MODULE 1 common culture, and from social stability to radical

change in whole societies. The purpose of

Nature of Anthropology, Sociology and sociology is to understand how human action and
Political Science consciousness both shape and are shaped by
1. Anthropology - relates to sociology, it always surrounding cultural and social structures.
describes human, human behavior and human Sociology is a social science; it belongs to the
societies around the world. It is a comparative family of social sciences. As a social science,
science that examines all societies. focuses its aspects on man, his social manners,
The term anthropology means scientific study of social activities and social life. The goal of

man or human beings. Cultural anthropology sociology is to help you understand

studies, human societies and elements of cultural how human action and consciousness both shape
life. An example of and are shaped by the surrounding cultural and

cultural anthropology
anthropology
whichisfocuses
the on Linguistic
language social structures.

in a certain society. 3. Political Science - is a social science that

The goal of studying anthropology is to deals with humans and their interactions. It is a

understand the origin human evolution and the branch of sociology; it essentially deals with the

diverse forms of its existence throughout time large-scale actions of humans, and group

The study of Man and its various aspects is mentality.

known as Anthropology. It may be a subject of It is a discipline that deals with several aspects

science and arts. It is a branch of sociology. It such as the study of state and government. It

describes human, human behavior and human deals with the nature and formation of the state

societies and it examines all societies around the and attempts to understand its forms and

world. It also describes the ancestors through functions.

time and space in relation to its environmental,

social relations, and culture The goal of Political Science is to constantly
2. Sociology - is the study of human social deepen the knowledge, discover progress and
relationships and institutions. Sociology’s subject protect the quality of life within a group,
matter is diverse, ranging from crime to religion, community, country, and the world. Thus, it is the
from the family to the state, from the divisions of study of power relationships and competing
race and social class to the shared beliefs of a interests among states around the world.

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The Different Perspective of Anthropology, Lastly, Schwartz (1992) stated that culture
Sociology and Political Science consists of experiences that are organized, learned
1. Cultural Perspective or created by the individuals of a population,
Culture is generic
Aside fromterm
theyet very difficult
famous to define.
definition of Tylor including those images and images adding up their
on culture, scholars and social scientists vary unique interpretations transmitted from the past
different perspective on how to properly define it. generations up to the future
Also, because of its wider scope and it
encompasses everything of man, experts from 2.Anthropological perspectives are culture,
several field find it complicated to boxed culture cultural relativism, fieldwork, human diversity,
into one universal terminology. Spencer-Oatey holism, bio-cultural focus. The four main
(2012, p.2) compiled perspectives from scholars perspectives of Anthropology are the cross-
about culture. cultural or comparative emphasis, its
evolutionary/historical emphasis, its ecological
emphasis, and its holistic emphasis. An example
Matthew Arnold in his Culture and Anarchy (1867) for this is the analysis and solutions of the
mentioned that culture or high culture as opposed different aspects of the society such as the
to popular culture (or folkways in an earlier usage) environment issues of pollution, the issues on
is a product of a special intellectual or artistic health and medicine and other issues related to
endeavor humans had invented. the human activities.

Kroeber & Kluckhohn (1952) defined that culture 3.Sociological perspective introduces the
is composed of behavior (explicit and implicit) discipline of sociology, including something about
acquired and transmitted through symbols. It is a its history, questions, theory, and scientific
human group that includes their distinctive methods, and what distinguishes it from other
achievements and embodiment in artifacts, social science disciplines. Central features include
traditional and historical ideas, and formation of social interaction and relationships, social
values. They added that culture systems can be contexts, social structure, social change, the
considered as a product of action from conditional significance of diversity and human variation, and
elements of a society. the critical, questioning character of sociology. It
also explores what sociologists do.

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Sociology includes three major theoretical between the workers and the capitalist due to the
perspectives: exploitation of the latter to the former which is
1. The functionalist perspective; essential in provoking social change. The only way
2. The conflict perspective; and to end this conflict is through social revolution.
3. The symbolic interaction perspective
4. Theoretical perspective Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) said that society is
composed of harmonious elements such as
The term society also makes an impact to several individuals, organizations, and social institutions.
experts in the field of social science. It made them These elements must perform their role in the
the understanding that society is a system of society for function effectively. Dysfunction may
usages and procedures, of authority and mutual occur if these elements are not in the state of
aid, of many groupings and divisions, of controls of equilibrium.
human behavior and of liberties. Their
perspectives paved way modern scholars to have George Herbert Mead (1863–1931) and other
a better understanding on society. As the Father scholars who conceptualized the concept of
of Sociology Auguste Comte coined the term symbolic interactionism take a different point of
sociology and said that society is a social organism view on society. According to this, society can be
possessing a harmony of structure and seen in a micro-level that focuses on the
function, his followers were motivated to give their relationships of individuals within a society
own perspective on this. primarily centers in their communication both
language and symbols. Herbert Blumer (1969)
Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) described the who coined the term symbolic interactionism
emerging societies as societies of survival and studied how humans interact to the meanings
primarily based on the concept of natural law. ascribed into a specific object under
Members of each society must learn to adapt to circumstances.

their surroundings to outlast the prevailing

conditions present in their environment. Erving Goffman (1958) on the other hand used
dramaturgical analysis. In this approach, he used
Karl Marx (1818-1883) had a different take on theater as an analogy for social interaction and
society. He postulated that societies develop recognized that people like actors and actresses,
through class conflicts. There is always s struggle play their role and function according to it.
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 concept principles skills and
Charles Horton-Cooley (1902) said that society of about humane
and individuals are not separated but are simply individual society ideals for
collective and distributive aspects of the same difference Examine public
thing. He theorized the concept of the looking sand social roles participatio
glass self. According to this, self-relation, or how diversity within the n
one views oneself is not an isolated event but Discover society Examine
rather includes others. It emphasized how we universalit See the the
changed our identity or personality based on how y among interdepend operations
others see us. humans ency of all of the
See beings governmen

4.Political science perspective studies the cultural Broaden t

tendencies and actions of people which cannot be patterns familiarity Equip

easily quantified or examined. Political science is objectivel on
each of us
more focused than most social sciences. It sticks y sociological
intellectual
to the political arena and to the realm of politics, Produce facts.
resources
either dealing with situations with two competing new
that will
sides or the lateral decisions that affect the group knowledg
harness
as a whole. An example is the study of democracy eand
you to
as a form of government and why is democracy new
greater
considered as the best form of government. theories
heights
about
humankin
dand
The Goals of Anthropology, Sociology, and
human
Political Science
behavior

