rates and density in the mountains of the region, with
widespread poverty and a lack of alternative and resilient livelihoods. As of 2017, Africa’s
mountains were home to an estimated 252 million people – 18% of the continent’s
population15 – representing 23% of the global mountain population. Africa remains the
second most populous mountain continent after Asia. In many areas, the mountains are
more densely populated than the lowlands.

In 2017, an estimated 132 million rural mountain people were vulnerable to food
insecurity in Africa, equating to two of out of every three rural people. This represents
the highest proportion of all continental mountain regions globally (Romeo et al., 2020).

15
Of the 18 million people living above 2,500 m in Africa in 2017, 17 million were in the highlands of Eastern Africa
(Romeo et al., 2020).

Regional perspectives 91
 Box 7.1 The importance of Madagascar’s water towers for agriculture

While agriculture only accounts for roughly 20% of Madagascar’s gross domestic product (World Bank,
n.d.), approximately 80% of the population is engaged in agriculture (World Bank, 2023) for income and/or
subsistence purposes. Approximately 2.5 million farms, of which smallholders represent the large majority,
are dependent on continuous irrigation of rice and other crops (IFAD, n.d.).

In the eastern and northern parts of the island, several mountain peaks exceed 2,000 metres above sea level
(masl) (Chaperon et al., 1993). The forested upper reaches of these mountains absorb seasonal rainfall and
slowly release it into the watershed, supporting lowland agriculturists and urban settlements.

Located in the Tsaratanana reserve, Mount Maromokotro (2,876 masl) is the source of several major rivers.
The Sambirano River irrigates areas to the west for cacao, rice and fruit production, including some of the
more important agricultural exports of this island nation. The Sofia River forms a large watershed and is
critical for agriculturists. The isolated Massif of Montagne d’Ambre, a protected area in the far north, is the
main source of potable water for close to 200,000 people living in Antsiranana (Goodman et al., 2021) and for
agriculture in the surrounding area.

Protected forested zones provide local buffers against the destructive impacts of cyclones and other natural
hazards. Nevertheless, from 2001 to 2023, Madagascar’s tree cover decreased by 29% (Global Forest Watch,
n.d.). Changes in climate and land use (exacerbated by demographic growth) threaten the future of the
country’s forest resources and their biodiversity, which require further protection and conservation initiatives.

The degradation of mountain ecosystems reduces their ability to store and supply water
downstream. This is particularly the case with deforestation of critically important montane
forests. Land (soil) degradation through inappropriate land use and agricultural practices,
including the impact of livestock overgrazing, is also detrimental (Ariza et al., 2013; Romeo
et al., 2020). Large-scale and unsustainable mining has accelerated land degradation and
ecosystem loss. Of the rural mountain people vulnerable to food insecurity in Africa in 2017,
86 million lived in areas characterized by land degradation detrimentally affecting agriculture-
based livelihoods (Romeo et al., 2020). The absence of comprehensive hydrometeorological
monitoring and data significantly hinders the understanding and urgency to restore forested
areas to their primary state.

Climate change impacts exacerbate the challenge of managing Sub-Saharan Africa’s

seasonal rainfall variability (Trisos et al., 2022; WMO, 2022). Projections for the continent,
including mountain regions, indicate increasing rainfall variability at the annual and intra-
annual timescales, temperature rises and glacial melt. Extreme hydrological variability is
projected to progressively amplify under all climate change scenarios (Trisos et al., 2022).
By 2050, up to 921 million people in Sub-Saharan Africa could be exposed to water stress
related to climate change (Dickerson et al., 2021). Floods, droughts and other natural hazards
are expected to increase, within mountains in the region and also downstream of them.
Furthermore, landslide frequency shows increasing trends in the mountain regions of Africa
(Adler et al., 2022). Evidence suggests that disasters due to droughts, pests and changes
in rainfall patterns have negative impacts on smallholder farmers’ agricultural livelihoods
(Shikuku et al., 2017).

Glacial melt has been observed in the mountains of East Africa (Trisos et al., 2022), with an
estimated 80% loss in mass between 1990 and 2015 (EAC/UNEP/GRID-Arendal, 2016). For
example, the total glacial area on Mount Kenya decreased by 44% during 2004–2016 (Prinz
et al., 2016), that on Mount Kilimanjaro decreased from 4.8 km2 in 1984 to 1.7 km2 in 2011
(Cullen et al., 2013) and that in the Rwenzori Mountains decreased from ~2 km2 in 1987 to

92 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
 ~1 km2 in 2003 (Taylor et al., 2016). Declining glacial area is linked to rising air temperatures,
and in the case of Mount Kenya and Mount Kilimanjaro, it is linked to declining rainfall and
atmospheric moisture (Veettil and Kamp, 2019). Glaciers are projected to disappear before
2030 on Mount Kenya and the Rwenzori Mountains, and by 2040 on Mount Kilimanjaro
(Trisos et al., 2022).

The impact of glacier disappearance on water resources in East Africa has been predicted to
be minimal (Taylor et al., 2009; Adhikari et al., 2015; Veettil and Kamp, 2019) at the regional
(macro) scale, as water from glaciers contributes relatively little to total river flows. For
instance, in the Rwenzori Mountains between the Democratic Republic of the Congo and
Uganda, glaciers have contributed less than 2% to the total discharge of the principal rivers
The timing during the dry and wet seasons (Taylor et al., 2009). However, localized seasonal impacts on
water resources have been observed. For instance, around Mount Kilimanjaro, many canals
and levels of in the foothills have dried up and the water levels of streams have been decreasing, leading to
rainfall delivered local conflicts over access to water (Gagné et al., 2014).
to mountains
The timing and levels of rainfall delivered to mountains are of critical importance to the
are of critical
sustainability of Sub-Saharan African water towers. Rainfall is stored in and supplied from
importance to the mountains, as surface water runoff, river and groundwater flow to lowlands downstream.
the sustainability Within a regional context, rainfall is of more volumetric significance than glacial melt
of Sub-Saharan to downstream river flow in East Africa. Of the few studies that have examined rainfall
African water projections specifically for mountain areas, East Africa is projected to receive 5–20%
additional annual rainfall over the 21st century, albeit at medium confidence (Adler et al.,
towers
2022). Otherwise, across the rest of the continent, rainfall projections under climate change
scenarios predict increasing annual and intra-annual variability, differing with each subregion
(Trisos et al., 2022).

One study has examined how climate change (through rainfall variability) and land use
generate water runoff in nine water towers of East Africa. Results indicated that water
runoff is more sensitive to climate change (rainfall) than land-use change. However, for
the surrounding downstream lowlands areas, the effects of land-use change had greater
impacts on water runoff than climate change. East African water towers have seen a strong
shift towards wetter conditions, especially in the period 2011–2019, whereas the potential
evapotranspiration has gradually increased. Considering that most of the water towers
were identified as being non-resilient to these changes, future water runoff is likely to also
experience more extreme variations (Wamucii et al., 2021).

7.1.3 Responses
Many responses have been advocated to promote sustainable water management in the
mountains, in response to climate change and also the intensification of human activities
(Adler et al., 2022; Trisos et al., 2022).

Considering farming is the principal livelihood in the mountains of Sub-Saharan Africa,

improving agricultural practices to reduce land degradation (soil conservation) is of
critical importance (Romeo et al., 2020). Promoting ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA)
(e.g. reforestation and conservation of montane forests reducing soil erosion) can enhance
water retention and aquifer recharge and diminish the risk of hazards (Alweny et al., 2014;
Nsengiyumva, 2019).

Considering the high proportion of transboundary rivers in Africa supplied by water

towers, promoting transboundary cooperation of surface water and groundwater between
riparians is an effective strategy to promote equitable benefit-sharing across the continent
(United Nations, 2024).

Regional perspectives 93
 Importance of forest ecosystems to Sub-Saharan Africa water towers
Interest in water towers (globally) has focused on glaciated mountains where temperature
is a key factor in determining water runoff from glaciated mountain chains (Immerzeel et al.,
2020). Forested mountains and other vegetation such as grass provide similar services
(Viviroli and Weingartner, 2004). Mountain forests can capture, store, purify and release
water to lowland areas (UNEP, 2014).

The water towers of East Africa have extensive montane forest ecosystems. These include
the Albertine Rift, Ethiopian Highlands and Kenyan Highlands (Wamucii et al., 2021). The
forests are characterized by high elevation and high humidity, and accumulate, store and
supply water for lowland areas (UNEP, 2010). The montane forests mitigate floods and
droughts, prevent soil erosion, maintain water quality, increase groundwater infiltration and
influence the microclimate in and surrounding the forests (Mwangi et al., 2020).

The water towers of Kenya are characterized by montane forests in the upper catchments
Climate change of the Aberdare Range, Cherangani Hills, Mau Forest Complex, Mount Elgon and Mount
Kenya. They are invaluable natural resources that support the country’s water supply, energy
is projected to production, agrarian-based economy, and biodiversity preservation and conservation
amplify the (Kiplagat et al., 2011; Nyingi et al., 2013; Kanui et al., 2016; Ontumbi and Sanga, 2018; Schmitz,
historically high 2020; Takase et al., 2021).
seasonal rainfall
The forested mountains are the sources of many of Kenya’s rivers, providing an estimated
variability across 75% of the country’s water resources utilized for irrigation, industrial requirements and
Sub-Saharan hydropower (generating 60% of Kenya’s electricity). However, the forests are being degraded
Africa by unplanned human settlements, overgrazing, deforestation and the conversion of forest
land to agriculture. For example, the Mau Forest, which is one of Kenya’s largest water
catchment areas, lost an estimated quarter of its forest cover between 2000 and 2020. Such
deforestation threatens the biodiversity within these forests and also disrupts the ecosystem
services they provide. The Cherangani Hills and Mount Elgon are also experiencing similar
degradation, further compounding the issue (Mwangi et al., 2020).

Efforts to conserve and restore these critical water towers include sustainable forest
management practices, reforestation projects and policies that address the underlying
causes of deforestation, such as poverty and land tenure issues. Enhancing participation,
knowledge transfer and capacity-building of stakeholders, and targeting specific value chains
(e.g. maize, tea and livestock) to promote livelihood resilience is also advocated (Mwangi
et al., 2020). Engaging local communities (including women, youth and Indigenous Peoples)
in conservation efforts and promoting alternative livelihoods can also help reduce the
pressure on these forests (Kennedy et al., 2023).

7.1.4 Conclusions
This section has illustrated the importance of Sub-Saharan African water towers for
mountain communities and downstream users. The conservation and rehabilitation
of forests, soils and other related ecosystems services are critically important for the
sustainability of the region’s water towers. Climate change is projected to amplify the
historically high seasonal rainfall variability across Sub-Saharan Africa. Therefore, mutually
beneficial adaptation (including low-risk, low-regrets and autonomous measures) becomes
all the more important to adapt to seasonality and to temper human environmental impacts
on the mountains, thereby safeguarding the supply from water towers.

94 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
 7.2 Mountain ranges are the source of water for many rivers in the region. Alpine snow and
Europe and glacial melt ensure a slow release of water to downstream areas. However, climate change
is leading to earlier seasonal snow-melt and reduced glaciers, thereby threatening the
Central Asia
availability of water in the summer season. This has serious consequences for populations in
downstream basins.

For example, the Colorado River in North America, which serves about 40 million people, gets
most of its water from snowfall in the Rocky Mountains. Already stressed by overextraction,
the river basin has been in drought since 2000. The situation may be exacerbated by warmer
temperatures, which are causing more precipitation to fall as rain, which runs off more
quickly than mountain snow (Robbins, 2019).

Mountains are socially and ecologically important areas. They are subject to many
anthropogenic influences that also affect the hydrology of the area and, consequently, the
availability of water downstream. Action is therefore needed to prevent further degradation
of mountains, to preserve their social and ecological value as well as their function as
water towers. As mountain ranges cover multiple countries, cooperation between the
countries is needed to ensure proper management. The following describes these issues
for some example mountain ranges within the United Nations Economic Commission for
Europe region.16

7.2.1 The Alps

The Alps span eight countries: Austria, France, Germany, Italy, Liechtenstein, Monaco,
Slovenia and Switzerland, and feed four major rivers: Danube, Po, Rhine and Rhône
(Figure 7.2). Water from the Alps is vitally important to large parts of Europe (Permanent
Secretariat of the Alpine Convention, 2009a).

Alpine ecosystems and biodiversity are important for healthy water resources. Changes
in land use are leading to smaller and more fragmented habitats, while climate change is
Water from the
putting pressure on natural landscapes, resulting in habitat degradation and species loss,
Alps is vitally thereby putting pressure on the water resources (Permanent Secretariat of the Alpine
important to large Convention, 2009a). The effects of climate change on the cryosphere and hydrosphere in the
parts of Europe Alps are expected to lead to a decrease in annual river discharge where the runoff from the
ice-covered part decreases by 45% and the total runoff decreases by 35% by 2100 relative to
2006. This will have significant downstream impacts on water quantity and quality, affecting
hydropower, agriculture, forestry, tourism and aquatic ecosystems (Laurent et al., 2020).

Hydropower generation is the main reason for water abstraction in the Alps. Other uses
include industrial purposes, agricultural irrigation and snow-making. These activities entail
morphological alterations and, as a result, 16 out of 50 water bodies will possibly not achieve
good ecological status in 2027 (Permanent Secretariat of the Alpine Convention, 2009b).

Integrated risk management and early detection of potential hazards related to climate
change, such as avalanches, floods, mudflows and landslides, should be supported and
promoted. Artificial snow-making can be an important adaptation strategy to enhance winter
tourism and reduce glacier melt, but it can lead to user conflicts between the operators of
snow-making systems and households and other water users. Artificial snow-making should
be avoided, especially in ecologically sensitive and endangered habitats. Locally, insulating
blankets have been used to reduce glacier melt (Box 7.2) (Permanent Secretariat of the Alpine
Convention, 2009a; Jorio and Reusser, 2019).

16
The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe includes 56 Member States in Europe, North America and Asia
(https://unece.org/member-states).

Regional perspectives 95
 Figure 7.2 Topographical map of the Alps

4 000 m

3 500 m

3 000 m

2 500 m

2 000 m

1 500 m

1 000 m

500 m
0 100 km 0m

Source: Ghosh (2021).

The Alpine Convention between the eight countries of the Alps was adopted in 1991, with
the aim of sustainable development and protection of the entire mountain range. Reports
on the state of the Alps are published periodically, to actively contribute to the discussion
on the ecological, economic and social development of the Alps. For the seventh report,
the Natural Hazards Platform of the Alpine Convention prepared a status quo analysis
and recommendations for the improvement of risk governance to examine changes in the
way society deals with natural hazards. Natural hazards such as rockfalls, glacier tongue
destabilization, glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) and rock-ice avalanches associated
with glacier and permafrost retreat (see Section 2.2.3) are expected to increase in frequency
(Permanent Secretariat of the Alpine Convention, 2019). The Alpine Convention has also
developed the Climate Action Plan 2.0 to achieve climate-neutral and climate-resilient Alps
by 2050 as an important way to protect the mountain environment and reduce glacier melt
(Permanent Secretariat of the Alpine Convention, 2022).

The International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine, through the International
Commission for the Hydrology of the Rhine basin, is monitoring the glaciers that feed the Rhine
River. In its work to update its climate change adaptation strategy, the International Commission
for the Protection of the Rhine notes that the proportion of snow and glacier meltwater that
stabilizes the flow of the Rhine during low water is expected to decrease as a result of climate
change, and that there is therefore a need to restore natural water systems such as forests,
wetlands and floodplains on the Rhine and in its catchment area (CHR, 2022; ICPR, 2022).

96 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
 Box 7.2 Protecting glaciers with insulating blankets

For over ten years, the Rhône glacier in Valais, Switzerland, has been covered in white sheets
designed to protect it from the Sun’s rays. The goal is to preserve the ice grotto, one of the
Alps’ great tourist attractions. This approach is useful on a small scale where the aim is to
slow melting at a local level for economic reasons. It is not designed to save a whole glacier.
The costs would soon exceed the economic benefits. It is estimated it would take between
€10 million and €100 million a year to cover the entire glacier (Jorio and Reusser, 2019).

