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Brake System Principles

Components,
and Operation
— Second Edition

Custom Edition for Corinthian Colleges |

Prentice Custom __
aeelll _ Publishing

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey Boston, Massachusetts

Columbus, Ohio
Figure Credits:
Figures identified as “(Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X)” and “(Chek-Chart, 0-13-048204-8)” are from Chek-Chart, Automotive
Engine Brake Systems, Fourth Edition, Classroom Manual and Shop Manuat, respectively. Copyright © 2006 by Pearson
Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458.

Figures identified as “(Halderman & Mitchell, 0-13-099453-7)” are reprinted from James D. Halderman and Chase D. Mitchell, Jr.,
Automotive Technology, Second Edition. Copyright © 2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458.

Thanks to the following WyoTech faculty members for their dedicated efforts in revising the automotive curriculum: Dave
Neiffer, Olle Gladso, Robert Gaffney, Jon Danielson, Chet Freouf, and David Adiska.

Compilation copyright © 2008 by Corinthian Colleges, Inc.

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Brake System
Principles,
Components,
and Operation —_
 ae eecope aea| master lines
Describe the principles of operation of a master cylinder.
14. Describe the purpose of various brake valves.
15. Describe the principles and operation of wheel cylinders and brake calipers.
16. Identify different types of wheel cylinders and brake calipers.
17. Describe different types of brake fluids and their application.
18. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of drum brake systems.
19. Identify the mechanical components used in drum brake systems.
20. Describe the principles and operation of a duo-servo self-energizing drum brake system.
21. Describe the principles and operation of parking brakes on a drum brake system.
22. Describe the types of friction materials used for brake shoes and pads.
23. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of disc brake systems.
24. Identify the mechanical components used in disc brake systems.
25. Describe the principles and operation of a disc brake system.
26. Describe the principles and operation of parking brakes on a disc brake system.

Module Outline
Introduction 6 Non-Compressibility of Liquids 12
Energy Principles i Constancy of Pressure 12
Kinetic Energy if Hydraulic Pressure and Piston Size 13
Weight and Speed Effects 8 Application Force and Piston Size 14
Kinetic Energy and Brake Design 9 Piston Size Versus Piston Travel 15
Inertia 9 Hydraulic Principles and Brake Design 16
Weight Transfer and Bias 9 Friction Principles 17
Mechanical Principles 10 Coefficient of Friction 17
Levers 10 Surface Finish Effects
First Class Lever Friction Material Effects
Second Class Lever Heat Effects
Third Class Lever Friction Contact Area 19
Levers in a Brake System Static and Kinetic Friction 19
Hydraulic Principles 12 Friction and Heat 20

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

Brake Fade 21 Wheel Cylinders 74
The Need for Power Brakes 22 Components 75
Ways to Increase Braking Power 22 Wheel Cylinder Body
Hydraulic Advantage 22 Wheel Cylinder Pistons and Seals
Power Boosters 22 Wheel Cylinder Dust Boots
Air Pressure High and Low 23 Wheel Cylinder Designs 76
Measuring Vacuum 24 Wheel Cylinder Operation rif
Booster Vacuum Supply 24 Brake Calipers 77
Supplemental Brake Assist Unit 25 Components Tae
Vacuum Boosters 26 Brake Caliper Body
Theory of Operation 27 Brake Caliper Pistons
Vacuum Booster Suspension Caliper Piston Seals
Vacuum Check Valves and Filter Brake Caliper Dust Boots
Phases of Operation Brake Caliper Operation 86
Brake Pedal Feel Brake Fluid 87
Hydraulic Boosters 33 Brake Fluid Specifications 88
Mechanical-Hydraulic Boosters 33 Boiling Point
Phases of Operation Temperature Compatibility
Brake Pedal Feel Material Compatibility
Electro-Hydraulic Boosters ey Fluid Compatibility
Service Brake System Components 38 Brake Fluid Types 90
Pedal Assembly 39 Polyglycol Brake Fluid
Power Booster 39 Silicone Brake Fluid
Master Cylinder 39 Hydraulic System Mineral Oi] (HSMO)
Hydraulic Lines and Hoses 40 Service Brakes Review 93
Hydraulic Switches and Valves 40 Drum Brakes 93
Calipers and Wheel Cylinders 40 Disc Brakes 94
Master Cylinders 41 Drum Brake Advantages 95
Construction 41 Self-Energizing and Servo Action 95
Brake Fluid Reservoir Parking Brake 96
Body Drum Brake Disadvantages 96
Pistons Brake Fade 96
Piston Seals Mechanical Fade
Dual Circuit Brake Systems 47 Lining Fade
Dual Piston Master Cylinder Operation Gas Fade ‘
Quick Take-Up Master Cylinder Water Fade
Master Cylinder Variations Adjusting Mechanism 97
Brake Valves 55 Brake Pull 97
Residual Pressure Check Valve 55 Complexity 97
Residual Check Valve Operation Drum Brake Construction 97
Systems Without Residual Check Valves Backing Plate 97
Metering Valve 56 Shoe Anchors
Metering Valve Operation Piston Stops
Systems Without Metering Vaives Shoe Support Pads
Proportioning Valve 58 Wheel Cylinders 99
Proportioning Valve Operation Brake Shoes 99
Height-Sensing Proportioning Valve Brake Shoe Return Springs 100
Electronic Brake Proportioning Brake Shoe Hold-Downs 100
Combination Valves 62 Parking Brake Linkage 100
Brake System Switches 63 Brake Drum 101
Pressure Differential Switch 63 Drum Brake Design 102
Pressure Differential Switch Operation Non-Servo Brakes 102
Fluid Level Switch 65 Self-Energizing Action
Fluid Level Switch Operation Specific Non-Servo Brakes
Stoplight Switch 67 Dual-Servo Brakes 103
Stoplight Switch Operation Dual-Servo Brake Construction
Brake Lines 68 Dual-Servo Brake Operation
Brake Tubing 68 Brake Adjusters 106
Brake Hoses 69 Starwheel Automatic Adjusters 106
Brake Line Fittings 71 Servo Brake Starwheel Automatic Adjusters 106
Compression Fittings Non-Servo Starwheel Automatic Adjusters 108
Flare Fittings Parking Brake Automatic Adjusters 109