Anthropology Sociology Political

Science
Internaliz Obtain Understan
ethe theories and d civic

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Module 2: Concepts, Aspects and Changes wishes and accomplish his interests in association
in/of Culture and Society with his fellows. 2. From the structural point of
view, society is the total social heritage of
Meaning and Nature of Society folkways, mores and institutions; of habits,
According to sociologist, a society is a group of sentiments and ideals. The important aspect of
people with common territory, interaction, and society is the system of relationships, the pattern of
culture Arcinas (2016) in his book, Undertanding the norms of interaction by which the members of
Culture, Society, and Politics, defined society as the society maintain themselves
group of people who share a common territory snd
culture. It is a group of people living together in a
definite territory, having a sense of belongingness,
mutually interdependent of each other, and follow Reasons people live together as a society
a certain way of life. (Ariola, 2012):
a. For survival – No man is an island. No man
Society is derived from the Latin term “societas”, can live alone. From birth to death, man always
from socius, which means companion or depends upon his parents and from others. The
associate. care, support, and protection given by them are
Thus, it refers to all people, collectively regarded important factors for survival. b. Feeling of
as constituting a community of related, gregariousness – This is the desire of people to
interdependent individuals living in a definite place, be with other people, esecially of their own culture.
following a certain mode of life (Ariola, 2012). People flock together for emotional warmth and
belongingness. the need for approval, sympathy

Definition of society has two types - the and understanding to which the individual belongs

functional definition and the structural is a psychosocial

definition. 1. From the functional point of view need. Among Filipinos, the feeling of

defined as a complex of groups in, society

reciprocal
is gregariousness is found in all levels of society,

relationships, interacting upon one another, especially among the lower socio-econmic

enabling human organisms to carry on their life- classess. The more the person is needy, the more

activities and helping each person to fulfill his he craves sympathy and understanding from
someone else.

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c. Specialization – Teachers, businessmen, are born to it, they are taught the basic norms and
students, physicians, nurses, lawyers, expectations. Those who come from other
pharmacists, and other professionals organize societies, before being accepted as functioning
themselves into societies or associations to members, are socialized and taught the basic
promote and protect their own professions. norms and expectations of the society.
4. It endures, produces and sustains its
Characteristics of Society members for generations. For society to survive,
Society comprises
share a of a group of
common people live
culture, who in a it must have the ability to produce, endure and
particular area and feel themselves to constitute a sustain its new members for at least several
unified and distinct entity. Society or human society generations. For instance, if a society cannot assist
is a group of people related to each other through its members during their extreme conditions of
persistent relations such as kinship, marriage, hunger and poverty, that society will not survive
social status, roles and social networks. By long.
extension, society denotes the people of a region 5. It holds its members through a common
or country, sometimes even the world, taken as a culture. The individuals in a society are held
whole. Society has the following characteristics: 1. together because that society has symbols, norms,
It is a social system. A social system consists values, patterns of interaction, vision and mission
of individuals interacting with rach other. A system that are commonly shared by the members of such
consists of sub-parts whereby a change in one society.
part affects the other parts. Thus, a change in one
6. It has clearly-defined geographical territory.
group of individuals will affect the stability of the The members in a society must live in a certain
other parts of the system. specific habitat or place and have a common
2. It is relatively large. The people must be belongingness and sense of purpose
socialy integrated to be considered relatively large
than if the people are individually scattered. Thus,
Functions of Society
the people in a family, clan, tribe, neighborhood,
1. It provides a system of
socialization.
community are socially integrated to be relatively
Knowledge and skills, dominant patterns of
large in scope.
behavior, moral and social values, and aspects of
3. It socializes its members and from those
personality are transmitted to each members,
from without. Since most of society’s members
especially to the young. the family, the peer group,
the school, the church and other government and
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non-government organizations play a role in the solution to problems met by them. This form of
individual’s development. assistance may come from the family, neighbors,
2. It provides the basic needs of its members. clans, government and non- government agencies,
Food, clothing, shelter, medicine, education, civic and religious organizations.
transportations and communication facilities,
among others must be provided by society to
satisfy the basic needds of its members.
Types of Societies
3. It regulates and controls people’s behavior.
According Accordingto According
Conformity to the prevailing norms of conduct
to EvolutionaryView to
ensures social control. The police, armed forces,
Economic People’s
law enforcement agencies and even the church and
and Substinen
other government and non-government
Material ce
organizations exist as means of social control.
System
Peace and order are created through a system of
norms and formal organizations. 1.Pre-class 1.SimpleSocieties 1.Food

4. It provides the means of social participation. Societies –Thesewere Gathering

Through social participation, the individuals in a –Theyare predominantly Societies
society learn to interact with each other, present characterize small,nomadicand (morethan
and discuss their concerns and solve their own dby leadershipis 16,000
problems or renew their commitment and values. communal unstable.The yearsago)–
the people are give the opportunities to contribute ownershipof peoplehadno Thepeople
to their knowledge and skills for the betterment of propertyand specializationof survived
their family, neighborhood and community. religious divisionof skills,thustheylived fromdayto
organizations, civic organizations, people’s labor. inasimplelife. daythrough
organizations (PO) and non-government Examplesof hunting
organizations (NGOs) do their part in community these larger
development. societiesare animals,
5. It provides mutual support to the members. earliestclans collecting
Mutual support is provided to the members of andtribes shellfishand
society in the form of relief in any form and vegetable
gathering.

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 Their tools (those who labor. Considerable food and
were made haves) progress in clothing to
of stones, owned big infrastructure and satisfy their
wood and tract of knowledge in arts needs. they
bones. private had taken place. raised
2.Asiatic 2.Compound 2.Horticultur properties animals to
Societies– Societies–Twoor alSocieties while the provide milk,
The moresimple (12,000to poor fur and
peopleare societiesmergedto 15,000 (those blood for
economically formanewand yearsago)- who-have- protein.
self-sufficient biggersociety. Thepeople nots) These
buttheir Thesesocieties planted worked as societies
leadersare tendedtobe seedsasa laborers. typically are
despoticand predominantly meansof Thus, relatively
powerful. settled production wealth is small,

agriicultural for linited to a wandering

societiesand subsistence. few communities

tended to be people. organized

characterized by a along male-

division of four or centered

five social classes kinship

3.Doubly groups
3.Ancient 3.Pastoral
Compound 4.
Societies– Societies– . 4.MilitantSocieties
Societies–These Agricultural
Theseare Mostofthe 4.Feudal –
arecompletely Societies –
characteriz peopleare Societies– Theseare
integrated,more In the early
edby nomadic The characterizedbythe
definiteinpolitical agricultural
private whofollow aristocrats following:(a)
andreligious socieities,
land theirherds (feudallords) theexistenceof
people used
ownership. structureandmore inquestof ownedthe militaryorganization
plow than
Therich complexdivisionof animalsfor wealth of the and military