Protective canvases on the Rhône glacier

Photo: © Zoltan Major/Shutterstock.*

7.2.2 The Carpathians

The Carpathian Mountain region is shared by Czechia, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Serbia,
Slovakia and Ukraine. The Carpathian Mountains are home to approximately 30% of European
The Carpathian flora and to Europe’s largest populations of brown bear, wolf, lynx, European bison and rare
Mountains bird species. The semi-natural habitats such as mountain pastures and hay meadows are of
are home to great ecological and cultural importance. The Carpathian Mountain region provides important
approximately ecosystem goods and services such as food, fresh water, forest products and tourism. The
region drains into three major river basins: the Danube and the Dniester, which flow to the
30% of European
Black Sea, and the Vistula, which flows to the Baltic Sea (UNEP, 2023a; Climate-ADAPT, 2024).
flora
Land abandonment, habitat conversion and fragmentation, deforestation, and unsustainable
forestry and agriculture practices lead to increased runoff and erosion, and threaten biodiversity
in the mountains. Agriculture is the main source of surface water and groundwater pollution
(Climate-ADAPT, 2024). Climate change is leading to higher temperatures and an increase in the
frequency and intensity of summer heatwaves. Precipitation patterns are predicted to change,
with less rainfall in summer leading to reduced river flows and increased water scarcity, and
more intense, short-duration rainfall with an increased risk of flooding, erosion and landslides
affecting livelihoods and settlements. Snow seasons will become shorter, threatening local
winter tourism, but extending the growing season for agriculture. Earlier snow-melt will reduce
river flows, summer drinking water supplies and groundwater recharge, and will increase the risk
of wildfires (Alberton et al., 2017).

Regional perspectives 97
 The Russian Federation’s full-scale invasion of Ukraine has dramatically affected the
Carpathian region. It is putting significant pressure on natural resources, through pollution
from the destruction of infrastructure (e.g. discharge of petroleum products into the Dniester
and Vistula basins due to military attacks on oil depots and electricity stations (Shumilova
et al., 2023; Dniester Basin Management Authority, 2024; Western Bug and Sian River Basin
Management Authority, unpublished)). Forests are also affected by increased fuelwood
consumption due to disruptions in the supply of liquid fuels and electricity, which increases
flood risk. The war also poses major challenges to the management of protected areas,
through, for example, a considerable reduction in funding for conservation and a reduction in
personnel due to military mobilization (Ministry of Climate and Environment of Poland, 2022;
UNEP, 2022a).

Increasing the integration between land-use and water management is required to the ensure
the sustainability of natural resources. This includes protecting ecosystems, paying more
attention to water retention in soils and water storage, rainwater harvesting, preventing
surface erosion especially on agricultural land, preventing forest degradation and adapting
the management of existing water infrastructure. Prevention of and preparedness for floods
and landslides is also needed, including the development of flood maps and integrated
hazard zone maps. The Carpathian countries have included many of these measures in their
national environmental strategies (Alberton et al., 2017).
The Central Asian
The Framework Convention on the Protection and Sustainable Development of the
mountains are Carpathians (Carpathian Convention) – a multinational environmental agreement between
a major source the seven Carpathian countries that entered into force in 2003 – aims to protect the natural
of fresh water and cultural heritage of the Carpathian region while promoting sustainable development.
Local stakeholders and community representatives can participate in the Convention
for hydropower,
meetings as observers. They are also engaged through the so-called Carpathian Day, which
irrigation, is organized in conjunction with the Conference of the Parties to the Carpathian Convention.
drinking water For instance, the Convention has led to the establishment of a transboundary Ramsar site
and industrial in the Đerdap gorge (Iron Gate) National Park and improved protection of mountain forests.
production Climate adaptation is also being mainstreamed into other policy areas such as land-use
management, agriculture and tourism (UNEP, 2023a; Climate-ADAPT, 2024).

The Carpathian Convention also works closely with the International Commission for the
Protection of the Danube River (ICPDR, 2014). For example, the Danube Climate Adaptation
Study (Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität of Munich, 2018) includes the impacts of climate
change in the Carpathians, and the Danube Flood Risk Management Plan (ICPDR, 2021)
includes flood risk management measures in the Carpathians that are then translated into
practices for implementation by countries on the national level.

The Carpathian dimension is also well reflected in the activities of the Commission on
Sustainable Use and Protection of the Dniester River Basin (Dniester Commission). For
instance, its Working Group on Ecosystems and Biodiversity dedicates particular attention
to the Carpathian region through taking measures for conserving and increasing forest
resources and small rivers to improve water storage (Dniester Commission, 2024a). And
its Working Group on Emergencies has identified a few priority areas in the Carpathians
and performed flood risk modelling and mapping followed by development of the flood risk
management plans according to the European Union Floods Directive (2007/60/EC) on the
assessment and management of flood risks (Dniester Commission, 2024b).

7.2.3 Central Asia

The mountains of Central Asia include the Pamir and Tian Shan ranges, which cover parts
of Afghanistan, China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan (Figure 7.3), and
the Karakoram range spanning China, India and Pakistan. These mountains contain glaciers;
they are fragile ecosystems and are valuable for the social and cultural identity of their

98 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
 inhabitants. The Tian Shan range is known as the water tower of Central Asia. The Central
Asian mountains are a major source of fresh water for hydropower, irrigation, drinking water
and industrial production. The Aral Sea basin, which covers much of the area, is home to over
60 million people. Agriculture accounts for up to 90% of total water abstraction in that basin
(Alford et al., 2015).

Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan rely heavily on hydropower: nearly 90% of their electricity comes from
hydroelectric production. These upstream countries experience energy shortages in winter
and would like to expand their hydropower production (Zandi, 2023). Downstream countries,
such as Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan, are largely dependent on water from the
mountains for their agricultural production in the summer. For example, 80% of the flow of the
Amu Darya and 74% of the flow of the Syr Darya water resources, which together provide 90%
of Central Asia’s river water, are formed in the mountains of Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan (Russell,
2018). These conflicting seasonal demands lead to political tensions between the riparian
countries (Pohl et al., 2017; CAWater-info, n.d.). Progress in cooperation was made possible by
an agreement between Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan in 2021, in which the countries agreed on
the supply of water in exchange for electricity (Climate Diplomacy, 2022).

Figure 7.3 Tian Shan and Pamir mountain ranges in Central Asia

Major rivers

Elevation (masl):
<= 1 000
1 000–2 000
2 000–3 000
3 000–4 000
4 000–5 000
5 000–6 000
6 000–8 000

Note: masl: metres above sea level.

Source: Umirbekov et al. (2022, fig. 1, p. 4).

Mountain ecosystems play a central role in regulating water flow and supply. For instance,
vegetated areas like forests retain water and slowly release the water as surface water
and groundwater. Clearing of forests can cause serious soil erosion, while the water
regulation function of the forest is lost and flood risk may increase (Stecher et al., 2023).
Ecosystems in the Central Asian mountains are affected by pollution, habitat fragmentation
and degradation, and climate change. The supranational and multidimensional challenges
to habitat conservation make it difficult for individual countries to effectively regulate and
implement policies (Van der Graaf and Siarova, 2021; Zoï Environment Network, 2022).

Regional perspectives 99
 To preserve the fragile ecosystems of the mountain areas of the Central Asian region,
the Interstate Commission on Sustainable Development of the Central Asian Countries
was established in 1994. The Commission aims to expand regional cooperation on the
conservation and sustainable use of the mountain areas of Central Asia, in particular by
strengthening the institutional framework for such cooperation in mountain ecosystems
(Mosello et al., 2023).

Climate change in Central Asia is causing average temperatures to rise, leading to a general
melting of glaciers in the region. Average annual precipitation is increasing, but the inter-
annual variability of precipitation and related runoff is also increasing, which can lead to
floods in winter and hydrological droughts in summer. Increasing variability has put pressure
on the operation of hydropower plants, drinking water supplies and agricultural production
(UNDP/ENVSEC, 2011; Sorg et al., 2012). Inadequate knowledge and data on natural
resources, poor institutional cooperation, fragmented responsibilities and lack of resources
delay effective action (GIZ, 2023).

Technical solutions, such as covering the ice with insulating blankets (Box 7.2), as tested
in the Alps, or producing artificial snow to protect the glacier and buffer the runoff, have
Mountain
been proposed to preserve glaciers (Travers, 2023). However, these solutions are generally
countries considered too costly to apply on a large scale, although they may provide temporary local
recognize that relief (Ruggeri, 2023). In the meantime, the improvement and exchange of knowledge and
many of the information, the strengthening of regional cooperation, the strengthening of in-country
problems can capacities on the cryosphere and mountain water management, and the raising of awareness
and involvement of key stakeholders in developing and implementing action plans are
only be tackled needed (GIZ, 2021; UNESCO, 2022).
effectively by
working together The Central Asian Regional Glaciological Centre was established in 2017 to research the
impacts of climate change on glaciers, snow and water resources, and to strengthen the
with their
coordination of research activities and information exchange in the mountainous region of
neighbours Central Asia (UNESCO, n.d.). The Commission of the Republic of Kazakhstan and the Kyrgyz
Republic on the Use of Water Management Facilities of Intergovernmental Status on Chu and
Talas River discusses glaciers within its Working Group on Adaptation to Climate Change and
Long-term Programs of Action. Also, the International Fund for Saving the Aral Sea considers
glaciers as part of the water resources of the Aral Sea basin (EC IFAS, 2024).

7.2.4 Conclusions
The mountain ranges in this region are home to important ecosystems. They have cultural
significance and are important sources of water for surrounding areas. However, they are
threatened by demographic trends, energy and agricultural demands, tourism and climate
change, which affect mountain water resources and water availability. Strategies and plans
to mitigate these problems are being developed at national levels, but there is still a need for
a more integrated approach such as linking land-use management with water management
and creating incentives for the protection of mountain ecosystems. Mountain countries
recognize that many of the problems can only be tackled effectively by working together with
their neighbours.

The Carpathian and Alpine Conventions and the Intergovernmental Commission on Central
Asia reflect this need for cooperation. In addition, transboundary basin organizations
such as the Dniester and Chu-Talas Commissions, the International Commission for the
Protection of the Danube River, the International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine
and the International Fund for Saving the Aral Sea pay considerable attention to mountains
and glaciers in the overall river basin management process, as well as in specific thematic
areas of cooperation such as adaptation, conservation, flood management and monitoring.
Discussions in these transboundary organizations, where knowledge and experience are also
exchanged, help to stimulate activities at the national level.

100 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
 7.3 Water towers in Latin America and the Caribbean occupy about one-third of the regional territory
Latin America and (FAO, 2000), and produce more water flow per land area than any other continent (Bretas et al.,
2020). The mountains of the region include the Sierra Madre in Mexico, the Central American
the Caribbean
Cordillera, the Sierras and Highlands of the Caribbean, the Brazilian Highlands and the Andes
(Figure 7.4) (FAO, 2000). The Andes Mountain range (the longest mountain chain in the world,
extending over 7,000 km) is the largest supplier to the region’s water flows (FAO, 2000),
contributing to 50% of the flow of the Amazon River (Bretas et al., 2020).

As of 2017, approximately 25% (167 million people) of the population in Latin America and the
Caribbean lived in mountains, of which 112 million resided in urban areas. Some 17 million
people lived in mountain areas often vulnerable to intense climate variability and soil
degradation (Romeo et al., 2020).

Figure 7.4
Main mountain ranges
and rivers in Latin
America and the
Caribbean

Note: Darker greens represent

elevations over 1,000 m above
sea level.

Source: Authors.

Glaciers across the region are experiencing a significant overall reduction in volume (WMO,
2023). Several have disappeared entirely, including the Ventorrillo glacier in Mexico, the
Chacaltaya glacier in the Plurinational State of Bolivia (WGMS, 2024) and the Humboldt
glacier in the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (Reyes Haczek, 2022). According to the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, global warming has caused glacier loss in
the Andes, ranging from 30% to 50% of the area since the 1980s, marking one of the most
significant declines globally (IPCC, 2022). At the southern end of the Andes, glacial mass loss
has been estimated at around 22.9 Gt per year (Dussaillant et al., 2019).

Regional perspectives 101

 Since the mid-19th century Colombia has lost 90% of its glacial area. This is a concerning
trend exemplified by the rapid disappearance of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta glacier,
which is one of the few glaciers located near the Caribbean Sea (<50 km away). It is a source
for over 30 rivers, an irreplaceable site for biodiversity and sacred to the four Indigenous
communities settled in the area, consisting of more than 30,000 people (IDEAM, 2021).
As the volume of the glacier decreases, the flows that supply drinking water and food to
populations are affected, forcing people to move and leave behind their environment, their
beliefs and the legacy left by their ancestors. The situation has also been aggravated by
social conflicts over land use, where armed groups are controlling land illegally, leaving the
Indigenous communities no other choice than to flee (Cajar, 2024).

Climate change and human activities have accelerated deforestation in the Andes, which
contain crucial ecosystems for capture of fresh water. For instance, high Andean native
forests have reduced to just 3–10% of their original extent, putting Indigenous communities
at risk of severe water insecurity (FAO/UNEP, 2023). Similar degradation processes are faced
in other mountain areas of the region.

7.3.1 Challenges and interventions for water management

Food and agriculture
Water originating in the mountains is essential for producing high-value agricultural crops like
coffee and cocoa in countries such as Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guatemala, Mexico, Peru
and the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela.

In the Andean region, this water is also crucial for cultivating staple foods like potatoes,
Water originating corn and quinoa (Wymann von Dach et al., 2014). Andean agriculture represents 3–13% of
the national gross domestic product and 7–34% of the employed population in the region
in the mountains
(UNECLAC, 2024). Food exports have been estimated to account for 18–54% of total exports
is essential for (Olmos, 2017). Between 15% and 17% of total cropland within the Andean countries is
producing high- located within the Andes Mountain range, with the larger proportion of mountain cropland
value agricultural concentrated in the north, in Colombia, Ecuador and Peru (Devenish and Gianella, 2012;
crops like coffee Schoolmeester et al., 2018). Changing hydrological conditions in the Bolivian Andes have
shrunk the area in which llamas can graze, forcing some farmers to turn to fish farming
and cocoa
(UNEP, 2023b). An impact associated with the reduction of Andean glaciers, along with the
increase in temperature, the reduction in cold hours and the decrease in water availability, is
the effect on the production of winter crops, fruit trees, vineyards and some forest species in
Chile and the central western region of Argentina (Magrin et al., 2014).

The community of Cebollullo in La Paz, Plurinational State of Bolivia, relies on water from the
Illimani glacier for irrigation. However, climate change has accelerated glacier melt, thereby
reducing water availability and disrupting agricultural practices. To address this, farmers
have reintroduced an ancient irrigation system using zigzag furrows, which slows water flow
and reduces soil erosion (IDB, 2020).

The Phinaya community in Peru depends on alpaca and vicuña fibre and meat. It faces
challenges due to rising temperatures above 4,000 masl, leading to drying wetlands, water
shortages and disease. A pilot project built dams in small periglacial lagoons, improving
water availability for camelids and restoring wetlands and pastures. This has enhanced
camelid farming and improved the quantity and quality of alpaca fibre (Canales Sierra, 2018).
The melting of glaciers in Peru’s Cordillera Blanca has caused seven of the nine basins to
cross a critical threshold due to reduction in surface water flow and river discharge during the
dry season, exceeding the limits of adaptation17 (Samaniego et al., 2017).

17
Thresholds where the goals of an individual or system can no longer be protected through adaptive actions because
the adaptive capacity of organisms and communities has been exceeded (Klein et al., 2014). Transformative
adaptation offers options and strategies that can be used to reorganize systems when they reach their limits, such as
relocating production to cooler areas or diversifying into other crops (Samaniego et al., 2017).

102 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
 In Guatemala’s dry corridor, which crosses the Central American Cordillera, farmers
struggle with climate variability, drought periods and increasingly frequent extreme
weather events, which disrupt traditional planting schedules. To address these challenges,
a programme has been implemented in the departments of Chiquimula, El Progreso
and Zacapa, reaching 6,000 farming families across 60 communities. These areas are
particularly affected by adverse climatic conditions, socio-economic challenges and
limited access to resources. The Participatory Integrated Climate Services for Agriculture
programme enhances access to reliable climate information, enabling communities to
make informed decisions about their agriculture. More than 5,000 community leaders have
been empowered through training workshops to apply this knowledge (Valdivia Araica
et al., 2023).

Human settlements
Cities that depend on glacier meltwater for their supply of domestic water have
experienced substantial reductions in availability from this source (IPCC, 2022). For
Cities that
instance, between 1970 and 2010, the area of the glaciers supplying water to Lima
depend on glacier diminished by 43% due to rising temperatures causing ice to melt. Consequently, by 2010,
meltwater for the city’s potential water availability had reduced to 125 m3 per inhabitant per year, one
their supply of of the lowest in the region18 (González Molina and Vacher, 2014). If the trend of rising
temperatures continues, then an acceleration of melting as well as increased runoff in
domestic water
sub-basins may occur (see Box 2.2). Later, when the glacier reservoir is reduced, the
have experienced contributions of meltwater will be lower (González Molina and Vacher, 2014).
substantial
reductions in Similarly, Santiago, which relies partially on water from melting ice, has been facing a
significant risk due to a megadrought. With a rainfall deficit of 20–40%, there has been
availability from
a noticeable reduction in snow accumulation, as well as lower reservoir volumes and
this source groundwater levels (Garreaud et al., 2019). This jeopardizes Santiago’s water supply,
especially during the summer, when up to 70% of the city’s water comes from glaciers
(Aguas Andinas, 2024).