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country due rank;(b)individual hoeinfood how to
to their livesandprivate production. produce
ownership of possessionsareat Bytheuse food by
big tracts of thedisposalof ofplow,it themselves
lands. The theState;and(c) turnsthe 5. 5.Industrial 5.Industrial
peasants individual topsoil Capitalists Societies – These Societies -
workeed on activitiessuch deeper Societies – socities are These
the lands of asrecreation, allowingfor These characterized by societies
the feudal movements,satisfac better societies the following: (a) began in the
lords with tionofbiological aeratingand existed in people elect their 18th century
only few needs,and dertilizing societies representatives to during the
benefits productionofgoods thus where two protect their Industrial
received by aretotallyregulated improving classes of individual Revolution
them. people initiatives; (b) and gained
bytheState. betteryield
However, appeared. freedom of belief, momentum
when
these types The religion, by the turn
harvested.
of societies bourgeoise production of of the 19th
Irrigation
collapsed (property industrial century.
farming was
due to the owners) goods exist; (c) This period
introduced
rise of cities who disputes and is
which
and owned the grievances are characterize
reulted to a
metropolis capital and settled through d by the use
larger yield
as a result of the means peaceful of machines
of
the rise of of arbitration; and as means of
production
trades and production (d) business production
that can
industries. and the organizations . Mass
even feed
large ploretariat appear where production
number of (the cooperative of guns,
people who efforts between invention
laborers
did not know management and of steam
or

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 workers) labor are based locomotive people are medicines, isthe
who are on contractual sand free to agriculture, hallmarkof
compelle agreement. In large engage in business whether in these
d to work other words, production any lawful physicaland modern
for the individual of steel, business naturalsciences socieities.
capitalist freedom, rights and well- for profit or emerged;and(c) Theseare
s or sell and initiatives are coordinate gain. pollution,diseases, characterize
their being protected. d labor People calamitiesare
dbythe spreadof result of the
small force took had to prevalentasa
use of computer
propertie place. work on
s to the Thus, the their own advanced technology,
capitalist people livelihood technology. advancesin
s. began to accoeding this
be highly to what the technology
skilled and law are made by
highly mandates highly-
diversiifiee trained
d in their computer
occupatio specialists
n. who work to

6. 6.Post-Industrial 6.Post- increase the

Democrati Societies – These Industrial capabilities

c Societies are characterizzed Socieities or of

– These by: (a) spread of Information computers

societies computer machines Societies – and internet.

are and existence of Information The use of

characteriz information and and modern

ed by free communication; (b) communicati technology

enterprise inventions and on gave rise to

where discoveries in technology several

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 technologica E. B. Taylor, Culture is a complex whole which
l problems consist of knowledge, beliefs, ideas, habits,
such as attitudes, skills, abilities, values, norms, art, law,
pollution, morals, customs, traditions, feelings and other
lung illness, capabilities of man which are acquired, learned
skin and socially transmitted by man from one
problems generation to another through language and living
and other together as members of the society (Arcinas,
2016).

Dissolution of a Society
There are several ways by which a society is Definitions of culture as mentioned in the book of
dissolved: (1) when the people kill each other David and Macaraeg (2010) entitled“ Socioloy:
through civil revolution; (2) when an outside force Exploring Society and Culture”: • Culture is a
exterminates the members of the society; (3) when historically transmitted pattern of meanings
the members become apathetic among themselves embodied in symbols, a system of inherited
or have no more sense of belongingness; (4) when coceptions expressed in symbolic form by means of
a small society is absorbed by a stronger and which men communicate, perpetuate, and develop
larger society by means of conquest or territorial their knowledge about and attitudes towards life. –
absorption; (5) when an existing society is Clifford Geertz
submerged in water killing all the people and other
living things in it; or (60 when the people living in
• Culture consists of learned systems of meaning,
such a society
communicated by means of natural language and
voluntarily attach themselves to another existing
other symbol systems, having representational,
society.
directive, and affective functions, and capable of
creating cultural entities and particular senses of
Module 2: Concepts, Aspects and Changes reality. – Roy D’Andrade
in/of Culture and Society

• Culture is an extrasomatic
Meaning and Nature of Culture
(nongenetic,nonbodily), temporal continuum of
things and events dependent upon symbols.
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Culture consists of tools, implements, utensils, 1. Dynamic, flexible 1. Learned - Culture is
clothing, ornaments, customs, institutions, beliefs, and adaptive learned, as each person
rituals, games, works of art, language, etc. – Leslie - Culture necessarily must learn how to “be” a
White changes, changed
and by,
is member of that culture -
a variety of Culture is acquired by
interactions, with being born into a
• Culture consists in the shared patterns of
individuals, media,
and particular society in the
behavior and associated meanings that people
technology, just to
learn and participate in within the groups to which
name a few. - process of
they belong. – Whitten and Hunter
Cultures interact and enculturation. Through
change. Most language, the cultural
• A society’s culture consists of whatever it is one societies interact with traits of society are
has to know or believe in order to operate in a other societies, and passed on to younger
manner acceptable to its members. – Ward as a consequence members
the in
Goodenough their cultures interact process of growing up
that lead to and through teaching.
• Culture is an instrumental reality, and apparatus exchanges of material - Every human
for the satisfaction of the biological and derived (ex: tools and generation potentially
need”. It is the integral whole consisting of furniture) and non- can discover new
implements in consumers’ goods, of constitutional material (ex: ideas things and invent better
characters for the various social groupings, of and symbols) technologies. The new
human ideas and crafts, beliefs and custom. – components of cultural skills and
Malinowski culture. knowledge are added
- All cultures change, onto what was learned
or else, they would in previous generations.
Characteristics of Culture
have
problems
From the From the Perspective of
adjusting
and
Perspective of Anthropologists
adapting to changing
Sociologists)
environments.
- Culture is adaptive

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and dynamic, once - Culture is not and integrated as the
we problems,
recognize
culture biological, people do parts of culture work
can adapt again, in a not inherit it but togethe r in an
more positive way, to learned as interact in integrated whole. - The
find solutions. - We society systems of meanings
need our cultural skills and many other facets
to stay alive. (sides) of culture such
2. Shared and maybe as kindred,
challenged religion, economic
- (Given the reality of 2. Symbolic activities, inheritance,
social differentiation), - Culture is symbloic, as and political process,
as we share culture it based on the do not function in
with others, we are manipulation of isolation
an but
able to act in a symbols integrated whole that
appropriate ways as - meaning
Culture torenders
what makes society work.
well as predict how people do. Beliefs, -.
religion, rituals, myths, 5.Transmitted through 5. Encompassing
dances, performances, socialization or - Culture covers
others will act. music, enculturation - As we every feature of
Despite the shared artworks, sense of share our culture with humanity. Around the
nature of culture, that taste, education, others, we are able to world, people as
. innovations, identity, pass it members of their own
ethnicity, and so on are on to the new societies establish
meaningful human members of society connections with
expressions of what or the younger each other and form
people do and how they generation in different relationship guided by
act. ways. respective
their
3. Learned through 3.Systemic integrated
and- -. cultural practices and
socialization or Culture is systemic values.
enculturation -