In Bogotá, approximately 80% of the city’s drinking water comes from the Chingaza
paramo, while the Sumapaz paramo and the Guerrero complex of paramos contribute 5%
and 15%, respectively (Canal Capital, 2023). Notably, the Chingaza system has experienced
a significant reduction in its water levels, which have dropped by 85% due to the El Niño
phenomenon, a prolonged dry season and high temperatures, causing water rationing in
the city of 8 million inhabitants in April 2024 (Ownby, 2024).

To address similar problems in Ecuador, communities in the Central Highlands participated

in an ecosystem service payment programme, receiving direct economic incentives
(US$30 per hectare per year) supported by the central government through the Socio
Páramo programme (Torres et al., 2023). Led by young community members, these
communities implemented strategies based on social technology, promoting community
participation and local knowledge to protect and restore the paramo. The strategies
included designating protected areas for water recharge, reducing grazing and restoring
native vegetation, combined with economic incentives and development opportunities.
The results showed a slowdown in the rate of paramo loss to 3.3% from the second
period (2000–2008) to the third period (2013–2021) based on satellite images. While
government involvement has been significant, the effectiveness of paramo protection has
been greatest in areas where decisions were made locally, highlighting the importance of
community participation in the sustainable management of water resources and resilience
to climate change (Torres et al., 2023).

18
On average, in 2021, the total annual renewable water resources per capita in the Andean countries was 41,090 m3
(FAO, n.d.).

Regional perspectives 103

 In Intag, Ecuador, a water and forest conservation project has benefited 38 communities,
reaching approximately 7,000 people. The initiative has created community-managed
watershed reserves, acquired by a local non-governmental organization and sustainably
managed by local groups. This approach has improved water quality, prevented floods and
landslides, and promoted ecotourism while reducing emigration. By involving communities in
managing these reserves, the project has enhanced their appreciation of conservation efforts
and fostered local empowerment (UNDP, 2019; FAO/UNEP, 2023).

Industry and energy

In addition to mountains being a vital source of water, they also generate sustainable energy
for cities and smaller communities downstream, as well as remote villages in mountain
areas. In Latin America, 85% of hydroelectric power came from mountain sources in 2013
(Mountain Partnership, 2013).

Most countries in the Tropical Andes depend on meltwater from ice and snow to meet the
demand for electricity production. For instance, around 92% of energy generation in Ecuador
Most countries comes from hydroelectric power plants (Ministry of Energy and Mines of Ecuador, n.d.). One
in the Tropical estimate concerning Canon del Pato (one of Peru’s largest hydropower plants) projected
Andes depend on that the complete disappearance of glaciers could result in a 15% reduction in the plant’s
electricity production (UNESCO/IUCN, 2022).
meltwater from
ice and snow to Reduction in precipitation levels also affects hydropower production. Argentina and Chile
meet the demand are expected to experience notable reductions in their hydropower generation between 2020
and 2100, in most scenarios (IEA, 2021). These are mainly due to lower levels of average
for electricity
precipitation (because of climate change) in the central Andes and Patagonia, and the
production associated reduction in the streamflow across major river basins.

Water-related social conflicts have occurred in high-elevation areas of Andean countries,

many of which can be attributed partially to mining activities. Beyond water extraction,
mining alters basins to some extent, both on the surface (e.g. removal of soil or vegetation
cover, alteration or damming of rivers, removal of glaciers and modification of topography)
and below it, which negatively affects the availability of water for downstream users
(Altomonte and Sánchez, 2016). In Chile, in the mountain range between Copiapó and
Rancagua, by 2010, mining projects had affected 4.5 km² of rock glaciers, resulting in an
estimated loss of around 24,106 m³ of fresh water (Bodin, 2019). For comparison, the Juncal
Norte glacier (7.6 km²), located close to Santiago, lost 1.5 km² of its area between 1955 and
2006 (Bown et al., 2008).

Environmental protection
Argentina has a specific, ratified law dedicated to glacier protection. Enacted in October
2010 as Law 26.639, titled the Minimum Budget Regime for the Preservation of Glaciers
and the Periglacial Environment, its primary aim is to safeguard glaciers as strategic water
reserves and biodiversity hotspots, recognizing their value as scientific repositories and
tourist attractions. This legislation imposed strict prohibitions, including on the release
of toxic pollutants, construction activities, mining, hydrocarbon exploration and industrial
installations (Government of Argentina, 2010). Chile is developing initiatives aimed at
enacting glacier protection legislation. A bill with approval from the Senate Environment
Committee, with explicit provisions for permafrost protection, was presented in 2022
(Commission on Environment and National Assets, 2022).

Certain glaciers and snowy mountain areas receive indirect protection by virtue of their
inclusion in designated spaces such as national parks or other protected areas. For instance,
in Colombian territory, six glaciers have been safeguarded since 1959 under the status of
National Natural Parks, in accordance with the mandates of the Political Constitution of
1991, which designated them as assets for public use, characterized by their inalienable,

104 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
 imprescriptible and unseizable nature – meaning they cannot be transferred, are not subject
to expiration and cannot be seized or confiscated (García Pachón, 2018). Similarly, in Ecuador,
high-elevation areas with perpetual snowfall are encompassed within various protected
areas. A substantial portion of Chilean territory is integrated into the National System of
Protected Wild Areas of the State, incorporating numerous glaciers into the designated areas
(Ministry of National Assets of Chile, 2023).

Confronted with the changes in the water mass in mountain areas, numerous countries in
The mountain the region are advancing research and monitoring initiatives to address this pressing issue
(see Chapter 8). For instance, the Plurinational State of Bolivia has been actively monitoring
areas in Latin
glaciers in the basins of the cities of El Alto and La Paz since October 2023 (Ministry
America and the of Foreign Affairs of the Plurinational State of Bolivia, 2023). Chile boasts a network of
Caribbean are glaciological stations comprising at least 80 monitoring points, facilitating comprehensive
being increasingly assessment of glacier dynamics (Ministry of Public Works of Chile, 2023).

affected by climate
change and 7.3.2 Conclusions
The mountain areas in Latin America and the Caribbean are being increasingly affected
human activities
by climate change and human activities. These disruptions affect the hydrological cycle,
which threatens the livelihood of communities that rely on agriculture. Moreover, these
disturbances have far-reaching consequences in lower-lying areas and urban centres that
depend on the mountain water sources for drinking water and energy supply.

In response, several countries in the region have enacted policies and laws to protect these
critical ecosystems. Some systems have already surpassed critical thresholds, making it
crucial to promote adaptive measures such as: (a) implementing nature-based solutions
(NbS), including reforestation, (b) adopting and embracing traditional practices, such as
water harvesting and sowing techniques widely employed by Indigenous communities in the
region, (c) pursuing transformative adaptation strategies to meet water demands for crops
and secure livelihoods and (d) expanding water collection infrastructures.

To implement these measures effectively, well-targeted funding, robust monitoring, capacity-

building and inclusive governance frameworks are needed, fostering dialogue and inclusion
of local communities to apply the best available practices adapted to local contexts in the
mountain regions.

7.4 The Asia–Pacific region contains some of the world’s highest mountains and most extensive
Asia and the Pacific glacier systems. The Tibetan Plateau and surrounding Pamir–Hindu Kush Himalaya
(HKH) mountain ranges and the Hengduan, Tien Shan and Qilian mountains encompass
5 million km2 of high mountains, with 100,000 km2 of glaciers. This so-called Third Pole –
also sometimes referred to as the water tower of Asia – stores more ice and snow than any
other region outside the Antarctic and Arctic (UNEP, 2022b). The Third Pole is the origin of
more than ten river systems that are vital for sustaining nearly 2 billion individuals in the
river basins of Central, Northeast, South and Southeast Asia (ICIMOD, 2023). Although it is
projected to warm faster than the global average (UNEP, 2022b), the Third Pole is one of the
most biologically diverse and ecologically fragile areas in the world, and is home to a variety
of cultures.

7.4.1 Trends and impacts

The mountains and glaciers in the Asia–Pacific region are among the most vulnerable to
ongoing climatic, societal and environmental changes (Immerzeel et al., 2020). Glaciers in
the HKH region are disappearing at an alarming rate: 65% faster in 2011–2020 than in the
previous decade (ICIMOD, 2023). They are also melting faster than the global average (Mani,
2021), with the most significant losses concentrated in the eastern HKH region (Figure 7.5).

Regional perspectives 105

 Figure 7.5 Region-wide glacier mass balances, expressed in metres water equivalent (m w.e.) per year from different areas
in the Hindu Kush Himalaya region over the periods 1975–1999, 2000–2009 and 2010–2019

0.2

0
Glacier mass balance
(m w.e. per year)

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

-1.0
West Kunlum

East Kunlum

Qilian Shan

Inner Tibet

South-East Tibet and

Nyainqentanglha

Hindu Kush

Karakoram

Spiti-Lahaul-West
Himalaya

Central Himalaya

Eastern Himalaya

West Nyainqentanglha
1975–1999 2000–2009 2010–2019

Note: A value of −1.0 m w.e. per year represents a mass loss of 1,000 kg/m2 of ice cover or an annual glacier-wide ice thickness loss of about 1.1 m per year,
as the density of ice is only 0.9 times the density of water.

Source: ESCAP/UNEP/ILO/UNFCCC RCC Asia-Pacific/UNIDO (2023, fig. 20, p. 74), based on data from Jackson et al. (2023).

It has been projected that under global warming scenarios of 1.5–2°C, glacier volume in the
HKH region may reduce by 30–50% by 2100. If global warming exceeds 2°C, these glaciers
may shrink down to 20–45% of their 2020 volume (ICIMOD, 2023).

These warming and melting trends will cause important changes. Increases in total runoff
in the Third Pole region have been projected, with the largest impacts in the monsoon-
The Asia–Pacific dominated river basins. For rivers like the Indus where the contributions of glacier- and
snow-melt are high, increasing streamflow is expected to peak (see Box 2.2), then diminish
region contains (Wester et al., 2019; UNEP 2022b).
some of the
world’s highest While impacts vary by river basin, research reiterates the role of glacial melt as a contributor
to GLOFs (see Section 2.2.3), flash floods and landslides (Adler et al., 2022) and elevated
mountains and
damage to human settlements, farm and pasture production, transport networks and
most extensive hydropower energy systems. In the last 190 years, more than 7,000 fatalities (Shrestha,
glacier systems 2023) are estimated to have resulted from increasingly frequent GLOFs arising from the
rapid formation and expansion of glacial lakes (Figure 7.6). The risk of GLOFs occurring
in the HKH region has been predicted to triple by the end of the century, with a significant
number of GLOFs affecting other downstream countries, primarily in the eastern Himalayas
(Zheng et al., 2021). Many of the consequences will go beyond the limits of adaptation.

106 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
Figure 7.6 Number of recorded glacial lake outburst floods per decade in High Mountain Asia, 1830s–2020s

70

65

60

55

50

45

40
Number

35

30

25

20

15

10

0
1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

Decade

Source: Adapted from Shrestha (2023).

In the long term, reduced water flows and increased droughts are expected to jeopardize
food, water, energy and livelihood security in the HKH region (Mani, 2021), as well as disrupt
ecosystems and escalate risks of conflict and migration (Caretta et al., 2022). The most
vulnerable and marginalized populations are often at the highest risk, including mountain
farmers and Indigenous communities.

Energy use, environmental degradation and human activity are contributing to these risks in
other ways, with black carbon (see Box 2.1), heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants
showing an increasing presence in the Third Pole (UNEP, 2022b). The deposition of black
The deposition carbon (from incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, and the combustion of biomass,
of black carbon including forest fires) has been found to enhance glacial melt to different extents depending
has been found to on the location deposited, whether deposited in fresh snow, or on ice and other factors
enhance glacial (Kang et al., 2020). One study estimated the glacier mass lost on the Tibetan Plateau over
40 years at approximately 450 km3, 20–80 km3 of which was attributed to the effects of black
melt
carbon and other light-absorbing deposits (Zhang et al., 2018). With the desiccation of the
Aral Sea and its surrounding area, the Aralkum Desert is now considered among the most
harmful dust sources worldwide. This desert, which has been disturbed by human action, is a
source of pollutants like heavy metals and pesticides that travel long distances, accelerating
glacial melt and contaminating freshwater systems (Zhang et al., 2020; Banks et al., 2022;
Chen et al., 2022).

In addition to the Third Pole region, glacial melt and threats to mountain ecosystems are
also a key concern in the Pacific. For example, retreat of glaciers has been observed in
the Southern Alps in New Zealand, and by 2100, the country is projected to lose 88% of
its ice volume as compared to 2011. Invasion of non-native species, climate change and
human activities pose important challenges to mountain ecosystems in Pacific small
island developing states, leading to changes in water yield, fire risk and biodiversity threats
(Frazier and Brewington, 2020).

Regional perspectives 107

 The trends and impacts noted above underscore the importance of collaboration on
adaptation strategies and measures to mitigate the consequences, especially for
vulnerable regions.

7.4.2 Regional and transboundary cooperation

Regional cooperation on glacier monitoring has played a vital role in detecting critical trends.
Several important steps, as outlined below, have been taken to strengthen institutional
arrangements for cooperation across shared river basins, with scientific cooperation and
early warning systems (EWS) being the areas of focus. These provide models for mountain
regions with shared river basins seeking to address the impacts of climate change and
glacier melt, within and outside the Asia–Pacific region.

International scientific cooperation on the Third Pole to strengthen EWS and impact analysis
The establishment of the World Meteorological Organization’s Third Pole Regional Climate
Regional Centre Network (TPRCC-Network) is a key development aimed at meeting the climate and
cryosphere service requirements specific to the Third Pole region. The three nodes of the
cooperation on
TPRCC-Network include a Northern Node (led by China), a Southern Node (led by India) and a
glacier monitoring Western Node (led by Pakistan), with China having the overall coordinating role (WMO, 2024b).
has played a vital The Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific along with the International
role in detecting Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, Third Pole Environment, Global Cryosphere
critical trends Watch, Global Energy and Water Exchanges and Mountain Research Initiative are contributing
partners of the TPRCC-Network. The demonstration phase was launched in June 2024 in
Lijiang, China. The network is expected to support EWS and impact analysis. It issues periodic
consensus statements integrating observational data, historical trends and forecasts that
provide an overview of air temperature, precipitation, snow cover, extreme events and hazards
observed during the preceding season and offer an outlook for the upcoming season.

Joint research and early warning through a Central Asian network of mountain observatories
The Central Asian Regional Glaciological Centre was established as a Category 2 centre
under the auspices of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization in
Kazakhstan upon the country’s ratification of an agreement in 2017. It provides a platform
for transboundary scientific and technical cooperation on glacier monitoring in Central
Asia (UNESCO, 2024; n.d.). In 2023, the centre signed a memorandum of understanding
with representatives from Central Asian national and other hydrometeorological monitoring
institutions to establish multilateral cooperation and a basis to advance glaciological
research within the Central Asian network of mountain observatories. The network has been
supported to deliver initial open datasets from past monitoring activities and will strengthen
related monitoring capacities in the region (Mountain Research Initiative/GEO Mountains,
2023). Collaborative activities have so far included joint studies, field expeditions and
installation of an EWS for moraine lake outbursts.

Transboundary cooperation in the HKH region

The International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development led the HKH Call to Action that
was endorsed through a Ministerial Declaration in 2020. This call, which engaged multiple
stakeholders through consultative workshops at the draft stage, strongly urged: cooperation
at all levels in the HKH region, recognition of the uniqueness of the HKH mountain people,
concerted climate action, accelerated actions on nine mountain priorities, enhanced
ecosystem resilience and halting of biodiversity loss, regional data-sharing, and science and
knowledge cooperation (ICIMOD, 2020). The Call to Action has enhanced partnerships for
sustainable mountain development among countries in the HKH region and supported the
mountain agenda in global forums (ICIMOD, n.d.). It has received new impetus through the
second HKH Ministerial Mountain Summit in 2024.

108 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
 Access to near-live data and forecasts in the Mekong River basin
The Mekong River basin is vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and glacial
melt. Since 2008, 49 automatic hydrometeorological stations, established under the
Mekong Hydrological Cycle Observing System Project, across Cambodia, southern
China, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Thailand and Viet Nam, have been collecting
data, including water level and rainfall. These stations transmit almost real-time data at
15 minute intervals to the Mekong River Commission Secretariat and national agencies
responsible for disaster risk reduction and water resources management. The daily
status of water levels, weekly forecasts, long-term averages, flash flood alerts and
drought forecasts are among data and information readily available on the Mekong River
Commission Secretariat website (MRC, n.d.).