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6. Requires language Elements of Culture
and other forms of 1. Symbols refers to anything that is used to stand
communication for something else. It is anything that gives
- In the process of meaning to the culture. People who share a culture
learning and often attach a specific meaning to an object,
transmitting culture, gesture, sound, or image. An example of which are
symbols and the feasts we are celebrating.
language are needed to 2. Language is known as the storehouse of
communicate with culture ( Arcinas, 2016). It system of words and
others in society symbols used to communicate with other
(Arcinas, 2016). people. We have a lot of dialects in the Phillipines
that provide a means of understanding. Through

Importance/Functions of Culture these, culture is hereby transmitted to future

In the book of (David and Macaraeg, 2010), the generation through learning (David and Macaraeg,

following functions of culture were given emphasis: 2010).

(1) it serves as the “trademark” of the people in the 3. Technology refers to the application of
society; (2) it gives meaning and direction to one’s knowledge and equipment to ease the task of
existence; (3) it promotes meaning to individual’s living and maintaining the environment; it includes
existence; (4) it predicts social behavior; (5) it artifacts, methods and devices created and used
unifies diverse behavior; (6) it provides social by people (Arcinas, 2016).
solidarity; (7) it establishes social personality; (8) it 4. Values are culturally defined standards for what
provides systematic behavioral pattern; (9) it is good or desirable Values determine how
provides social structure category; (10) it maintains individuals will probably
the biologic functioning of the group; (11) it offers respond in any given circumstances Members of
ready-made solutions man’s the culture use the shared system of values to
material and immaterial problems; and (12) it decide what is good and what is bad.
develops man’s attitude and values and gives him 5. Beliefs refers to the faith of an individual (David
a conscience. and Macaraeg, 2010). They are conceptions or
ideas of people have about what is true in the
environment around them like what is life, how to

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value it and how one’s belied on the value of life right and wrong (Arcinas, 2016). They are norms
relate with his or her interaction with others and the also but with moral understones (David and
world. These maybe based on common sense, folk Macaraeg, 2010). For example, since our country
wisdom, religion, science or a combination of all of Philippines is a Christian nation, we are expected
these (Arcinas, 2016). to practice monogamous marriage. So if a person
6. Norms are specific rules/standards to guide for who has two or more partners is looked upon as
appropriate behavior (Arcinas, 2016). These are immoral. Polygamy is considered taboo in
societal expectations that mandate specific Philippine society.
behaviors in specific situations (David and
Macaraeg, 2010). Like in school, we are expected
Laws are controlled ethics and they are morally
to behave in a particular way. If violate norms, we
agreed, written down and enforced by an official
look different. Thus, we can be called as social
law enforcement agency (Arcinas, 2016). They are
deviants. For example, Filipino males are
institutionalized norms and mores that were
expected to wear pants, not skirts and females
enacted by the state to ensure stricter punishment
are expected to in order for the people to adhere to the standards
Types:
set by society (David and Macaraeg, 2010).
a. Proscriptive norm defines and tells us things
not to do
Two Components of Culture
b. Prescriptive norm defines and tells us things to
do
Sociologists describe two interrelated aspects of
human culture: the physical objects of the culture
Folkways are also known as customs (material culture) and the ideas associated with
(customary/repetitive ways of doing things); they these objects (non-material culture).
are forms of norms for everyday behavior that
people follow for the sake of tradition or
1. Material culture consists of tangible things
convenience. For example, we Filipinos eat with
(Banaag, 2012). It refers to the physical objects,
our bear hands.
resources, and spaces that people use to define
their culture. These include homes,
Mores are strict norms that control moral and neighborhoods, cities, schools, churches,
ethical behavior; they are based on definitions of synagogues, temples, mosques, offices, factories

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and plants, tools, means of production, goods and 1. Parallelismmeansthatthesameculturemay
products, stores, anEverything that is created, take place in two or more different places.
produced, changed and utilized by men is included Example: The domestication of dogs, cats, pigs
in the material culture (Arcinas, 2016). and other animals may have semblance in other
places
2. Non-material culture consists of intangible things 2. Diffusion refers to those behavioral patterns

(Banaag, 2012). Non‐material culture refers to the that pass back and forth from one culture to
another. This is the transfer or spread of
nonphysical ideas that people have
about their culture, including beliefs, values, rules, culture traits from one another brought about

norms, morals, language, organizations, and by change agents such as people or media.

institutions. For instance, the non‐material cultural Examples: food and eating practices, marriage

concept of religion consists of a set of ideas and and wedding ceremonies, burial rituals, feast

beliefs about God, worship, morals, and ethics. celebrations

3. Convergence takes place when two or more
cultures are fused or merged into one culture
Modes of Acquiring Culture
making it different from the original culture.
4. Fission takes place when people break away
1. Imitation - Children and adults alike have the
from their original culture and start developing a
tendency to imitate the values, attitudes, language
different culture of their own.
and all other things in their social environment.. 2.
5. Acculturation refers to the process wherein
Indoctrination or Suggestion - This may take the
individuals incorporate the behavioral patterns of
form of formal training or informal teaching.
other cultures into their own either voluntarily or
Formally, the person learns from school.. 3.
by force. Voluntary acculturation occurs through
Conditioning - The values, beliefs, and attitudes
imitation, borrowing, or personal contact with
of other people are acquired through conditioning.
other people.
This conditioning can be reinforced through reward
6. Assimilation occurs when the culture of a
and punishment.
larger society is adopted by a smaller society, that
smaller society assumes some of the culture of
Adaptation of Culture the larger society or cost society.
7. Accommodation occurs when the larger
society and smaller society are able to respect
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and tolerate each other’s culture even if there is through direct contact with each other and
already a prolonged contact of each other’s exposure to new forms:
culture. a. Acculturation – cultural borrowing and cultural
imitation
Causes of Cultural Change Example: The Filipinos are said to be the best
English-speaking people of Asia b. Assimilation –
the blending or fusion of two distinct cultures
1. Discovery is the process of finding a new place
through long periods of interaction Example:
or an object, artefact or anything that previously
Americanization of Filipino immigrants to the US c.
existed. For example, the discovery of fire led to
Amalgamation – the biological or hereditary
the art of cooking; discovery of oil, of organisms
fusion of members of different societies Example:
and substances; of diseases; of atoms and
Marriage between a Filipino and an American
sources of energy.
d. Enculturation – the deliberate infusion of a
new culture to another
2. Invention implies a creative mental process of Example: The teaching of American history and
devising, creating and producing something new, culture to the Filipinos during the early American
novel or original; and also the utilization and Regime
combination of previously known elements to
produce that an original or novel product. It could
be either social or material or it could also be
invention of new methods or techniques. Example
of social invention: invention of
4. Colonization refers to the political, social, and
number system, government, language,
political policy of establishing a colony which would
democracy, religion, and alphabet
be subject to the rule or governance of the
Example of Material Invention: invention of the
colonizing state. For example, the Hispanization of
wheel, machines
Filipino culture when the Spaniards came and
conquered the Philippines.
3. Diffusion is the spread of cultural traits or social
practices from a society or group to another
5. Rebellon and revolutionary movements aim to
belonging to the same society or to another
change the whole social order and replace the
leadership. The challenge the existing folkways
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and mores, and propose a new scheme of norms, preference to the ideas, lifestyle and products of of
values and organization other culture. 4. Cultural relativism is an attempt
to judge behavior according to its cultural context
Ethnocentrism, Xenocentrism and Cultural (Baleña, et.al,2016). It is a principle that an
Relativism as Orientations in Viewing Other individual person’s beliefs and activities should be
Cultures understood by others in terms of that individual’s
own culture. This concept emphasizes the
1.Cultural variation is the differences in social perspective that no culture is superior to any other
behaviors that different cultures exhbit around the culture (Arcinas, 2016) because (a) different
world. What may be considered good etiquette in socieities have different moral code; (b) the moral
one culture may be considered bad etiquette in code of a society determines what is right or
another. In relation to this, there are important wrong within the society; (c) there are no moral
perceptions on cultural variability: ethnocentrism, truths that hold for all people at all times; (d) the
xenocentrism and cultural relativism. 2. moral code of our own society has no special
Etnocentrism is a perception that arises from the status, it is but one among many; and (e) it is
fact that cultures differ and each culture defines arrogant for us to judge other cultures, so we
reality differently. This happens when judging have to be tolerant to them
another culture solely by the values and
standards of one’s own culture (Baleña,
et.al,2016). This is the tendency to see and
Other Important Terms Related to Culture
evaluate other cultures in terms of one’s own race,
1. Cultural diversity refers the differentiation of
nation or culture. This is the feeling or belief that
culture all over the world which means there is no
one’s culture is better than the rest. Whereas,
right or wrong culture but there is appropriate
3. Xenocentrism is the opposite of ethnocentrism,
culture for the need of a specific group of people.
the belief that one’s culture is inferior compared to
2. Sub-culture refers to a smaller group within a
others. People are highly influenced by the culture
larger culture.
or many culture outside the realm of their society.
3. Counterculture refers cultural patterns that
This could be one of the effects of globalization.
strongly oppose those widely accepted within a
Exposure to cultural practices of others may make
society (example in the 1960”s counter culture
one individual or group of individuals to give

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among teenagers reflect long hair, blue jeans, I. Cultural Variation refers to the rich diversity in
peace sign, rock and roll music and drug abuse). social patterns that different human group exhibit
4. Culture lag is experienced when some parts of around the world. Music, dance, languages,
the society do not change as fast as with other cuisine, and art are different from one culture to
parts and they are left behind another. The variation in human conditions

5. Culture shock is the inability to read meaning in promotes diversity in cultural traditions. What may

one’s surroundings, feeling of lost and isolation, be considered good practice in one culture may be

unsure to act as a consequence of being outside considered bad practice in one another.

the symbolic web of culture that binds others. 6. Comparing the traditions practiced by Muslims

Ideal culture refers to the social patterns that pork serve in their meals are forbidden

mandated by cultural values and norms. because it says in their Holy Quran while for
Christian community, pork is a part of their meal.
7. Real culture refers to the actual patterns that
only approximate cultural expectations.
8. High culture refers to the cultural patterns that
distinguish a society’s elite
9. Popular culture refers to the cultural patterns Note:
We must remember that cultural variation or
that are widespread among a society’s population.
diversity do not only occur between people’s
10.Culture change is the manner by which
culture coming from different countries, but
culture evolves. also between people with different practices
within the same country. Comparison of one’s
Module 3; Cultural Variation, Cultural culture to another reveal obvious differences
Relativism and Ethnocentrism but all cultures share common elements

Human are social being. Since the dawn of Homo

sapiens around 250,000 years ago, people formed
II. Cultural Universals are patterns or traits that
groups or communities in order to survive. Living
are globally common to all societies. One example
together as one in one community, people had
of cultural universal is the family unit. Every human
formed common habits and behaviors from hunting
group recognizes family as the building blocks of
techniques to family fostering
the society that regulates sexual reproduction and
care of their children
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Another example of cultural universal is the 4. Popular Culture is a culture practiced or
language and the concept of giving names to patronized by the middle and working classes of
member of the family the society. Example: Watching soap opera over
the televisions, movies and rock concerts Many
III. Variation between Cultures cultures around the world believe that their beliefs,
Within a human group, certain segments of the practices are in fact superior to that of others. This
society develop cultural patterns that differs from mentality sometime leads to discrimination and
the patterns of the dominant society. ostracism.

1. Subculture is a culture that is shared with a

distinctive pattern of mores, folkways, and values IV. Ethnocentrism is the regard that one’s own
which differ from a larger society. The group of culture and society is the center of everything and
society who exhibit subculture have a specific and seen as the most efficient and superior among the
unique set of beliefs and values that set them apart cultures in the world. A person who exhibits
from the dominant culture. 2. Counter Culture is a ethnocentrism feels that his or her culture is correct
culture practice by groups whose values and and appropriate as compared to other cultures thus
norms place it at odds with mainstream society or an ethnocentric attitude can be a problem in
a group that actively rejects the dominant cultural understanding each
values and norms. other
tensions, culture and foster
Example: misunderstanding and conflicts between societies.
Paramilitary is a semi-militarized force whose Ethnocentrism can be so strong but when
organizational structure, tactics, trainings, and confronted with all of the differences of a new
functions are similar to professional military and culture, one may experience culture shock.
not included as a part of formal armed forces like Culture Shock is the feeling of disoriented,
NPA and ISIS groups. 3. High Culture is a culture uncertain, out of place or even fearful when
practiced and patronized by the upper classes of immersed in an unfamiliar culture.
the society. Example: watching opera, classical As people experience unanticipated differences
music and live theater from their own culture, their excitement gives way
to discomfort and doubts how to behave
appropriately in the new situation. However, while

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people learn more about the culture, eventually 2. Respect and Equality is encouraged. People
they will recover from culture shock. Culture from different culture with different ideas that share
shocks may appear because people aren’t always their own perspectives and experiences in the
expecting cultural differences. People evaluates society can promote respect and equality. 3. It
the particular culture based on their own culture preserves human cultures. Respect with the
which often give problems and bias due to his or diverse set of traditions, ideas and practices would
her own perspective that his or her culture is the help preserve the culture. 4. Cultural relativism
efficient and appropriate for the environment. creates a society without judgement. Worrying and
When faced with plurality of culture, one must practicing your own culture prevent disagreement
adapt the conceptual tool of cultural relativism. & judgement in the society.