7.4.3 Pathways forwards

Collaboration on engaging the diverse stakeholders and sectors that will be affected
by the trends is essential. Glacial melt and water-related crises must be addressed by
Collaboration strengthened adaptation measures, integrated water resources management (IWRM),
on engaging and synergistic solutions for climate, nature and pollution, supported by transboundary
the diverse collaboration, regional dialogue, advocacy and awareness-raising.

stakeholders and
sectors that will Addressing climate, nature and air pollution pressures on glaciers

be affected by the Implementing economically and technically feasible measures like improving brick kiln
efficiency and incentivizing households to switch to cleaner fuels such as liquefied
trends is essential petroleum gas and solar energy can make important contributions towards containing
glacial melt by reducing emissions of black carbon (Mani, 2021). Measures to mitigate
drying trends in the Aral Sea basin and reduce dust storms are important, including
through NbS, which also require further attention in the context of adaptation planning.
Tackling dust and black carbon emissions can reduce pressures on glaciers by
conserving their albedo properties and improving environmental conditions.

Joint adaptation planning

While water-related crises are possibly the most important focus for climate adaptation
in the high mountain areas of Asia and the Pacific, joint adaptation strategies developed
across national and administrative boundaries are essential. Investments in resilient
infrastructure, NbS, effective and credible EWS, strengthened and accessible impact
analysis and risk assessment, including at the sectoral level, are needed to identify
critical risks, areas for further research, and opportunities for outreach and engagement
with the sectors affected. At the same time, environmental monitoring networks that
track changing water quantity and quality are needed.

Amid a growing number of institutional initiatives, a framework for action can help
to ensure coordination across development partners and to mobilize projects and
investments that respond to local and transboundary threats. Long-term adaptation
planning approaches such as the adaptation pathways method, and approaches such as
EbA and livelihood and economic diversification, are also critical.

Regional perspectives 109

 Twin-track strategy for managing risk and building community resilience and empowerment

Managing glacial hazards like GLOFs requires a twin-track integrated approach.

Track 1: Strengthening EWS. To trigger early or anticipatory action, EWS must be people
centred, impact based and risk informed. They should consider complex and cascading risks
such as cloudbursts linked to GLOFs and tailored to the needs of critical lifeline sectors such
as energy, water, transport, and information and communications technology through risk
assessment and impact forecasting.

Track 2: Enhancing infrastructure resilience. Resilient infrastructure that can withstand and
adapt to hazards should be developed, as well as infrastructure for resilience that can support
Several broader social and economic resilience. This approach assumes high significance in multi-
cooperation hazard risk hotspots and must be supported by comprehensive risk mapping and integrated
initiatives assessment. The critical infrastructure sectors must be designed to handle interconnected
risks, ensuring systemic resilience against local emergencies and disruptions.
emphasize the
empowerment Several cooperation initiatives emphasize the empowerment and integration of local
and integration communities, including Indigenous Peoples, youth and vulnerable groups, in EWS and
broader adaptation processes. The Asia–Pacific region can benefit from scaling up examples
of local
of community-based flood early warning systems and similar innovations to strengthen
communities, transboundary cooperation in shared river basins (Box 7.3).
including
Indigenous Operational arrangements for transboundary watercourses and IWRM
Peoples, youth The severe implications of glacial melting on water resources management in downstream
and vulnerable areas and sharing of transboundary watercourses in the Asia–Pacific region require high
groups attention. Despite significant progress in regional monitoring, data-sharing and forecasting
systems, basic measures to put in place IWRM in river basins, whether transboundary or
internal, lag behind other global regions.

As of 2023, only two Asian countries sharing transboundary waters – Cambodia

and Mongolia – had 90% or more of their waters covered by the kinds of operational
arrangements that are increasingly important for managing the impacts of changing
hydrological regimes, as compared to 23 in Europe and North America (United Nations,
n.d.). This basic requirement of effective water resources management still requires
investment and attention in the Asia–Pacific region, particularly where climate change and
environmental pollution trends will continue to affect water availability and quality.

Box 7.3 A transboundary community-based flood early warning system (CBFEWS)

As of 2017, telemetry-based early warning systems in Sitamarhi District, India, and Mahottari District, Nepal – involving local
communities, partner organizations and government agencies and supported by the International Centre for Integrated
Mountain Development – had delivered timely flood information to over 19,000 households (nearly 100,000 individuals)
(ICIMOD, 2017). Formal information channels usually take time to disseminate warnings to remote areas, which are often the
most vulnerable. However, CBFEWS rely on more direct methods, such as mobile phone communication, that ensure timely
information exchange.

For the Ratu River – a transboundary river between India and Nepal – a CBFEWS was implemented in communities along its
banks. During a flood on 12 August 2017, the CBFEWS along the Ratu River helped to improve flood disaster preparedness
in Shrikhandi village, Sitamarhi District, Bihar. The early warning instrument set up by the International Centre for Integrated
Mountain Development and Yuganter (a local non-governmental organization) provided seven to eight hours of lead time,
allowing local communities to take proactive measures, including relocating to safer places.

Sources: ICIMOD (2017) and Singh Shrestha and Sherchan (2018).

110 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
 7.4.4 Conclusions
Human activities and climate change are posing a critical threat to the mountains and
glaciers of the Asia–Pacific region, exacerbating the complex hydrological challenges
that the region faces. Integrated solutions that increase the region’s adaptive capacity
and resilience, while reducing pressures on glaciers and water ecosystems, are vital.
Transboundary adaptation efforts based on the principles of cooperation and stakeholder
empowerment have demonstrated the benefits of regional collaboration. Building on this
progress, strengthening of transboundary approaches that synergize water sector policies
with broader climate and socio-environmental objectives is needed in the region.

7.5 The mountain areas of the Arab region are often overlooked, despite the important role they
Arab region play in providing water resources and other ecosystem services. They are also home to
thriving communities and centres of economic activity for tourism, agriculture and industry,
which are often reliant on the ever-dwindling availability of freshwater resources resulting in
a reduced amount of renewable water per capita. With the projected population growth, the
entire Arab region will be below the absolute water scarcity threshold by 2050 (Figure 7.7).

Figure 7.7 Past and projected future decrease in renewable water per capita with estimated population growth in the Arab
region, 2002–2050

1 000 650

800 520

Population (millions)
m3/person/year

600 390

400 260

200 130

0 0
2002 2007 2012 2017 2020 2025 2035 2050

Total renewable water per capita for all Arab countries (m3/person/year)

Total renewable water per capita projection

Absolute water scarcity threshold (500 m3/person/year)

Population (millions)

Population projection

Source: Adapted from ESCWA (2022, fig. 9, p. 28).

Regional perspectives 111

 Approximately one-third of the people who live in the Arab region resides over 600 masl.19
Snowfall accumulates in several mountains over winter, including in Mount Lebanon, the High
Atlas Mountains, the Zagros Mountains and the Asir Mountains (Figure 7.8). As temperatures
rise during spring, the melting snowpack feeds into streams, reservoirs and aquifers located
at lower elevations. Meltwater can serve a crucial role for the agricultural sector, particularly
in sustaining crops during the summer when precipitation is limited. Two such mountain
areas are the Mount Lebanon range that extends along nearly the full length of Lebanon’s
interior and the Atlas Mountain range in North Africa, which stretches through Algeria,
Morocco and Tunisia, reaching its highest peak in Morocco.

Figure 7.8 Mountain peaks and ranges in the Arab region

Cheekha Dar (3 611 m)

Qurnat as Sawdaʼ (3 088 m)

Jebel Toubkal (4 167 m)

Jebel Shams (3 018 m)

Jebal Soudah (3 015 m)

Jabal an Nabi Shuʼayb (3 666 m)

Elevation (m)
250 750 1 250 1 750

100 500 1 000 1 500 2 000

Source: Authors.

7.5.1 Impacts of climate change on snow cover

Meltwater released from snowpack is a major water resource for lowland coastal regions and
inland plains, which are population and economic centres, in the Arab region. Snow water
equivalent (SWE) – the hydrological equivalent of the liquid water available in the snowpack
– can provide key information to implement appropriate water management measures
(see Section 2.1.1). A decrease in SWE results in a decrease in available water resources that
depend on snow such as water available for groundwater recharge, spring flow and soil moisture.

Some aquifer-fed springs within the Arab region, such as the Assal spring in Lebanon, are
primarily recharged from snow-melt (Doummar et al., 2018). It has been estimated that snow
contributes 50–60% of the water volume in Lebanon’s rivers and springs, which feeds into
groundwater aquifers (Shaban, 2020). However, estimating SWE, based on approximated
snow depth and density, is time-consuming (Fayad, 2019). While SWE data are rarely
available in the Arab region, snow cover duration and depth can serve as good proxies for
SWE (Sturm et al., 2010).

19
Authors’ calculations, based on geographic information system data.

112 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
 As temperatures are projected to increase due to climate change (rising by
up to 3.5°C and 4.5°C by 2100, based on the reference period 1986–2005, in
Mount Lebanon and the Atlas Mountains, respectively; ESCWA et al., 2017),
seasonal snowfall and overall precipitation are expected to decrease, affecting
snow cover duration, depth and overall availability of freshwater resources.
Historical estimates from remote sensing in Mount Lebanon reported that
approximately two-thirds of precipitation was derived from snowfall, totalling
40–43 cm of SWE on average annually (Shaban et al., 2004). Later in situ
measurements revealed snow cover duration was approximately 160 days
and snow depth 50–80 cm at elevations higher than 2,700 masl, translating to
36–158 cm of SWE (Fayad et al., 2017). Similarly, snow cover duration at high
elevations typically exceeds 90 days in the Atlas Mountains, resulting in 20 cm of
SWE and exceeding 80 cm of SWE during wet years (Hanich et al., 2022).

Regional climate modelling outputs from the EURO-CORDEX domain (Jacob et al.,
2013) have been used to assess climate change impacts upon snow cover duration
Some aquifer-fed and snow depth in Mount Lebanon and the Atlas Mountains. The domain extended
springs within the into North Africa and the eastern Mediterranean with a spatial resolution of 12.5 km.
Arab region, such Models were selected based on their suitability to analyse snow cover duration and
snow depth (Frei et al., 2018) and included two scenarios based on representative
as the Assal spring
concentration pathways (RCP4.5 and RCP8.5).
in Lebanon,
are primarily In Mount Lebanon and the Atlas Mountains, snowpack projections show a general
recharged from decreasing trend and will nearly cease by the end of this century. The projected
reductions of snow cover duration range from 7% to 10% per decade in Mount
snow-melt
Lebanon (Figure 7.9) and 6% to 10% in the Atlas Mountains (Figure 7.10). Similarly,
snow depth is projected to decrease by up to 9% per decade in both locations
(Figures 7.11 and 7.12).

A study in Mount Lebanon concurs, projecting that the snow-line which reaches
1,500 masl will shift to 1,700 masl by 2050 and to 1,900 masl by 2090. In addition to
the shift of snow level, snow will melt earlier in the spring, affecting aquifer recharge
and springs flow, thereby reducing the irrigation water supply (MoE/UNDP/GEF,
2015). These projected reductions in snow cover signal an overall decrease in water
supply, specifically during the dry season when it is most needed for irrigation.
Water, sanitation and hygiene services may also be affected by reduced overall
water resources in the long term.

7.5.2 Adaptation measures

The reduction in snow cover duration and snow depth will severely affect snow
hydrology, SWE and overall water availability. This calls for sound adaptation
measures. The Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change identified several enabling conditions that could be used to support climate
change adaptation in the Arab region. These included capacity-building to increase
knowledge of climate change impacts, empowering vulnerable groups (such as
women and rural communities) as key stakeholders, and using forecasting and
prediction platforms (IPCC, 2022).

The services industry (including winter tourism) employs 63% of working women
in Lebanon. Therefore, it is crucial to support women via capacity-building and
funding for new economic activities that allow them to adapt to the predicted drop
in snowfall and subsequent impact on winter tourism activities (ESCWA/UNFPA/
NCLW, 2022). Women also account for 43% of the agriculture workforce in Lebanon,
and thus will need programmes and funding to counter any impacts of reduced
snow-melt on irrigation water resources and their income (UN Women, 2023).

Regional perspectives 113

 Figure 7.9 Annual snow cover duration time series in Mount Lebanon (higher than 2,000 m above sea level), 1970–2100

140
Snow cover duration (days/year)

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 2060 2070 2080 2090 2100

Historical RCP4.5 RCP8.5

Source: Authors, based on an ensemble of six selected EURO-CORDEX regional climate modelling outputs.

Figure 7.10 Annual snow cover duration time series in the Atlas Mountains (higher than 2,000 m above sea level), 1970–2100

70
Snow cover duration (days/year)

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 2060 2070 2080 2090 2100

Historical RCP4.5 RCP8.5

Source: Authors, based on an ensemble of six selected EURO-CORDEX regional climate modelling outputs.

A climate-proof watershed management design and resilience package, informed by

climate forecasting models from the Regional Initiative for the Assessment of Climate
Change Impacts on Water Resources and Socio-Economic Vulnerability in the Arab
Region, was developed for the Nahr al Kalb basin in Lebanon, which includes part
of Mount Lebanon. The basin includes the municipality of Kfardebian, recognized in
2024 as the capital of Arab winter tourism. Climate change will adversely affect such
communities who are economically dependent on winter tourism. The impacts will
include a reduction in household incomes for those dependent on winter tourism
revenues resulting from a shortened ski season with fewer tourists.

114 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
Figure 7.11 Change in average seasonal snow depth (October–March) in Mount Lebanon over the periods 1981–2000,
2021–2040 and 2041–2060

RCP4.5
1981–2000 Change in 2021–2040 Change in 2041–2060
Snow depth (cm) snow depth (cm) snow depth (cm)

RCP8.5
1981–2000 Change in 2021–2040 Change in 2041–2060
Snow depth (cm) snow depth (cm) snow depth (cm)

Source: Authors, based on an ensemble of six selected EURO-CORDEX regional climate modelling outputs.

Figure 7.12 Change in average seasonal snow depth (October–March) in the Atlas Mountains over the periods 1981–2000,
2021–2040 and 2041–2060

RCP4.5
1981–2000 Change in 2021–2040 Change in 2041–2060
Snow depth (cm) snow depth (cm) snow depth (cm)

RCP8.5
Change in Change in
Snow depth (cm) 1981–2000 snow depth (cm) 2021–2040 snow depth (cm) 2041–2060

Source: Authors, based on an ensemble of six selected EURO-CORDEX regional climate modelling outputs.

Regional perspectives 115

 The design and resilience package suggested several interventions, including the
diversification of livelihoods through sustainable tourism that expands beyond winter
activities. This includes promoting year-round nature-based agritourism and ecotourism.
Policymakers were advised to identify and map local attractions, provide support and
capacity development to local businesses, develop necessary infrastructure (rehabilitated
hiking trails) and provide appropriate communication materials to attract visitors. The basin
also includes agricultural land, namely apple and other fruit trees. Hill lake construction (a
reservoir) is recommended as an economically feasible option to increase water storage
to help sustain irrigation in the extended dry season (ESCWA/ACSAD/Ministry of Energy
and Water of Lebanon/FAO, 2022). This is an example of the work being done to support
mountain populations and communities as they confront the irreversible impacts of climate
change and the decline of important water resources. The same suggested activities may
The reduction help to mitigate the negative environmental impacts of heavy winter tourism, which have led
in snow cover to increased pollution, deforestation and reductions in snow quality in areas of Lebanon like
Tannourine (Delly, 2024).
duration and snow
depth will severely Managed aquifer recharge is another watershed adaptation measure that could be employed
affect snow in similar scenarios. Water harvesting could be used in the winter to mitigate the decrease in
hydrology, SWE water availability in the summer resulting from climate change impacts on mountain areas in
the Arab region, including the loss in snowpack.
and overall water
availability In Morocco, rural development strategies must be better adapted to climate change so that
territorial and livelihood resilience can be improved as climate change affects snow cover
and water availability in its mountain communities. This requires improving the availability of
data that capture the different visions and priorities of rural stakeholders with respect to rural
development. The Green Morocco Plan, established in 2008, is leading to the emergence
of a new policy for managing natural resources and promoting Indigenous knowledge with
respect to ecosystem management. The plan encourages adaptation measures in the
event of climate change. It aims to improve small-scale agriculture in marginal areas by
subsidizing tree planting on sloping land and implementing water-efficient techniques such
as drip irrigation as an adaptive response to climate change and the projected decrease in
available water resources (Agence Pour Le Développement Agricole, n.d.). This development
is dependent on the integrated management of environmental resources (water, forest, soil,
etc.) at the scale of large watersheds to overcome the diverse water availability and demands
across mountain and plain areas.

7.5.3 Conclusions
The impacts of climate change on seasonal snowfall and precipitation, and thus the overall
availability of water in the Arab region, are already apparent and likely to become more
extreme in the future. Snowpack plays a crucial role in storing water for release during the
dry season. However, it is decreasing due to climate change. In mountain communities in the
Arab region in general and specifically in Lebanon and Morocco, this will affect economic
activities such as tourism and agriculture. Going forwards, cross-sectoral climate adaptation
measures including NbS, more efficient irrigation and crop selection techniques, and smart
economic diversification strategies are needed to address the challenges.