V. Cultural Relativism is the practice by Culture is evolving. New things are added to
assessing a culture by its own standards rather material cultures every day can cause cultural
that viewing it through the lens of one’s own change.
culture. It is the practice that one must understood
in the context of their locality. Practicing cultural Cultural Change is observed when new opens up
relativism requires an open mind and a willingness new ways of living and when new ideas enter a
to consider, and even adapt to, new values and culture as a result of globalization.
norms. Using the lens of cultural relativism,
member of the society can be more tolerant Module 4: Significance of Cultural, Social,
towards different attitudes and practices of others’ Political and Economic Symbols and Practice
culture. It also promotes the idea that a society has
to be viewed from inside so that the I. Human Capacity for Culture
inner aspects can be explained.
Culture is defined as “that complex whole which
encompasses beliefs, practices, values, attitudes,
Advantages of Cultural Relativism: laws, norms, artifacts, symbols, knowledge, and
1. It promotes cooperation. Embracing the everything that a person learns and shares as a
differences of the different society can create member of a society ” (Taylor, 2010). It is by-
cooperation because it allows a stronger bond with product of the attempt of humans to survive their
one another in the society. environment and to compensate for their
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biological characteristics and limitations. Our evolution which determines man’s socio-cultural
evolution toward humanity as we know it has been development.
a long journey of survival against the elements of
the environment and against competing species. The Early Types of Society
During the course of human history, people have
organized themselves into various types of
As our ancestors evolved biologically in response societies depending upon their level of technology
to their environment, they have also developed and the related methods of subsistence. The
cultural technologies that aided them to efficiently earliest societies confined themselves in gathering
obtain food and deter predators. Evolution is a and hunting for food. When man invented the plow,
natural process of biological changes occurring in it enabled him to increase the amount of available
a population across successive generations food. The introduction of modern technology and
(Banaag, 2012 p.31). It helps us identify and equipment, mass computerization, and white-collar
analyze man’s physiological development and service occupations, has changed the man’s
eventually the emergence of different society. society into
Moreover, man’s progression and characteristics a more complex one.
are essential in understanding the capability for
adaptation. Most scientists currently recognize The Legacy of Early Humans to Contemporary
some 15 to 20 different species of early humans. Population
Cultural and Sociopolitical Development

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and

The physical as well as the mental development of Cultural Organization (UNESCO) is the primary
early human beings helped them understand and transnational entity that manages and negotiates
adapt to their existing environment. Thus, their matters relating to human heritage. It defined
adjustment served as the onset of their culture. cultural heritage as follows:
Culture enables the members of society to develop
ways of coping with exigencies of nature as well as Cultural heritage is not limited to material
ways of harnessing their environment (Panopio, manifestations, such as monuments and objects
et.al 1994). The changes made by man through that have been preserved over time. This notion
his interaction with the environment establish the also encompasses living expressions and the
different cultural traditions that countless groups and communities
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worldwide have inherited from their ancestors and In the Philippine settings, we also have some
transmit to their descendants, in most cases, orally notable arte-factual evidences and human material
(UNESCO, 2010). This definition us with a two part remains found in different parts of the archipelago
meaning of cultural heritage. On one end, there is that is significant in interpreting cultural processes
heritage being tangible in the form of structures, to human’s way of life. As people’s life advances,
monuments, historical sites, and other artifacts. On they developed materials that could be part of their
the other hand, there is heritage being intangible in daily routine. Let’s take a look at some of these.
the form of literature, oral, traditions, concepts, and
values.

The word “artefact” or “artifact” comes from

Tangible heritage could be divided into two two Latin words, “arte” or “ars” which mean skill
categories: movable and immovable. The primary and “factum” to do or to make. The word dates
difference in these categories is the size of the back to the early 1800s, meaning “something
heritage. For example, the Stonehenge is an created by humans usually for a practical purpose;
immovable tangible heritage, whereas the especially: an object remaining from a particular
sarcophagus of the pharaoh Tutankhamun is a period” and “something characteristic of or
movable tangible heritage. resulting from a particular human institution,
period, trend, or individual” (Merriam-Webster

Movable tangible heritage pieces are often 1990, p. 105). In other words, artifact or artefact

removed from the sites where they were found and defined as any object made or modified by a

transferred to museums for safekeeping and human culture, individual or group that is

maintenance. recovered long after the time it served its purpose,

through an archaeological endeavor or even by

Immovable tangible heritage pieces are often left accident or chance.

to the elements of nature (i.e., rain, wind, sand,

sun), which makes them vulnerable to decay and Module 5: Context, Content, Processes and
corrosion. This does not mean that conservation Consequences of Socialization
efforts are not being made. However, due to the
constant exposure of these objects to these Ideas, belief, behavior and other information that
elements, conservation becomes more challenging. are passed on by member of society to individual
are the content of socialization and enculturation.
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When we say content, we simply mean the Figure 2. Process of Socialization and
substance of the idea being handed down. Enculturation

What will happen if someone is socialized?

Well, one can establish selfconcepts about one’s
gender-role or task in his society as individual. One
may show socially-accepted behavior to blend in
and directly become the vessel of culture. When
Figure 1. Contents of Socialization and we say vessel of culture, one can be an instrument
Enculturation to bring the culture and practice of one group to
another.
There are different methods used in socialization
to pass the content to an individual is called the
Socialization happens within biological,
process of socialization – the formal and the
psychological, and social aspect or context of a
informal. Most likely, socialization takes place in a
person. According to socio-biology, even new- born
formal way like in school where formal educations
babies seem to attempt social interaction by moving
are practiced. It is structured, controlled, and
their heads back and forth looking for milk.
directed primarily by teachers who are
Manifestations of body contact with their caregivers
professionals.
suggests that infants are born wanting socialization
or human contact.
Informal process can happen anywhere. It involves
imitations of what others do, coupled with repetitive
Psychological context includes feelings, anger,
practice of skills.
love, and happiness or a sense of emotional
deprivation, in other words, the emotional states
and cognitive development aspect of a human
person can be influenced by people around them.