116 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
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Regional perspectives 123

Chapter 8

Knowledge- and
capacity-building

UNESCO IHP*
Zoë Johnson, Chris DeBeer, Corinne Schuster-Wallace and John
Pomeroy;1 Sher Muhammad;2 Fred Wrona and Kerry Black;3 Dhiraj
Pradhananga;4 and James McPhee5,6

With contributions from: Anil Mishra and Abou Amani (UNESCO IHP),
Stefan Uhlenbrook (WMO) and Tenzing Sherpa (ICIMOD)

* UNESCO IHP coordinated the chapter development with the participation of:

1
University of Saskatchewan, 2 ICIMOD, 3 University of Calgary, 4 Tribhuvan University,
5
University of Chile and 6 International Association of Hydrological Sciences
 The hydrological fundamentals of high mountain regions need to be better understood
to support decision-making. Priority policies are needed to: reduce gaps in the collection
of hydrometeorological data in mountain regions; develop physically based, integrated
atmosphere–cryosphere–hydrology–ecology–human models; expand training to allow for
the integration of different knowledge types (e.g. biophysical data, socio-economic data, and
Indigenous and local knowledge); and facilitate the participation of Indigenous Peoples and
local communities (IPLCs) and women in knowledge-gathering processes.

8.1 8.1.1 Data and models for adaptation and risk management
High mountain data The high variability in mountain climate, topography, geology and vegetation – all of which
and knowledge gaps influence the movement of water through the landscape – creates an exceptional need
for representative hydrometeorological networks and robust information systems. High
variability also contributes to uncertainties in mountain hydrometeorology – conditions in
valley bottoms can be vastly different from those on mountain tops, despite small horizontal
distances between them.

Hydrometeorological observations and predictions in high mountain areas are uncertain

due to sparse monitoring networks and low-resolution models. Natural mountain snow
and ice regimes are driven by precipitation and thermodynamics, and are affected by sharp
elevational gradients in both. As a result, coarsely downscaled climate and weather models
provide poor hydrometeorological predictions at scales finer than a few kilometres. These
models need the capability to resolve convection, orographic precipitation processes and
precipitation phases, to improve their accuracy (Karki et al., 2017).

Hydroglaciological models need to operate at scales as fine as a few hundred metres and
The hydrological account for complex terrain windflow and slope aspect, to resolve snow redistribution and
fundamentals of ice ablation patterns (Pradhananga and Pomeroy, 2022). Model predictions can benefit from
bias correction and data assimilation, making in situ observations crucial for improving the
high mountain
understanding of climate–cryosphere interactions. However, obtaining these observations
regions need to be in mountain regions is difficult, as mountains are often high, rugged and remote, and feature
better understood considerable hazards and threats to human safety (IPCC, 2019).
to support
The Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) region exemplifies this challenge: only 28 of over
decision-making 50,000 glaciers have their mass balances actively measured (ICIMOD, 2023). Reference
mass balance glaciers have been typically selected based on criteria such as accessibility,
safety and simple geometry (Østrem, 2006), which may not fully represent the diversity of the
glaciers across the broader regional context. Mountain snowpack, weather and streamflow
observations are also biased towards more easily accessible low elevations.

The low-elevation bias (Figure 8.1) is incredibly problematic given the strong influence
of elevation on hydrometeorological conditions, and has left the high mountains virtually
unmonitored in many regions (Mountain Research Initiative EDW Working Group, 2015). Snow
courses and snow pillows are predominately situated in forest clearings at mid-elevations.
Even the few at high elevations are often located on relatively flat terrain, thus failing to capture
the variability of snow redistribution and ablation dynamics in mountains (Bales et al., 2006).

The sparseness of cryosphere monitoring in mountain regions exacerbates uncertainties in

hydroglaciological predictions, enhancing the risk of water resources mismanagement. The
sparseness of historical data hinders the capacity to calculate risk and examine changes
over time. Limited data also leads to acceptance of coarse model resolution, oversimplified
modelling approaches and inadequate representation of hydrometeorological dynamics.
Ideally, glacier hydrometeorological, hydrometric and mass balance measurement networks
would be coordinated and expanded. In addition to financial, logistical and access barriers,
there remains the practical limitation that as a glacier disintegrates, it becomes more difficult
to consistently measure, thus making network expansions technically challenging.

Knowledge- and capacity-building 125

 Figure 8.1 Historical global distribution of hydrometeorological stations by elevation, 1750–2024

60 000

50 000

40 000
Number of stations

30 000

20 000

10 000

0
10
0
50
0 00 00 00 00 00 00
0– 1– 10 15 20 25 30 >3
0
10 1– 1– 1– 1– 1–
50 1 00 1 50 2 00 2 50

Metres above sea level

Note: Not all of these stations are currently active. High mountains (mountain regions where snow and ice play an important role in global freshwater provisioning
and the local or regional hydrological cycle) vary in elevation, but most are at least 2,000 metres above sea level (masl) and some reach over 6,000 masl.

Source: Based on data from NCEI NOAA (n.d.).

Remote sensing techniques such as airborne LiDAR and satellite altimetry can provide
valuable information. However, they require in situ observations for validation and
calibration. There is a great need for a satellite system capable of measuring mountain
snow water equivalent (SWE) at high resolution; current satellites can estimate snow-
covered area, but not SWE, in complex terrain.
As a glacier
Reducing such data gaps is essential for decreasing uncertainty and mitigating risks.
disintegrates,
Early warning systems and other mitigation interventions often rely heavily on field-
it becomes deployed technology. Drought and flood prediction, optimal operation of dams and
more difficult spillways, and deployment of debris nets, dry dams and dugouts to mitigate debris flows
to consistently depend on robust understanding of the underlying physical systems.

measure, thus To understand cryospheric changes and improve the sustainability of mitigation and
making network adaptation approaches, there is a need for expansion of the observational infrastructure
expansions in high mountain areas, and also, importantly, for data to be open access. Expanding
technically observations requires conducting regular and expanded glacier mass balance
measurements and SWE survey transects, monitoring frozen ground thermal and soil
challenging
moisture conditions, establishing more high-elevation weather stations for consistent
variable monitoring including solid precipitation, temperature and snow depth, and
establishing more high-elevation hydrometric, groundwater monitoring wells and lake-
level stations.

There is also a need for training and deployment of mountain field technicians capable
of conducting glacier, snow and hydrometric surveys, maintaining automated equipment
and processing data into actionable outputs. As citizen science is explored as an option

126 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
 to increase data collection (Section 8.3.2), further requirements may include the need
to develop validated, standardized methods tailored to public capacities and additional
capacity to maintain oversight mechanisms for data-collection systems.

After data have been collected, using the information requires further human, technical
and financial capacities in data management systems (Section 8.4). Having open and freely
accessible data and integrated observation, prediction and service systems for mountain
basins can be pivotal in supporting information usability (Adler et al., 2019), and is an area
where national policy can contribute. Funding to sustain the above is necessary, although
not an inherent barrier to collaborative research networks (as exemplified in Box 8.1).

International collaborations have been valuable in streamlining cryosphere research.

For example, the International Association of Cryospheric Sciences, through the United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization International Hydrological
Having open
Programme, developed the Glossary of Glacier Mass Balance and Related Terms (Cogley
and freely et al., 2011) to help standardize mass balance data collection and the International
accessible data for Classification for Seasonal Snow on the Ground (Fierz et al., 2009). Standardized
mountain basins classification systems such as these are important for maintaining cohesion in
can be pivotal international scientific practices and are essential for conducting global analyses.

in supporting Many public and private sector agencies engage in mountain cryosphere research and
information monitoring – nationally, regionally and internationally. Collaborative research networks
usability can be a powerful and feasible tool for overcoming knowledge gaps and avoiding
redundancies in research or resource deployment. Mountain ranges and basins are
often transboundary, and are rarely considered as a single management unit. Individual
institutions often do not have the capacity or mandate to operate the monitoring,
modelling and assessment of mountain areas. This is why developing integrated
observation, prediction and service systems throughout mountain basins is a valuable
means of overcoming capacity and resource gaps.

Improved hydroglaciological models can bridge some data gaps. They are needed for
enhanced prediction of cryospheric and hydrological changes in mountain regions. The
accumulation and melt of seasonal snow and glaciers are influenced by processes that
are spatially heterogeneous, sensitive to climate perturbations and rapidly changing
(see Chapter 2), and yet not well represented in most models (Pomeroy et al., 2022).

It is imperative that predictive models for mountains be grounded in the appropriate

physics and not rely on data-driven, empirical or oversimplified approaches
(e.g. temperature index melt models). This is due to the complex thermodynamics in the
mountain cryosphere and the sparseness of available observations for calibration. As
computational capacity increases along with understanding of eco- and social-hydrology,
these hydroglaciological models must be coupled with ecological and social system
models, as well as data assimilation. This will allow them to be able to predict not only the
hydrological system but also the potential impacts on people, societies, economies and
ecosystems, as well as to examine feedbacks and transient changes and to forewarn of
trade-offs and unintended consequences of adaptation solutions.

Developing integrated mountain information systems is demanding. Figure 8.2 identifies

the basic components of a hydrological information system, but hydrometeorological,
ecological and socio-economic inputs are also needed to even determine initial objectives
(WMO, 2020). The identification of needs can benefit tremendously from transdisciplinary
cross-cutting networks – not only among scientists from different disciplines but also
with representatives from various cultural, social, economic and political dimensions
of society. To design fit-for-purpose interdisciplinary research that addresses real-time

Knowledge- and capacity-building 127

 Box 8.1 International Network for Alpine Research Catchment Hydrology (INARCH)

INARCH is a cross-cutting project of the Global Energy and Water Exchanges Hydroclimatology Panel of the
World Climate Research Programme.a It strives to: (i) measure and understand high mountain atmospheric,
hydrological, cryospheric, biological and human–water interaction processes, (ii) improve their prediction
as coupled systems and (iii) diagnose their sensitivities to climate change and propose how they may be
managed to promote water sustainability under global change (Pomeroy et al., 2015).

The network features 56 scientists and 38 well-instrumented research basins in 18 countries and 6 continents,
operating since 2015 with no central funding. Instead, INARCH leverages other activities to achieve collective
aims, with a philosophy and commitment to open data with major efforts to compile and publish these data
(Pomeroy and Marks, 2024). Its success is due to the enthusiasm and hard work of individual researchers,
maintaining active engagement through annual workshops in high mountain locations adjacent to research
basins, and working collaboratively on initiatives such as INARCH’s Common Observing Period Experiment
(2022–2024). INARCH’s science outcomes have underpinned the World Meteorological Organization’s High
Mountain Summit and the United Nations International Year of Glaciers’ Preservation 2025.

Locations of INARCH research basins in mountain regions around the world

Source: Authors.

Example of an INARCH automated hydrometeorological station deployed to

a high mountain basin: Qilian Mountains, China
Photo: John Pomeroy.

a
For further information, please see https://inarch.usask.ca/.

128 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
 needs, a cross-sectoral mix of inputs is important, since they can help identify who the
key actors are (e.g. affected communities, experts in the field and existing organizations
Developing with similar mandates), what policy and regulatory frameworks must be considered
(e.g. transboundary water sharing agreements), overlapping research needs on the subject
integrated
and opportunities for collaborative synergies.
mountain
information Overburden of information is generally recognized as a problem in research and
systems is policymaking. It can be minimized significantly by bringing people together for a
conversation to identify key directions, resources and scientific considerations. The benefits
demanding
of interdisciplinary and cross-regional collaboration cannot be overstated. In the case of high
mountain regions, such collaboration is necessary to capture the breadth of water systems
components – atmospheric, hydrological, glaciological, ecological and human.

Figure 8.2
Components of a hydrological
information system

Objective(s)

Decision
technology

Data analysis Quality

Data network
technology assurance
design
procedures

Data collection

Data
management
system

Information
Information system

Impact

Source: WMO (2020, fig. I.2.2, p. I.2-4).

Knowledge- and capacity-building 129

 8.1.2 Ecological and environmental data gaps
The impacts of changing cryosphere conditions on ecological systems are not
fully known (see Chapter 6). Environmental considerations are often framed
through the lens of ecosystem services – the benefits that natural systems
provide to humans for free that would otherwise need to be manufactured or
created, such as adequate, potable water (Mengist et al., 2020). Ecosystem
impacts deserve recognition in their own right – the value of an ecosystem is
not inherently derived from the human use of it. When preparing for changing
environmental conditions, efforts to explicitly recognize ways in which humans
currently (and perhaps unknowingly) benefit from various mountain ecological
processes is necessary for policy direction and to identify vulnerable populations.
Milner et al. (2017) highlighted the importance of improving the capability to
predict the timing, magnitude and duration of mountain cryosphere melt to inform
necessary actions for a range of socio-economic ecosystem services, including
provisioning, regulating and cultural services (Figure 8.3).

Figure 8.3
Conceptual framework
integrating the effects of A me n
rs upply ity/t
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cryospheric shrinkage on ate ri s
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provisioning, regulating Fr
and cultural aspects of
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E xp
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M ig r a ti o n
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Adaptation
e r ie s

trade-offs
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Social/reli
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d su p p

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ac

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Outburst fl oo
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at

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at

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Source: Milner et al. H aza r d s

(2017, fig. 3, p. 9775). The
Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 IGO Regulating
(CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO) licence does
not apply to this figure.

There are few long-term research projects on terrestrial, aquatic and marine
ecosystem connections. Additional integrated studies addressing community
linkages to alpine ecosystems and their adaptations to change are needed.
Priority areas include understanding the impacts of cryosphere degradation on
water quality, terrestrial and aquatic species distribution and productivity, local
agricultural production, subsistence-related wildlife habitat and their respective

130 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
 relationships to water, food and health security. For example, concerns over the
productivity of medicinal plants and the sustainability of herding-based livelihoods are
pronounced in the HKH region, as the sensitivity of alpine environments and frequently
limited options for adaptation in such extreme environments has forced migration in
some circumstances (ICIMOD, 2023). Engagement with high mountain communities is
vital in this regard to map ecosystem interdependencies and vulnerabilities.

As the full implications of cryosphere changes in mountain regions are unknown,

the risk of crossing ecological and socio-economic sustainability thresholds is high
(IPCC, 2019). Mitigation and adaptation solutions are needed, although they may
not always be possible. Fundamental changes to human–environment relationships
may be necessary. For example, the disappearance of snow- and glacier-fed
streams has forced a Nepali community to relocate its entire village, as the water
necessary to sustain crop production and livestock disappeared (Rauniyar, 2024).
In this circumstance, mild adaptation and mitigation were not possible; the only true
‘solution’ was to fundamentally change the villagers’ relationship with the surrounding
environment. Fully integrated assessments of ecosystem impacts are needed to
better understand such linkages and vulnerabilities, as well as the short- and long-term
impacts on human health, social fabrics, cultures and livelihoods.

8.2 Engagement and meaningful collaboration with IPLCs, with their prior informed
Contributions of consent and the willingness to learn from stewardship of water systems evolved
over generations, will improve the collective ability to respond to changing mountain
Indigenous, gendered
cryospheric and downstream hydrological conditions. Women have traditionally been
and local knowledge marginalized in water management consultations, and IPLCs in mountain regions are
among the most affected and yet disproportionately overlooked populations when
it comes to political participation and resource allocation (Latchmore et al., 2018).
While IPLCs account for 6% of the global population, they constitute 15% of the world’s
poorest populations, and are disproportionately affected by climate events and related
water impacts (Tsosie, 2007; Amnesty International, n.d.; United Nations, n.d.).

IPLCs have long-standing connections to land and water in mountain regions,

which are deeply rooted in their cultural, spiritual and subsistence practices. These
connections are characterized by a profound understanding of and respect for the
Women have natural environment, where traditional knowledge systems have been developed
traditionally been over generations to manage and sustain ecosystems. For instance, in the Andes, the
marginalized Quechua and Aymara Peoples’ agricultural terraces and water management systems
are testament to their sophisticated adaptation to high-elevation environments.
in water
Similarly, in the Himalayas, IPLCs such as the Sherpa and Ladakhi maintain intricate
management relationships with their mountain homelands, where spiritual practices and daily
consultations livelihoods are tied intimately to the landscape.

This interconnectedness underscores the critical role that Indigenous stewardship

– especially that of Indigenous women, who are often water protectors – plays in
the preservation of mountain ecosystems and the sustainable use of their resources
(Kelkar and Tshering, 2002; Cave and McKay, 2016). The cultural and spiritual
significance of these regions often transcends practical uses, encompassing a holistic
world-view that sees land and water as integral to identity and well-being.

IPLCs in mountain regions have intimate connections with the land that can, and
should, be brought to bear on what is needed to achieve sustainable development.
While all IPLCs are different, interconnectivity between water, land and humans is a

Knowledge- and capacity-building 131

 cornerstone of many of their world-views, unlike those of Western science, which typically
consider them through the lens of natural resources, biophysical assets or commodities,
often in a segregated manner. The absence of a holistic world-view in Western science
fundamentally opposes relationships between IPLCs and the natural environment. This is
an area where Western ways of knowing can learn from IPLCs, especially given the need for
more holistic approaches to achieve sustainable and equitable development.

Box 8.2 Co-developing a strategy for Indigenous Peoples and local community (IPLC) water research

Global Water Futures is a pan-Canadian research programme designed with IPLC water experts and
knowledge keepers. Research project and proposal evaluation criteria were designed jointly by academic and
Indigenous knowledge keepers – a process that ultimately identified priority themes for research projects
according to IPLC values.

Key areas included: capacity-building in monitoring and data acquisition to facilitate citizen science; support
for data-sharing and computer apps; improving understanding of environmental needs and flows; and
recognition of the overlaps and differences between Western and IPLC approaches to science and knowledge
(GWF, n.d.). Based on experiences presented at a workshop, a request for proposals was developed, and
the Indigenous co-led proposals were peer reviewed by IPLC knowledge holders. The resulting projects
addressed IPLC water concerns and were presented at the United Nations 2023 Conference on the Midterm
Comprehensive Review of Implementation of the Objectives of the International Decade for Action, “Water for
Sustainable Development”, 2018–2028.

Building on this process, Indigenous representatives from across the research network were brought together
to share their perspectives on collaborative water research. Titled Everyone Together, the 2023 statement
began by reaffirming: “We have a responsibility to design research as stewards of our land, waters, and peoples”
(GWF, 2023, p. 2). The statement further identified an ethical space in which community wellness is a primary
objective, research observes and abides by local protocols, knowledge is supported and funded equitably,
and intellectual property remains in communities. This collaborative approach included and is applicable to
mountain water environments.

The Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services

assessed the diverse nature of world-views and value systems (IPBES, 2022). In addition,
Chapter 6 of the 2024 edition of The United Nations World Water Development Report
provided an example of the implications for water (United Nations, 2024). These approaches
contrast with Western frameworks that have often rendered policy targets or objectives
misaligned with the needs and values of the communities on the ground, such as by
prioritizing one or two ‘representative indicators’ according to downstream economic, energy
or urban needs (Latchmore et al., 2018). Co-developing research projects (Box 8.2) can
reduce these gaps and ensure they are contextually relevant and IPLC led.

IPLCs in mountain regions can provide deep and well-informed long-term perspectives on the
impacts of cryosphere changes and their consequences. The collective knowledge of IPLCs
represents an overlooked and important resource, especially in under-researched and data-
sparse regions.

In High Mountain Asia, scientific literature on snow and ice avalanches is limited. However,
local awareness of cryosphere-related hazards is well known to affected communities and
has been translated intergenerationally (Acharya et al., 2023). In Nepal, some Buddhist-
sacred walls stand in locations that have historically been avalanche runout zones – a hazard

132 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
 that has been particularly dangerous for yak-herding populations in the area (Emerman et al.,
2016; Acharya et al., 2023). The walls represent reminders not to cross or build structures
in the paths, as these are where deities have expressed their wrath through natural hazards.
These cultural forms of knowing have been passed through generations, but are not typically
captured or recognized in Western science.

8.3 8.3.1 Institutional needs and human capacity development

Enhancing capacity Political boundaries rarely coincide with river basin drainage divides. This makes
mountain river basin management jurisdictionally complex and dependent on cooperation,
communication and data-sharing across various political units, including transboundary
settings (e.g. between municipal districts, subnational regions and countries). A given river
basin may not cover the same spatial extent as underlying groundwater aquifers or overlying
icefields, which adds another layer of governance complexity when it comes to ensuring
water access.

The management of water resources may also be fragmented within political units, as
various sectors and authorities interact with water in different manners. Water used for
drinking water, sanitation and hygiene may fall under a public health jurisdiction, whereas
water used for irrigation may fall under institutions responsible for agriculture, and water
Technical used for hydropower may fall under economic development, despite the possibility that these
expertise is sectors all draw water from the same source.

the necessary Managing the diversity and complexity of water resources therefore requires inputs
foundation upon from a range of disciplines and actors. Improving the institutional capacity to address
which agencies these challenges requires cross-cutting training programmes, including basic education
and services in the across mountain-relevant physical and social sciences. Transdisciplinarity must also be
complemented by integrative capacity – the ability to use different types and sources of data
decision-making
and opinions that are discipline specific and potentially contradictory, and still choose a path
realm should aim forwards. To make such decisions in the face of conflicting priorities and resource scarcity –
to improve as is increasingly the case with water – requires substantial technical and integrative skills.
Technical expertise is the necessary foundation upon which agencies and services in the
decision-making realm should aim to improve the ‘soft skills’ needed to navigate trade-off
landscapes, including analytical, communication and problem-solving skills, the ability to
understand others’ perspectives and the ability to defend decisions.

Institutional capacity can encompass the time and resources necessary to bring diverse
people and perspectives together. The time requirements of these processes should
not be underestimated, nor should the willingness or ability to collaborate be assumed.
Collaborative governance models often imply trade-offs that, whereas advantageous to
society in the long term, may be undesirable to current beneficiaries from the status quo.
Establishing a clear, coherent vision for the future can be vital in the face of diverging
perspectives. Agreed-upon values can create an umbrella under which differing parties may
agree (e.g. ‘fresh water for all’). Although potentially laborious, meaningful engagement is a
foundation of sustainable policy and project development. Inclusive dialogue can reduce the
risk of unanticipated outcomes, empower marginalized groups and maintain decision-maker
accountability.

8.3.2 Citizen science and community engagement

Engaging the public in scientific processes has been proposed as a means of reducing
capacity gaps and encouraging awareness of and appreciation for the natural environment
(UNESCO, 2021). Citizen science refers to knowledge gathered and created scientifically by
members of the public (McDonough Mckenzie et al., 2017). Participation in citizen science

Knowledge- and capacity-building 133

 projects can provide valuable avenues for public engagement with the local environment,
improve scientific literacy and encourage research careers (Rigler et al., 2022). Citizen
science can also be a powerful mechanism for empowering youth and women by providing
work experience and leadership roles, as well as addressing community needs. In data-
sparse regions such as mountains, citizen science is of increasing interest as a means of
filling monitoring capacity gaps.

For citizen science projects to inform scientific processes, the methodology and
measurements must be sound and verifiable for consistency, accuracy and validity
(McDonough Mckenzie et al., 2017). Collaboration between research organizations and
community groups, where researchers develop the methods, education and training, is a
common approach to ensure this requirement is met (Rigler et al., 2022) (e.g. Box 8.3). In this
process, locals should provide input on project scope to ensure the knowledge outcomes
meet their community needs.

Box 8.3 Research Centre for Alpine Ecosystems (CREA)-Mont Blanc: A legacy of
citizen science in the Alps

CREA in France has been running citizen science programmes since 2004. Over
5,000 community members have participated in research programming across eight
citizen science projects, which have collectively amassed over 40,000 data points
(e.g. plant phenological characteristics such as budding/flowering dates and leaf colour
change). An online hub rates the projects based on skill level needed and includes
instructions and procedures for participants to follow. Findings are uploaded through
an online portal, managed by research professionals. For example, Phénoclim – CREA’s
flagship citizen science project – generates plant phenology data and has been used to
study climate impacts on alpine ecosystems (Bison et al., 2019).

Citizen science projects come in many forms. Common data points crowdsourced in
Citizen science mountain regions include wildlife tracking (Rueda-Uribe et al., 2024), plant identification
and phenology mapping (Bison et al., 2019) and streamflow observations (Etter et al., 2020;
can inform and Scheller et al., 2024). Web-based approaches for public participation, namely user-friendly
support local apps that allow participants to upload imagery and numbers into a monitored platform, are
decision-making of growing interest in remote or poorly monitored regions (Rigler et al., 2022). However, the
evaluation of data validity, as opposed to the use of data, remains the primary focus of citizen
science literature (McDonough Mckenzie et al., 2017; Strobl et al., 2020).

Validity concerns are the main obstacle to citizen science as a means to fill gaps.
For research and science applications, measurement standards such as those of the
International Organization for Standardization must be met, and consistency must be
verifiable. The publication of peer-reviewed datasets in citizen science projects would be
beneficial. However, this implies that some oversight and involvement by research and
monitoring institutions are necessary, thus subjecting citizen science to similar capacity and
resource limitations as traditional institutional approaches.

The value of citizen science should not be limited to research and monitoring. It can be a
valuable tool for outreach, education, and community engagement and literacy in scientific
disciplines and mountain environments. It can also inform and support local decision-making
(Etter et al., 2023).

134 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
 8.4 There are several steps between the generation of data and information products
Information- and their usability at the policy level. Information for decision-making purposes
often needs to be synthesized and communicated in terms of specific targets
sharing and
(e.g. statistical probabilities of extreme events, projected crop yields and economic
communication returns, or species distribution and health over time), whereas communications
targeting public audiences may instead focus on simple ‘big picture’ ideas that lack
specific details. Agencies (e.g. government, funding and research agencies) should
take care to distinguish between local versus global statistics, especially when it
comes to the mountain cryosphere as the complexity of mountain water resources is
often mischaracterized (see Box 2.2).

Generating relevant information from raw hydrometeorological data demands

substantial institutional capacity. Data points such as temperature, precipitation,
streamflow, glacier mass and soil moisture need to be manipulated and analysed
multiple times before they can be applied. For example: physical measurements
need to be uploaded into data repositories, then corrected and validated by
research technicians; raw datasets need to be input into databases and visualized
or modelled in order to be interpreted; the validity and usefulness of models must
be rigorously tested; and the calculation of risk and meaning of data trends over
time must be translated into an appropriate language for the target audience.
Each of these transformation steps has certain capacity needs, ranging from
technical capacity to interpret data, financial resources to maintain historical data
inventories, communicative skills to translate information into policy needs and
user-friendly language, and human resources to facilitate linkages across each step
(Schuster-Wallace et al., 2015).

One line of data or one analytical angle will rarely be sufficient to inform policy
decisions. This implies the additional need for decision-making bodies to possess
One line of data
integrative capacity – the ability to consider the needs and inputs of multiple sectors
or one analytical simultaneously (Section 8.3.1). The roles of hydrological and hydrometeorological
angle will rarely agencies are primarily in providing information on the status of the climate, extremes
be sufficient to and water resources trends to aid in risk management (WMO, 2020). However,
the diversity of water resources uses and demands means that traditional water
inform policy
management projects must also consider for example additional, non-hydrological
decisions data such as socio-economic, ecosystem dynamics, political structures governing
water rights and transboundary arrangements, and accessibility divides across,
gender, age, ethnicity and class (WMO, 2009; Rowe and Schuster-Wallace, 2023).

A variety of information types is therefore needed simultaneously for sound decision-

making. The different types must be made available or communicated in a manner
that allows cross- and inter-sectoral projects to react and adapt appropriately to the
actions of others. This can challenge assessment agencies who need to consider
a diversity of water users and data formats, requiring wider skillsets and training,
technical expertise among staff, and the need for continual reviews of data-collection
scopes and processes.

The cross-cutting nature of water resources and mountain ecosystems can

challenge the responsibility for data management and the provision of operational
services. Institutional capacity for data interpretation and decision-making may face
responsibility barriers, in that without explicit mandates or policies to address high
mountain regions and make cross-sectoral considerations, ecosystem, human and
hydrometeorological considerations may be siloed. Adopting integrative management
into policy frameworks and legislation may be necessary to ensure holistic
approaches to the challenges, and also the institutionalizing of interbasin cooperation
through transboundary agreements.

Knowledge- and capacity-building 135

 Information-sharing networks (e.g. Box 8.1), cross-sectoral collaborations and stakeholder
engagement can be powerful tools to reduce integrative capacity gaps and create
sustainable outcomes. Inclusive dialogue creates opportunities for other considerations to
be raised. Local participation in decision-making processes can be imperative for the long-
term viability of policies and projects. Distrust or bias, for example against foreign or colonial
institutions, can hinder local project uptake (Box 8.4).

Box 8.4 Beyond technical capacity: The importance of trust in project success

Laguna 513 in the Cordillera Blanca of the Peruvian Andes is a lake formed in the 1960s following glacial
recession. It has been the source of repeated glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs; see Section 2.2.3)
since then (Huggel et al., 2020). After a GLOF in 2010 damaged municipal infrastructure and agricultural
land downslope of the lake, local and national authorities, with help from international experts and
organizations, quickly developed a GLOF early warning system (EWS) to protect inhabitants from future
events. However, five years after the EWS implementation, in 2016, a group of locals dismantled the
monitoring instrumentation at Laguna 513. Extreme drought conditions had fostered rumours that
the technical equipment was somehow contributing to the lack of rainfall, and the mix of distrust and
desperation drove locals to act.

From a capacity-building standpoint, an important takeaway from the Laguna 513 event is that despite the
operational triumph of the EWS, the social context became a determining factor in its overall success. The
case of Laguna 513 is not isolated; cases of local interference with foreign-operated projects have been
observed elsewhere in Peru, the Himalayas, the Andes and the Alps. As important as project development
and technical capacity is, at the end of the day, acceptance and understanding by relevant communities is
needed for solutions to have a lasting impact (Huggel et al., 2020).

These situations serve as a reminder that even technical approaches should be embedded
within social, political and cultural contexts, and that the effectiveness of data-driven
systems are subject to local buy-in. Without inclusive project design – including the
communication and education of research intent and anticipated outcomes – sustainability
cannot be achieved (Huggel et al., 2020). As summarized in the 2022 Dushanbe Declaration
from the High-Level Panel on improving knowledge, education and communication, there
needs to be continued investment in community engagement, innovative communication
mechanisms, solution and data repositories, research for impact, and enhanced capacity
and awareness across sectors and institutions (Second High-Level Conference on the
International Decade for Action “Water for Sustainable Development” 2018–2028, 2022).

8.5 Addressing the impacts of changes in the mountain cryosphere depends strongly on
Conclusions observations, knowledge and capacity in mountain regions and also downstream. The
sparseness of high-elevation hydrometeorological, cryospheric and ecological observations
impairs the validation and representativeness of models in high mountain environments. This
is a major impediment to developing solutions to the impacts of cryospheric changes.

Improving the capacity of monitoring services to generate basic hydrometeorological data and
conduct localized analyses to improve model accuracy must be a priority. Abundant, reliable
data are fundamental to sound decision-making. Information- and data-sharing networks at
national and regional scales (e.g. Regional Climate Centres that facilitate long-term monitoring
programmes and lead the production and dissemination of products and services), as well as
citizen science, offer means of reducing data gaps (WMO, 2024).

136 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
 Integration of observation, modelling and service strategies may help overcome
impediments to development in mountain basins. Improvements in technical capacity must
also be complemented with investments in human capacity. Transdisciplinary education and
communication training within decision-making institutions relevant to mountain regions and
downstream areas are particularly important in this respect. IPLCs should also be included in
decision-making processes, and their different knowledge systems respected.

The need for, and interest in, addressing mountain cryosphere changes is urgent, but to do
so, everyone needs to work together, across governance and societal boundaries.

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snow redistribution, sublimation, firnification and energy balance practices-volume-i?offset=6.
ablation algorithms. Journal of Hydrology, Vol. 608, Article 127545.
doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2022.127545. ——. 2024. Inaugural Session of the Third Pole Climate Forum (TPCF 1) and
Meeting of Third Pole Regional Climate Centre Network (TPRCC-Network)
Rauniyar, T. 2024. The drought that forced a Himalayan village in Task Team. WMO website. https://community.wmo.int/en/en/activity-
Nepal to relocate. BBC News, 23 May 2024. www.bbc.com/future/ areas/climate/meetings/inaugural-session-third-pole-climate-forum-tpcf-
article/20240522-the-drought-that-forced-a-himalayan-village-in-nepal- 1-and-meeting-third-pole-regional-climate-centre-network-tprcc-network-
to-relocate. task-team.

138 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
Chapter 9

Governance
and finance

UNESCO WWAP
Matthew England and Richard Connor

With contributions from: Ansgar Fellendorf (UNEP)

 Water governance relates to the management of water, including policies, institutions and
decision-making processes for water use and conservation.20 Mountain water governance
has developed in unique manners over time, and is context specific to each mountain range.
The role of water governance in mountains has not received as much attention as in lower-
lying lands, on which there has been a large amount of work, such as through integrated
water resources management (Molden et al., 2013).

Mountain water governance requires attention in the context of the increasing competition
The role of water for water, the changing dynamics of climate and related impacts, and other global challenges.
The growing pressures on water resources from socio-economic development, combined
governance in
with shifts in seasonal water availability from the warm to the cold season, increase the
mountains has not complexity of water governance. Further understanding and collaboration is required at
received as much a range of levels and scales – within the mountains and also downstream – to address
attention as in complex governance challenges and socio-ecological systems. Within present discourse
and practice, mountain water governance often equates to source protection and watershed
lower-lying lands
management, and how it will affect and benefit downstream users in the lowlands.

This chapter first overviews mountain water governance through international agreements
and policy frameworks. Next, it examines regional conventions for transboundary river
basin cooperation, as many rivers originate in mountains and cross international borders.
An overview is then presented on national-level policy and implementation, relating to
development interests and how communities manage their waters. Finally, financial aspects
of mountain water governance are explored.