Social and historical events can be a factor in

socializing several communities. Studies have
shown that people who experience economic
hardships and deprivations try to highly value
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marriage and family than those who are not. and others. The discipline of Sociology focuses
Socioeconomic status affects one’s view about primarily on the study of social groups in a society.
family and marriage. However, as far as Sociological Theories or Perspectives. Different
enculturation is concerned, one may adopt or sociological perspectives enable sociologists to
reject a particular culture. Deviance is a behavior view social issues through a variety of useful
that defies social norms of a group or society lenses.
which results to rebellion, ritualism, innovation and
retreatism. Accordingly, innovation involves in the I. Structural – Functional Theory
acceptance of the goals of culture but rejects the Structural-functional theory, also called
means of attaining those goals. For example, a functionalism, sees society as a structure with
particular group share the same interrelated parts designed to meet the biological
goal but has different ways of achieving these and social needs of the individuals in that society.
goals. Moreover, rebellion is a case where an Functionalism grew out of the writings of English
individual rejects cultural goals and the means of philosopher and biologist, Hebert Spencer (1820–
achieving it by trying to totally replace the goals 1903), who saw similarities between society and
and means. Further, retreatism includes the the human body. He argued that just as the various
rejection of both cultural goals and the traditional organs of the body work together to keep the body
means of achieving these goals. Also, ritualism functioning, the various parts of society work
implicates rejection of cultural goals but reduce together to keep society functioning (Spencer
the acceptance of the ways for achieving the 1898). The parts of society that Spencer
goals. referred to were the social institutions, or patterns
of beliefs and behaviors focused on meeting
social needs, such as government, education,
Module 6: Forms and functions of Social
family, healthcare, religion, and the economy.
Groups Sociological Perspective of Society

Social groups are fundamental parts of human life. Émile Durkheim, another early sociologist,
They are a multitude of people who see each other applied Spencer’s theory to explain how societies
often and think of themselves as part of a group. change and survive over time. Durkheim believed
There appears to be groups of people everywhere. that society is a complex system of interrelated
We could be a member of a church group, college and interdependent parts that work together to
class, workplace, sports team, club, maintain stability (Durkheim 1893), and that
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society is held together by shared values, extracurricular activities, or even finding a spouse
languages, and symbols. Durkheim believed that or partner.
individuals may make up society, but in order to
study society, sociologists have to look beyond Another latent function of education is creating a
individuals to social facts. hierarchy of employment based on the level of
education attained. Latent functions can be
Social facts are the laws, morals, values, religious beneficial, neutral, or harmful. Social processes
beliefs, customs, fashions, rituals, and all of the that have undesirable consequences for the
cultural rules that govern social life (Durkheim operation of society are called dysfunctions. In
1895). Each of these social facts serves one or education, examples of dysfunction include getting
more functions within a society. For example, one bad grades, truancy, dropping out, not graduating,
function of a society’s laws may be to protect and not finding suitable employment.
society from violence, while another is to punish
criminal behavior, while another is to preserve II. Conflict Theory
public safety. Conflict theory looks at society as a competition for
limited resources. This perspective is a macro-
Structural functionalist, Robert Merton (1910– level approach most identified with the writings of
2003), pointed out that social processes often have German philosopher and sociologist Karl Marx
many functions. (1818–1883), who saw society as being made up of
two classes, the bourgeoisie (capitalist) and the
Manifest functions are the consequences of a proletariat (workers), who must compete for social,
social process that are sought or anticipated, while material, and political resources such as food and
latent functions are the unsought consequences of housing, employment, education, and leisure time.
a social process. Social institutions like government, education, and
religion reflect this competition in their inherent

A manifest function of college education, for inequalities and help maintain the unequal social

example, includes gaining knowledge, preparing structure.

for a career, and finding a good job that utilizes

that education. Latent functions of your college In the economic sphere, Marx focused on the
years include meeting new people, participating in “mode of production” (e.g., the industrial factory)

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German sociologist Max Weber agreed with some Symbolic Interactionist Theory is a micro-level
of Marx’s main ideas, but also believed that in theory that focuses on meanings attached to
addition to economic inequalities, there were human interaction, both verbal and non-verbal, and
inequalities of political power and social structure to symbols.
that caused conflict. Weber noted that different
groups were affected differently based on Communication — the exchange of meaning
education, race, and gender, and that people’s through language and symbols—is believed to be
reactions to inequality were moderated by class the way in which people make sense of their social
differences and rates of social mobility, as well as worlds.
by perceptions about the legitimacy of those in
power. Charles Horton Cooley introduced the looking-
glass self (1902) to describe how a person’s self of
Ida B. Wells articulated the conflict perspective self grows out of interactions with others, and he
when she theorized a connection between an proposed a threefold process for this development:
increase in lynching and an increase in black
socioeconomic mobility in the United States from 1) we see how others react to us, 2) we interpret
the late 1800s into the mid-20th century. She also that reaction (typically as positive or negative) and
examined competition within the feminist 3) we develop a sense of self based on those
movement as women fought for the right to vote, interpretations. “Looking-glass” is an archaic term
yet the presumably egalitarian mainstream for a mirror, so Cooley theorized that we “see”
suffragist movements were headed by white ourselves when we interact with others.
women who excluded black women from suffrage.

W.E.B. DuBois also examined race in the U.S. George Herbert Mead (1863–1931) is considered
and in U.S. colonies from a conflict perspective, a founder of symbolic interactionism, though he
and emphasized the importance of a reserve labor never published his work on this subject (LaRossa
force, made up of black men. Race conflict and Reitzes 1993). Mead’s student, Herbert
paradigms will be examined later in the course in Blumer, actually coined the term “symbolic
the module devoted to race and ethnicity. interactionism” and outlined these basic premises:
humans interact with things based on meanings