9.1 International policy frameworks offer promising support to water governance and adaptation
Mountain water to climate-related changes in the mountains, while addressing sustainable development.
Evidence suggests that treaties and conventions are relevant enablers to promote
governance at the
cooperation and implementation at the mountain region scale (Dinar et al., 2016). However,
international level globally, there is limited evidence to systematically assess their effectiveness in addressing
specific challenges posed by changes in the mountain cryosphere (Hock et al., 2019).

Several agreements characterize the historical development of international mountain

frameworks. The importance of mountains was formally recognized internationally at the
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in 1992. Chapter 13 of the
Agenda 21 Action Plan was dedicated to sustainable mountain development (UNCED, 1992).
It stressed: the importance of mountain environments at global, regional and local levels;
protecting natural resources including water; enhancing the livelihoods of communities and
Indigenous Peoples; and promoting international cooperation on mountains. By endorsing
Chapter 13 at the highest political level, including over 178 United Nations Member States,
the international community for the first time formally signalled its common concern and
plan of action (Romeo et al., 2022).

A decade later, the United Nations declared 2002 as the International Year of Mountains. The
outcome document of the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, titled
The Future We Want, recognized that “Mountain ecosystems play a crucial role in providing
water resources to a large portion of the world’s population” (General Assembly of the United
Nations, 2012, p. 41).

20
The special report on The Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate refers to governance as an “effort to establish,
reaffirm or change formal and informal institutions at all scales to negotiate relationships, resolve social conflicts and
realise mutual gains” (IPCC, 2019, p. 687).

140 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
 In 2008, the General Assembly of the United Nations adopted Resolution 62/196 on
sustainable mountain development. It recognized that mountains provide indications of
climate change, through the retreat of glaciers and changes in seasonal runoff that may
affect sources of fresh water. Challenges to sustainable mountain development were
identified, including growing water demand (notably downstream) and the consequences of
erosion, deforestation, watershed degradation and disasters. The resolution emphasized the
importance of mountains as headwaters and sources of water for often densely populated
downstream areas (General Assembly of the United Nations, 2008).

More recently, the General Assembly of the United Nations declared 2022 as the International
Year of Sustainable Mountain Development, proposed by the Government of Kyrgyzstan and
International
sponsored by 94 countries.
policy frameworks
offer promising Mountain waters have also received attention from other international frameworks, such
support to water as the Paris Agreement (UNFCCC, 2015) and the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk
Reduction 2015–2030 (General Assembly of the United Nations, 2015a). These frameworks
governance and
highlighted the importance of monitoring and reporting on targets and indicators relevant
adaptation to for water governance.
climate-related
changes in the The Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International
Lakes (Water Convention) provides a unique global legal and intergovernmental platform
mountains for transboundary cooperation in water management, and can be instrumental for mountain
sustainable management and conservation. The Convention obliges and helps countries
to develop and implement transboundary agreements and to set up joint bodies for
transboundary cooperation covering also mountain regions. Moreover, the Convention
ensures a source-to-sea approach where the basin from upstream to downstream is
managed as a holistic system.

The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (General Assembly of the United
Nations, 2015b) may offer additional prospects to strengthen water governance under a
changing cryosphere, given that monitoring and reporting on key water-related targets
and indicators, and their interaction across other SDGs, include the provision of water as
a condition for development. However, there has been limited evidence to assess their
effectiveness on an evidentiary basis (Hock et al., 2019).

9.2 Most large rivers originate in mountain areas and often cross international borders.
Regional mountain Transboundary water governance, based on a ‘basin-level view’ that considers mountain
waters, can provide benefits to riparian countries. Regional cooperation among countries,
water governance
including river basin governance initiatives, is an important mechanism for advancing climate
adaptation in mountains (Molden et al., 2013; Mishra et al., 2019). Treaties or agreements
can: enhance riparian cooperation through increased monitoring and data generation to
address the chronic lack of data in mountain regions; help identify and resolve gaps in human
and institutional technical capacity; establish joint management committees; promote
information-sharing; and promote and foster dialogue and diplomacy between riparians
(Adler et al., 2022).

Research on regional mountain governance initiatives has identified some components

relevant to mountain waters (Box 9.1). While initial agreements between riparians are
often insufficient or too general to induce sustained cooperation, such agreements create
the groundwork for additional treaties that do elicit increased cooperation21 (e.g. those

21
Customary international law and general principles also govern the uses of transboundary waters, which can be
beneficial for facilitating cooperation.

Governance and finance 141

 that are more specific and targeted at a given problem in the basin). Climatic-induced
increasing hydrological variability drives countries to exhibit cooperative behaviour, notably
at the operational scale (e.g. water management from shared infrastructure between
riparians). However, once hydrological variability increases beyond a certain threshold,
cooperative behaviour can be negatively affected (Dinar et al., 2016). Conflict between
national interests within transboundary water agreements, as well as the effectiveness of
Conflict between institutions to navigate coordination within local context, have hindered effective cooperation
(Kliot et al., 2001; Hayat et al., 2022).
national
interests within The following three regional agreements provide examples of transboundary water
transboundary cooperation in the mountains.
water agreements,
The Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) mountain range extends over 3,500 km, and is shared
as well as the by eight countries (Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal and
effectiveness Pakistan). The mountains are the source of ten major river basins. The region is home to
of institutions 240 million people, and an estimated 1.65 billion people downstream depend on mountain
to navigate waters for drinking water and sanitation, food (irrigation), energy (hydropower) and
ecosystem services (habitats, environmental flows and rich cultural values). Glacier- and
coordination snow-melt are important components of streamflow, with their relative contributions
within local increasing with elevation and proximity to glacier and snow reserves. Groundwater from
context, have springs in the mid-hills of the HKH region is also an important contributor to river baseflow
hindered effective (Wester et al., 2019).

cooperation In the HKH region, effective transboundary cooperation to improve water governance is
lacking. The focus of intergovernmental initiatives has been on (national-level) political and
economic interests, rather than social and environmental well-being at the regional scale.
Water governance is characterized by hybrid formal–informal regimes with a prevalence of
informal institutions at the local level and formal state institutions at national and regional
levels. Synergy and support between state and informal water management institutions
is often lacking. Gender inequalities are prevalent in institutions, translating into unequal
access to water. At the regional level, data-sharing and improved cooperation on water
sharing are often impeded by lack of trust. Data- and information-sharing are crucial
steps for transboundary disaster risk reduction, such as for glacial lake outburst floods
(see Section 2.2.3) and river floods. Mistrust between riparians limits benefit-sharing in water
and its related services like irrigation, energy and navigation (Wester et al., 2019).

Box 9.1 Components of regional mountain governance initiatives

Key features of regional mountain governance initiatives include:

• Territoriality: spatial scope of the initiative, in terms of members’ jurisdictions and the spatial ambit of the arrangements.

• Institutional formality: degree of justification, or informality, and means of enforcement.

• Sectoral integration: number of sectors and institutional mechanisms linking them.

• Vertical coordination: diversity and nature of involvement by governmental actors at different levels, as well as acceptance
of and mechanisms for applying subsidiarity.

• Civil society participation: degree and nature of involvement of non-governmental organizations and the private sector.

• Science–policy interface: nature of institutional mechanisms for bilateral exchange between policymakers and scientists.

• Funding arrangements: assessment of funding sources and outlays, to the extent that information is available.

• Climate change related ecosystem-based adaptation, including for water.

Source: Extracted from Balsiger et al. (2020, pp. 5–6).

142 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
 Critical components to enhance water governance and transboundary cooperation have
been identified for the HKH region (see Section 7.4). These include: the need for formal
frameworks as a foundation for regional cooperation; the importance of knowledge-sharing
platforms to facilitate regional cooperation; and the need for an appropriate mechanism to
manage conflicts and equitably distribute benefits (Wester et al., 2019).

While river basin (local) transboundary cooperation has a long history in the HKH region,
mountain range-wide governance is a recent phenomenon (Box 9.2). The language of
transboundary cooperation is somewhat plagued by political and territorial agendas and
interests. It can be considered more favourable to pursue riparian cooperation framed as
regional cooperation within mountain ranges.

Box 9.2 Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) High-Level Task Force

In a progressive move to strengthen mountain range-wide governance, the eight HKH countries created the HKH
High-Level Task Force, to follow up on earlier recommendations by the HKH Call to Action (ICIMOD, 2020). The
countries approved the High-Level Task Force during the first HKH Ministerial Mountain Summit in 2020. The meeting
of ministers from across the eight countries signed an historically significant declaration agreeing to strengthen
regional cooperation in the HKH region. Senior government officials now collaborate in the HKH High-Level Task
Force, to monitor progress on the HKH Call to Action and to assess the potential for institutional mechanisms to
strengthen regional cooperation.

The HKH Call to Action provides a road map for the future of the region, framed around six actions:

1. Cooperate at all levels across the HKH region for sustainable and mutual benefits.

2. Recognize and prioritize the uniqueness of the HKH mountain people.

3. Take concerted climate action at all levels to keep global warming to 1.5°C by 2100.

4. Take accelerated actions to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals and nine mountain priorities.

5. Enhance ecosystem resilience; halt biodiversity loss and land degradation.

6. Regional data- and information-sharing, and science and knowledge cooperation.

Transboundary water cooperation and governance is addressed in the Call to Action.

For example, Action 5 calls on the HKH countries to implement programmes on freshwater ecosystems, including the
cryosphere and watersheds, to sustain water quality and flows in the rivers of the HKH region by adopting river basin
management at the transboundary scale. The HKH countries need to integrate freshwater and aquatic ecosystems
into national and subnational policies and strategies. This includes environmental and social impact assessments
in development projects such as for hydropower, dams and roads. It also advocates incentivizing payments for
ecosystem services for people who protect catchment areas of hydropower stations, and for drinking water supply
and tourism.

And Action 6 calls for data generation and sharing on climate variables, including for water, energy and food security,
biodiversity and mountain poverty. It proactively promotes riparian cooperation in open data-sharing for public goods
and services.

Sources: Adapted from ICIMOD (2020) and Adaptation at Altitude (n.d.).

Governance and finance 143

 The Alpine Convention (see Section 7.2.1) is an international treaty to address transboundary
cooperation in the Alps, signed in 1991, with a permanent secretariat and governing body
(Romeo et al., 2022). The convention includes Austria, France, Germany, Italy, Liechtenstein,
Monaco, Slovenia, Switzerland and the European Union. It is one of only two legally binding
mountain treaties, along with the Carpathian Convention (Balsiger et al., 2020). It identifies
12 areas through eight legally binding protocols.22 Yet there is no water protocol, with water
management being a cross-cutting dimension (Balsiger, 2007; Lackner and Psenner, 2007).
The management Water management is under the legal jurisdiction of national governments. The Alpine
of mountain Convention Secretariat aids member countries by developing guidelines on topics such as
climate change impacts on water resources in the Alps (Permanent Secretariat of the Alpine
waters takes place
Convention, 2014). The convention has provided opportunities for accelerating adaptation
primarily within measures through mainstreaming riparian policy responses, promoting partnership building
country borders, and networking (Balsiger, 2007).
through national
The Carpathian Convention was established in 2003 to protect the second-largest mountain
legislation, policy
range in Europe (see Section 7.2.2). It includes Czechia, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Serbia,
and strategies Slovakia and Ukraine (Secretariat of the Carpathian Convention, 2020). It is the only multilevel
governance mechanism for the entire Carpathian area, providing a framework for cooperation
and multisectoral policy coordination, a platform for joint strategies for sustainable
development and a forum for dialogue among all stakeholders involved (Climate-ADAPT,
n.d.). The United Nations Environment Programme hosts the Secretariat of the Carpathian
Convention. The Carpathian Convention’s working group includes a long-term vision to
adapt to climate change. Article 6 of the convention focuses on sustainable and integrated
river basin management. There is also a working group on adaptation that mentions the
vulnerability of water and ecosystems to climate change and adaptation in its mandate.

9.3 The management of mountain waters takes place primarily within country borders, through
National and local national legislation, policy and strategies. Policy formulation and implementation take place
within a country’s political economic context. In some cases, national policies for water,
mountain water
agriculture, industry and energy are developed to favour low-lying regions of river basins,
governance for instance, to serve more populous areas. National policies may often not fully reflect water
sectoral issues within the mountains; rather, they tend to focus on mountains as sources for
downstream users.

Recommendations by international frameworks and transboundary agreements provide

guidance for national policy development and strategies. Several considerations and
approaches are universally recommended to improve mountain water governance. These
include: strengthening collaboration and increasing monitoring including data collection
and sharing; engaging with diverse Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge; promoting
gender equality; prioritizing inclusive development and climate adaptation approaches to
reduce mountain poverty; and establishing conflict resolution platforms/mechanisms and
benefit-sharing arrangements between riparians (Adler et al., 2022).

Evidence from the HKH region highlights that policy implementation in countries will
improve only if national governments recognize the multisectoral and cross-scalar nature
of water governance. Implementation depends on the engagement of various stakeholders,
including Indigenous communities and women, and engaging with local knowledge. There is
a need for facilitating upstream and downstream interactions for improving landscape-level
governance. Strengthening community participation and decentralization, promoting multi-
stakeholder development and addressing implementation challenges are recommended at

22
Spatial planning and sustainable development, Mountain farming, Nature protection and landscape conservation,
Mountain forests, Tourism, Energy, Soil conservation and Transport.

144 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
 the national level. Governments need to create regulatory frameworks and local institutional
arrangements to enable the expansion of successful initiatives to empower community
action and inspire community–government partnerships (Wester et al., 2019).

Mountain regions could accrue substantial benefits if governance were to prioritize more
inclusive development and adaptation approaches. These include respectful engagement
with the diverse Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge systems in the mountains, and
a sustained effort to tackle the root causes of vulnerability. This would require: improved
coordination and monitoring activities; more inclusive decision-making mechanisms
including for small-scale farmers, women, Indigenous systems and youth groups; and a
substantial increase in funding for sustainable mountain development. These key governance
enablers are an important response to the challenges facing mountain regions, especially in
relation to mountain waters.

Glacier protection laws

Only a few countries have laws specifically dedicated to the protection or preservation of
glaciers. Argentina’s Glacier National Glacier Act (see Section 7.3.1), aimed at prohibiting
mining in glacier and permafrost areas, was approved in 2010 and upheld by Argentina’s
Supreme Court in 2018 (Taillant, 2019). In 2024, Tajikistan passed a law outlining the
legal, economic and organizational basis for the protection of glaciers as objects of the
environment and strategic sources of water resources (Republic of Tajikistan, 2024). Other
countries such as Chile (see Box 5.1) and Kyrgyzstan have proposed similar laws identifying
glaciers as protected areas (Iribarren Anacona et al., 2018).

As glaciers are dynamic systems, such legal frameworks can be complex and difficult to
adopt and enforce. They may include considerations with regard to water supply and quality,
and preventive or emergency measures to address glacial hazards, while balancing different
views and needs in order to avoid social, environmental and economic conflicts.

9.4 While some of the goods and services provided by mountain environments – such as timber,
Valuation and finance hydropower and minerals – may have a measurable economic value (e.g. extraction costs
versus profits), environmental benefits and values are much more difficult to monetize –
clean water, air and biodiversity are classic examples. Furthermore, mountain resources are
themselves inherently complex and interrelated, so they constitute a joint product rather than
a single one.

Examining losses and damages caused by natural hazards also provides some insight into
the overall value of mountain regions (Box 9.3).
National
governments are
Financial resources availability
important sources
National governments are important sources of investment, usually through sectoral
of investment, instruments such as agriculture and water policy. Different territorial cooperation
usually through programmes with some ‘mountain component’ can also provide funding. In developing
sectoral countries, bilateral and multilateral donors may provide some additional funding (Balsiger
instruments such et al., 2020).

as agriculture and Adaptation finance and private sector inclusion and contribution are key enablers for
water policy achieving the adaptation potential in mountains (Mishra et al., 2019; UNEP, 2023). While
substantial funding is potentially available for investment in sustainable development
in mountain regions, access to major support programmes has been relatively limited.
This indicates a significant response option is underutilized (McDowell et al., 2020). More
specifically, innovative and affordable international, regional, national and local funds

Governance and finance 145

 should be mobilized to support water, agriculture and energy planning and infrastructure
investments. Enhanced uptake of available support and funding could help to ease the
burden for mountain communities and countries, for which the capacity and ability of
actors to identify, access and mobilize resources need strengthening. Some enabling
factors have been identified to encourage financial investment in the mountains (Box 9.4)
(Wymann von Dach et al., 2016).