III. Symbolic Interactionist Theory ascribed to those things; the ascribed

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meaning of things comes from our interactions with A. Social organization is defined as the system of
others and society; the meanings of things are relationships between persons and among groups
interpreted by a person when dealing with things in about the division of activity and functional mutual
specific circumstances (Blumer 1969). This sounds obligations within society.
close to Cooley’s looking-glass self, but Mead’s
contribution was really to the development of self, The family serves as an important universal social
especially in childhood, which we’ll discuss in more institution. It is the basic unit of social organization
detail when we address theories of socialization. If that is essential part of human society.
you love books, for example, a symbolic
interactionist might propose that you learned that
books are There are several kinds of families: nuclear
good or important in the interactions you had with (consist of parents and children), extended
family, friends, school, or church; maybe your (nuclear family with relatives), and reconstituted
family had a special reading time each week, families (spouses and children from previous
getting your library card was treated as a special marriage). It is the basis of kinship- a system of
event, or bedtime stories were associated with social organization which is based on recognized
warmth and comfort. family ties. Kinship ties is based on descent can be
Matrilineal (female line), Patrilineal Kinship (male
The focus on the importance of interaction in line), and Bilineal kinship (both female and male
building a society led sociologists like Erving lines).
Goffman (1922–1982) to develop a technique
called dramaturgical analysis. Goffman used Kinship is of three types:
theater as an analogy for social interaction and
recognized that people’s interactions showed Consanguineous kinship that is also known as a
patterns of cultural “scripts.” Since it can be kinship by blood, affinal kinship which is also
unclear what part a person may play in a given known as kinship by marriage, and the kinship by
situation, as we all occupy multiple roles in a given ritual.
day (i.e., student, friend, son/ daughter, employee,
etc.), one has to improvise his or her role as the Affinal kinship, on the other hand refers to the
situation unfolds (Goffman 1958). bond that is formed through marriage. It can be
monogamous or polygamous.
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Monogamy means that a person is married to one Charismatic Authority - is authority made
person only. Polygamy, on the other hand, means legitimate by a leader with a mission and vision
that a person has more than one spouse at a time. that inspires others. Legal-Rational Authority -
refers to a form of leadership made legitimate by
legal rationality. It legitimacy derived from the
Kinship plays a huge role in the kind of society that power of the content of law.
we are living today. Its influences affect our politics
and economy. One example would be the
existence of the political dynasties. Forms of Social Group

A dynasty refers to a succession of rulers from the Groups are formed as an assemblage of people
same family or lineage. Political organizations who often interact with each other on the basis of a
follow certain guidelines or regulations to ensure common outlook concerning behavior and a sense
that political processes are going smoothly. of common identity. A social group may consist of
two or more individuals who do things together
Authority – is the concept of right to issue and, with a common goal and interest.
using coercive power to enforce a command.

Legitimacy – originated from the Latin word Examples: Family, relatives, couples friends,
“legitimare”, meaning to declare, lawful”. According churchmate, schoolmate, co-workers, business,
to Weber, it is the basis of every system of neighborhood, organization, teammate, clubs
authority, a willingness to obey, and a belief by
virtue of which persons exercising authority are Group - is any collection of people who interact
lent prestige” on the basis of shared expectations regarding one
another’s behavior ( Kornblum, 2003).
Weber’s Theory of Authority is classified into Consistoftwoormorepeoplewhoarebound
three types: together in relatively stable patterns of social
Traditional Authority - is legitimated by sanctity interaction and who share a feeling of unity
of tradition or custom ( Hughes and Kroeler, 2009).
Comprisedoftwoormorepersonswhoarein
social interaction, who are guided by similar
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 norms, values and expectations, and who 3. Each member in a group has roles to play.
maintain a stable pattern of relationship over a 4. There is mutual reciprocity among members in
period of time. Is a specified number of a group.
individuals where each recognizes members
from non-member; It is a collection of Group as distinguished from other Collection
individuals characterize by: of People like:
a) Communication 1. Aggregate -asimplecollectionofpeoplewho
b) Recognition are in the same place at the same time without
c) Specializedroles interacting with each other Eg. People inside the
movie house, people riding in an LRT/MRT 2.
Three Requirements for a group Category - a simple collection of people who
1. There must be two or more people. share distinctive characteristics (age, sex, race,
2. There must be interaction. income/social class, occupation, religion, political
3. The members must be together physically. beliefs, ethnicity Eg. Males/females in the society;
the infants; children; youth; adults/ the aged; slum

Factors that influence Groups dwellers;

1. Motivational base shared by individuals (based the middle class; the millionaires
on needs, interests, desires, noble activities, 3. Collectivity - Collection of people in a given
insecurities, or problems) 2. Size of the group 3. place and time
Type of group goals 4.The kind of a group Eg. Crowds, masses, public and social
cohesion/unity (the capability to function and movements are temporary groups
interact collectively in the direction of their goals)

Importance of a Group
1.A group is a major source of solidarity and
General Characteristics of a Group cohesion. 2.A group reinforces and strengthens
1.A group has identity identifiable by both its our integration into society. 3.A group shares basic
members and outsiders. 2. A group has a social survival and problem- solving techniques to satisfy
structure in the sense that each part or member personal and emotional needs.
has a position related to other positions.

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4.A group gives meaning and support to an - Is one which an individual does not only have a
individual. high regard for but one after which he or she
patterns his/her life - Its central aspect is self-
How is a group formed? identification rather than actual membership
1. The desire to achieve an objective
2. To meet the needs of the individual member
3. People are treated alike by others Types of Group Boundaries
A. Formal Group Boundaries
Group Boundaries - groups in which duties and privileges are clearly
A. In-group defined and expectations are prescribed,
- group with which the individual identifies and independent of the person who happens to occupy
which gives him sense of belonging, solidarity, a given position - Individual roles are explicitly
camaraderie, esprit de corps, and a protective designed as president, v-president, secretary, and
attitude toward the other members. - The members treasurer - With constitution or set of by-laws
are loyal to each other and share common norms,
activities, goals and background.

B. Informal Group Boundaries

B. Out-group - Arises spontaneously out of the interactions of
- Viewed as outsiders by the in-group; - Any two or more people - They are unplanned, have no
member of the in-group has insufficient contact explicit rules for membership, and do not have
with the members of the out-group - Members of specific objectives to be attained - The members
the in-group have feelings of strangeness, dislikes, exchange confidences, share a feeling of intimacy
avoidance, antagonism, indifference and even and acquire a sense of belongingness.
hatred toward the out-group

C. Reference group
- Group that is significant to us as models even Consequences of Group Boundaries
though we ourselves may not be a part of the a. People gain a clearer sense of their diversity
group. b. Ethnocentrism may grow
c.Serious personal and social problems may
arise
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Functions of Social Groups Thus, networks function as a social media
We typically belong to a certain type of social influencer.
group, with each group having its own functions.
Social networks are influential in a wide range of
The primary group plays a vital part in the online platforms used for building social
socialization process. It forms the social nature and relationships with other people including sharing of
ideals of individuals especially in shaping the political opinions, likes and dislikes, and can even
culture and personality where a person learns show trending societal issues or personalities.
social norms, beliefs, morals, and values.

Secondary group members tend to relate to

others only in specific roles and for practical
reasons. This group helps in fulfilling various types
of human needs and brings about social
awareness and social change. Also, this group
helps fulfill various special interests in such fields
as sports, dance, music, and others.

An in-group may form within our secondary group

such as our workmates, group mates, or assembly
which functions as a group of people who can
connect with each other because of their sense of
identity and belongingness while out group
functions as a competitor or rival group that an
individual is opposed to.

Reference group provides a standard of

measurement. This group has a strong impact on
how a person thinks and acts as it may serve as
guide to a member’s behavior and social norms.
@brm perlm an