Box 9.3 Economic losses from natural hazards in mountains

Between 1985 and 2014, reported economic damage costs in mountain regions from flood and mass movements (including
those not directly linked to the cryosphere) were highest in the Hindu Kush Himalaya region (US$45 billion), followed by the
European Alps (US$7 billion) and the Andes (US$3 billion) (Stäubli et al., 2018). In Peru, the cost of glacier shrinkage for the
energy sector has been estimated at US$740 million annually, with an overall reduction of 11–15% in electricity production
(Vergara et al., 2007). Similarly, Switzerland, which uses hydropower to generate over half of the country’s energy, was
projected to lose about 21% of its annual inflow in the 2031–2050 period compared with 1991–2010, and a further reduction
in hydropower potential due to cryosphere shrinkages was expected (Gaudard et al., 2013).

Records on monetary damage often include only the value of destroyed infrastructure, and do not assess agricultural land
values (Muhammad et al., 2021), or long-term damage to the road, health or education infrastructures (Shrestha et al., 2023).
Heightened risks of climate hazards combined with changing meltwater supplies have hardest hit Indigenous Peoples and
local mountain communities who rely on glacier- and snow-melt to sustain their livelihoods. These communities often endure
non-economic or intangible loss and damage, such as loss of cultural heritage and sacred landscapes, which also threatens
their capacity to adapt (Adler et al., 2022).

Source: Adapted from UNEP (2023).

Box 9.4 Factors encouraging financial investment in mountains

• An enabling national environment. This includes a national policy for mountain regions, linked to overall national
development policy, that can encourage and coordinate public investment.

• Security is a precondition for investment. This relates to political stability, as well as trusted leadership, rule of law, and
secure access to resources such as land, credit, savings and insurance, for local, national and international investors.

• Investment should preferably be decentralized, with a focus on small and medium enterprises. Reasons are the dispersed
settlement, dissected topography and low population density in many mountains compared with lowlands. Small- and
medium-sized towns present opportunities for implementing these investment principles.

• Political and fiscal decentralization is important to take account of the great diversity, often over short distances, in
environment, society and culture. It entails devolving power, competence and funding to subnational and local bodies.

• Transboundary collaboration creates opportunities for investment, as mountain regions often straddle national boundaries.
These include investing in transit infrastructure, transboundary water management infrastructure and disaster risk reduction
strategies. Transboundary river basin organizations and basin authorities could facilitate or host riparian states’ joint
investment planning, thereby streamlining efficient innovative blended finance mechanisms.

• Knowledge and research. Local and scientific knowledge and capacity development are important for tailoring investment
to specific natural and cultural conditions. Monitoring the outcomes of investment is important for illustrating the benefits
for mountain communities and ecosystems as well as for investors, and thus for attracting more investment in sustainable
mountain development in the future.

Source: Adapted from Wymann von Dach et al. (2016, p. 67).

146 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
 Development in mountains is generally more costly and difficult than in lowlands due to the
rugged terrain and poor accessibility, restrictions on economies of scale, long distance from
seaports and economic centres, and poorly developed industrial and service sectors. Costs
related to transport, infrastructure, goods and services increase with elevation and isolation.
This needs to be considered in policy and financing, with calls for mountain-specific policies
and programmes in national and global development plans.

While the importance of ecosystem services (see Chapter 6) provided by mountains is

widely acknowledged, mountain people who contribute to sustaining these resources are
Development
seldom compensated. Policies and investments will be more sustainable if they promote
in mountains is the equitable sharing of benefits from the development of mountain waters with mountain
generally more people. Mountain waters provide ample scope for the development of investment and
costly and difficult compensation mechanisms for safeguarding mountain ecosystems, as well as for improving
mountain livelihoods. This could be, for instance, through participatory funding for watershed
than in lowlands
management and direct benefit-sharing (e.g. of hydropower income streams with people
living in the vicinity of the power plants).

Upland–lowland production linkages and trade terms tend to be asymmetrical, favouring

the lowlands, with extractive industries such as mining, hydropower generation and timber
harvesting tending to be of little benefit to mountain people. Focusing on joint investment
plans that cover multiple sectors – such as energy, agriculture, fisheries, drinking water,
transport and ecosystem services – can provide interesting risk–return profiles. Integrated
joint investment plans can also help reduce the likelihood of conflict by creating a common
understanding of sectoral, political and generational interests based on current and future
water availability, offering interesting risk reduction properties for investors (UNCDF, 2021).

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doi.org/10.53055/ICIMOD.1. and version-controlled database of glacial lake outburst floods in High
Mountain Asia. Earth System Science Data, Vol. 15, No. 9, pp. 3941–3961.
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[Weyer, N. M. (ed.)]. H.-O. Pörtner, D. C. Roberts, V. Masson-Delmotte, P.
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148 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
Chapter 10

Conclusions

UNESCO WWAP
Richard Connor
 Why mountains Covering nearly one-quarter of the global land surface, mountains provide
matter to everyone 55–60% of the world’s annual freshwater flows. As the ‘water towers’ of the
world, they are a vital source of fresh water for billions of people – in the
mountains and downstream. They also supply other essential, and often
unique, natural resources, goods and services used worldwide. Despite their
fundamental importance, mountain regions generally receive much less
attention than other parts of the world, and are largely absent from global
policy agendas. Lying at the intersection of the water–climate–biodiversity
crises, their critical role in sustainable development cannot be ignored.

The main economic activities in mountain regions are agriculture,

pastoralism, forestry, tourism, mining, cross-border trade and energy
production. Mountains provide high-value products such as medicinal
plants, timber and other forest products, unique mountain livestock and
speciality agriculture products. They are global hotspots of agrobiodiversity,
with a large fraction of the world’s gene pools for agriculture and medicinal
plants preserved in mountains.

As a result of climate change, mountain regions are warming rapidly, which

affects their comportment in the water cycle in unprecedented and, in many
Mountain
cases, unpredictable ways. Although the accelerating rate at which alpine
regions generally glaciers are melting has received considerable and well-deserved attention,
receive much less the seasonal snowpack, rather than glaciers, is the primary source of
attention than runoff in most high mountain areas. However, the relative importance
and contributions of melting snow, ice and frozen ground to downstream
other parts of the
water resources availability and quality are often poorly understood and
world, and are mischaracterized (see Chapter 2).
largely absent
from global policy The consequences of climate change, including higher temperatures,
glacial recession, permafrost thaw and changing precipitation patterns,
agendas
can increase the risks of natural hazards such as landslides, floods and
debris flows. The total area and number of glacial lakes have increased
significantly since the 1990s as glaciers have receded. More of these lakes
will develop over the next decades, creating new hotspots of potentially
dangerous glacial lake outburst floods.

Unsustainable land-use practices, from deforestation to the rapid expansion

of towns and cities, and pollution from human activities such as mining,
threaten the hydrological balance of these fragile regions, their ecosystems,
and the life and livelihoods they support from source to sea.

Over 1 billion people (around 15% of the world’s population) reside in

mountain regions, most (90%) of whom live in developing countries. About
two-thirds of the global mountain population live in towns and cities. The
difficult terrain, increased exposure to natural hazards and higher costs
in mountain regions make it more challenging to develop and maintain
water supply and drainage networks, water treatment plants and source
protection in these rapidly urbanizing areas (see Chapter 4).

Up to one-half of rural mountain dwellers in developing countries suffer

from food insecurity, with women and children being most at risk
(see Chapter 3). Factors contributing to food insecurity include remoteness
and inaccessibility (e.g. distance from roads and food markets), limited
growing seasons, large variations in seasonal water supply for agriculture
and low levels of mechanization.

150 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
 Water-dependent industries have developed in mountain areas where water and
other resources are found in relative abundance (see Chapter 5). In addition to
energy production (e.g. for hydropower), water is also required to extract and
process minerals, produce timber and develop tourism. Remote mountain areas can
be difficult to regulate, resulting in uncontrolled water withdrawals and discharges,
including industrial pollutants that can affect water quality for mountain and
downstream communities.

Water-related ecosystem services provided by mountains include water storage and

flood regulation, and protection against erosion and landslides. Mountains feature
a diverse range of ecological zones and often have higher endemic biodiversity
than lowlands, including important genetic varieties of agricultural crops and
animals (see Chapter 6). Hydrological changes will determine how most mountain
ecosystems change, more so than the direct impacts of changes in temperature.

Responses: Water plays a fundamental role in climate change adaptation in mountains. Most
Moving forwards documented adaptation efforts in mountain regions address water-related aspects
(e.g. precipitation variability and extremes, including drought, flooding and water
availability) through measures such as developing early warning systems. Water
also plays a role in adaptation in other sectors, such as agriculture, disaster risk
reduction, and tourism and recreation.

As some 30% of the world’s forests are located in mountain regions, the potential
for carbon storage and sequestration is substantial. However, with the exception
of forest protection and reafforestation for carbon storage, opportunities for
climate change mitigation, including through land use and land-use change, are
often limited.

Water conservation efforts in mountain regions, including restoration and

Evidence suggests protection of particularly vulnerable areas (e.g. wetlands), watershed management
and judicious water use, are robust, low-regret adaptation measures. Efforts to
treaties and
‘grow ice’ in the winter through snow-making and ice stupas to augment early
conventions are meltwater flows in the spring have also been attempted, with some success at
relevant enablers small/local scales.
to promote
Reducing water-related risks in mountain areas will require addressing the root
cooperation and
causes of vulnerability, which include poverty, marginalization and inequitable
implementation gender dynamics. Acknowledging and respecting the many cultures and diverse
at the mountain Indigenous and local knowledge in the mountains, which form the backbone of
region scale community adaptive capacity, can create strong foundations for site-specific
integrated adaptation and mitigation strategies. Inclusive governance structures
and processes, including the design and implementation of policies and measures,
can help realize that capacity.

The growing pressures on water resources from socio-economic development

combined with shifts in seasonal water availability from the warm to the cold
season will increase the complexity of water governance. Improvements in river
basin management require more than additional human-built infrastructure.

International policy frameworks offer promising support to water governance

and adaptation to climate-related changes in the mountains, while addressing
sustainable development. Evidence suggests treaties and conventions are relevant
enablers to promote cooperation and implementation at the mountain region scale.

Conclusions 151
 The importance of mountains as headwaters and sources of water for often
densely populated downstream areas was recognized by the General Assembly
of the United Nations in 2008, with the adoption of Resolution 62/196 on
sustainable mountain development. Water governance in mountains often
equates with ‘source protection’ and watershed management, benefiting
downstream users. It is therefore in everyone’s interest to govern and manage
(and finance) mountain regions sustainably.

As most large rivers originate in mountain areas and are frequently shared
among several countries, transboundary water governance based on a
‘basin-level view’ that carefully considers mountain waters can provide large
benefits to riparian countries. Regional cooperation among countries to foster
transboundary landscape and river basin governance is an important mechanism
for advancing sustainable development in mountains, particularly as many
mountain ranges and mountain ecosystem services are transboundary in nature.
Treaties or agreements can enhance cooperation through data- and information-
sharing, help to fill gaps in human and institutional technical capacity, and
promote and foster dialogue and diplomacy.

The recommendations of international frameworks and transboundary

agreements provide guidance for national policy development and strategies.
Costs related However, the management of mountain waters takes place primarily within
to transport, country borders, through national legislation, policy and strategies. Policy
infrastructure, formulation and implementation take place within a country’s political economic
goods and services context. In some cases, national policies for water, agriculture, industry and
energy are developed to favour the low-lying regions of river basins, for instance,
increase with
to serve more populous areas. National policies may often not fully reflect water
elevation and sectoral issues within the mountains; rather, they tend to focus on mountains as
isolation sources for downstream users.

Although substantial funding is potentially available for investments in

sustainable development in mountain regions, access to major support
programmes has been relatively limited, indicating a significant response
option is underutilized. Enhanced uptake of available support and funding
could help to ease the burden for mountain communities and countries,
for which the capacity and ability of actors to identify, access and mobilize
resources need strengthening.

In general, development in mountains is more costly and difficult than in

lowlands due to the rugged terrain and poor accessibility, restrictions on
economies of scale, long distance from seaports and economic centres, and
poorly developed industrial and service sectors. Costs related to transport,
infrastructure, goods and services increase with elevation and isolation. This
needs to be considered in policy and financing, with calls for mountain-specific
policies and programmes in national and global development plans.

Understanding mountain hydrology and the role of the cryosphere is important

for sustainable development and anticipatory planning and action in light of the
substantial changes under way. However, many mountain regions are poorly
monitored with regard to even basic parameters such as temperature and
precipitation. In addition, most monitoring stations are located in lower-elevation
mountain valleys, providing scant coverage of higher-elevation mountain climate.

The lack of data and long-term monitoring and research on the mountain
cryosphere, and more broadly mountain waters, hinders taking effective action,
and is a key area for investment in long-term knowledge- and capacity-building.

152 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
 In a world of growing water scarcity, improving knowledge of present and
future mountain water resources is of fundamental importance. This calls for
sustained investments in costly long-term high-elevation monitoring stations
of glaciers and climate, as well as integrative science across all disciplines,
to better understand mountain waters and societies. Full and open access to
all water data would also be commendable.

Coda Mountains provide life-sustaining fresh water to billions of people and

countless ecosystems. As the world’s water towers, their critical role in
sustainable development cannot be ignored.

Actions must be taken to better understand and protect these fragile

environments, increasingly threatened by climate change and unsustainable
human activities.

Because nothing that happens in mountains stays in mountains.

In one way or another, we all live downstream.

Conclusions 153
 Abbreviations and acronyms

CBFEWS Community-based flood early warning system(s)

CREA Research Centre for Alpine Ecosystems

DRR Disaster risk reduction

EbA Ecosystem-based adaptation

EST Environmentally sound technology

EWS Early warning system(s)

GIAHS Globally Important Agricultural Heritage System(s)

GLOF Glacial lake outburst flood

HKH Hindu Kush Himalaya

INARCH International Network for Alpine Research Catchment Hydrology

IPLC Indigenous Peoples and local community

IWRM Integrated water resources management

LDN Land degradation neutrality

masl Metres above sea level

MDC Mountainous developing country

NAP National adaptation plan

NbS Nature-based solution(s)

NDC Nationally determined contribution

ODA Official development assistance

PGS Participatory Guarantee System

PSH Pumped storage hydropower

ROS Rain on snow

SDG Sustainable Development Goal

SWE Snow water equivalent

TPRCC-Network Third Pole Regional Climate Centre Network

WASH Water, sanitation and hygiene

154 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 Mountains and glaciers: Water towers
Abbreviations and acronyms 155
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WORLD WATER DAY AND THE UNITED NATIONS WORLD WATER DEVELOPMENT REPORT

The United Nations designates specific days,

weeks, years and decades as occasions to
mark particular events or topics in order to
promote, through awareness and action, the
objectives of the Organization.

International observances are occasions

to educate the general public on issues
of concern, to mobilize political will and
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Nations General Assembly. World Water Day (22 March) dates back to the
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international observance for water was recommended.

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as the first World Water Day. It has been held annually since then and is one of
the most popular international days together with International Women’s Day
(8 March), the International Day of Peace (21 September) and Human Rights Day
(10 December).

Every year, UN-Water — the UN’s coordination mechanism on water and sanitation
— sets a theme for World Water Day corresponding to a current or future water-
related challenge. This theme also inspires the theme of the United Nations World
Water Development Report that is presented on World Water Day. The publication
is UN-Water’s flagship report and provides decision-makers with tools to formulate
and implement sustainable water policies. The report also gives insight on main
trends including the state, use and management of fresh water and sanitation,
based on work by the Members and Partners in UN-Water.

The report is published by UNESCO, on behalf of UN-Water, and its production is

coordinated by the UNESCO World Water Assessment Programme.
 Mountains – often referred to as the world’s ‘water towers’ – are becoming
increasingly vulnerable to climate change and unsustainable human activities,
threatening the water resources upon which billions of people and countless
ecosystems depend.

The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 – Mountains and
glaciers: Water towers calls attention to the essential services and benefits
mountain waters and alpine glaciers provide to societies, economies and the
environment. With a focus on the technical and policy responses required
to improve water management in mountains, the report covers critical
issues such as water supply and sanitation, climate change mitigation and
adaptation, food and energy security, industry, disaster risk reduction and
ecosystem protection.

In alignment with the designation of 2025 as the International Year of Glaciers’

Preservation and the 2022 resolution of the General Assembly of the United
Nations on sustainable mountain development, this report draws worldwide
attention to the importance of mountain waters, including alpine glaciers,
in the sustainable development of mountain regions and the downstream
societies that depend upon them, in the context of the rapidly changing
mountain cryosphere.

The United Nations World Water Development Report is UN-Water’s

flagship report on water and sanitation issues, focusing on a different theme
each year. The report is published by UNESCO, on behalf of UN-Water and
its production is coordinated by the UNESCO World Water Assessment
Programme. The report gives insight on main trends concerning the state,
use and management of fresh water and sanitation, based on work done by
the Members and Partners of UN-Water. Launched in conjunction with World
Water Day, the report provides decision-makers with knowledge and tools
to formulate and implement sustainable water policies. It also offers best
practices and in-depth analyses to stimulate ideas and actions for better
stewardship in the water sector and beyond.

This publication is financed by

the Government of Italy and Regione Umbria.

9 789231 007439