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

 Ratchet Automatic Adjusters 109 Self-Adjusting Ability 125
Lever Latch Automatic Adjuster 109 Freedom from Pull 125
Strut Quadrant Automatic Adjuster 110 Disc Brake Disadvantages 126
Rear Drum Parking Brakes 111 No Self-Energizing or Servo Action 126
Parking Brake Pedals 111 Brake Noise 126
Automatic Parking Brake Release Poor Parking Brake Performance 127
Parking Brake Levers 112 Disc Brake Construction 127
Warning Lights and Switches 112 Caliper 127
Parking Brake Cables 113 Splash Shield 127
Types of Drum Parking Brakes 114 Brake Pads 127
Integral Drum Parking Brakes Brake Rotor 128
Brake Friction Materials 115 Disc Brake Design 128
Drum Brake Shoe Construction 115 Fixed Caliper Design 129
Primary and Secondary Brake Shoes Fixed Caliper Advantages
Disc Brake Pad Construction 117 Fixed Caliper Disadvantages
Pad Wear Indicators Fixed Caliper Alignment
Pad and Lining Assembly Methods 118 Floating and Sliding Caliper Design 130
Riveting Floating and Sliding Caliper Advantages
Bonding Floating and Sliding Caliper Disadvantages
Mold Bonding Floating Calipers
Brake Lining Composition 120 Sliding Calipers
Semi-Metallic Friction Material Four-Wheel Disc Brakes 133
Non-Asbestos Friction Material Four-Wheel Disc Hydraulic Systems 134
Carbon Fiber Friction Material Rear Disc Parking Brakes 134
Ceramic Friction Material Rear-Disc Auxiliary Drum Parking Brakes 134
Replacement Lining Recipe 122 Caliper-Actuated Disc Parking Brakes 135
Disc Brakes 122 Ball and Ramp Actuation
Disc Brake Advantages 22 Screw, Nut, and Cone Actuation
Fade Resistance 123 Eccentric Shaft and Rod Actuation
Swept Area Other Rear Disc Parking Brake Adjusters
Mechanical Fade Summary 139
Lining Fade Review Questions 144
Gas Fade
Water Fade

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

 } im reflux boiling :
ee silicone—
base |brakes. filler port motion sliding caliper
_bearingized | first class lever non-directional brake. splash shield
booster holding position — i law a non-servo brake spool valve
booster vacuum run-out 7 el moay ances over-travel spring static friction
point fixed caliper oxidation supplemental brake assist
brake balance © floating caliper — Pascal’s law (SBA)
brake disc foundation brakes pawl swept area
brake fade friction polyglycol tandem booster
brake lines gas fade port-less master cylinder thermodynamics
brake pads grommets power booster third class lever
brake rotor homogenous power chamber trailing shoe
brake shoe hydraulic system mineral pressure vacuum
bridge bolts oil (HSMO) pressure differential vacuum-suspended power
caliper hygroscopic primary shoe chamber
cam inert quick take-up master vapor lock
center-port master cylinder | holt cylinder vent port
coefficient of friction quick take-up valve viscosity
compensating port integral vacuum booster reaction disc water fade
kinetic
eee energy red brake warning light ways
corrosion
cup seal kinetic friction — weight bias
diaphragm aa cut O-ring replenishing port weight transfer
DOT number eading shoe residual pressure © wheel cylinders.
dual-circuit brake system leverage rotor run-out
work
lining fade second class lever
dual master cylinder

The vehicle brake system is no different. The

Introduction vehicle brake system must do several tasks. It
Vehicles have many various tasks to perform. must be able to slow and stop the vehicle under
The conditions in which these tasks are per- varying conditions. The brake system must be
formed in can, and probably will, change. A few able to hold the vehicle in position when
conditions that can change are atmospheric con- stopped on level surfaces or an incline. Some of
ditions, road surface, vehicle weight, and vehicle the physical elements involved in vehicle brake
speed. These conditions can quickly change on systems are the weight and speed of the vehicle,
nearly every drive from vehicle start-up through the hydraulic pressure of the brake actuating
acceleration, cruise, deceleration, and stopping, system, the mechanical force used to apply the
many times only to perform each process again. brake friction assemblies, and the heat created
Vehicles perform these tasks in accordance with by the wheel friction assemblies. All of these ele-
the physical “laws” or principles that describe ments affect vehicle brake system performance
the relationship between the elements of the and how the vehicle reacts when the brakes are
physical world. applied.

6 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

 During this lesson we will discuss the various electrical energy into mechanical energy that is
principles that the vehicle brake system operates used to crank the engine.
by and the subsystems and the components that In the previous example, energy is being used
allow the brake system to operate efficiently and to perform work. Work is the transfer of energy
effectively. A good thorough understanding of from one physical system to another, especially
brake system components and their operation is the transfer of energy to an object through the ap-
pertinent to perform a safe, proper diagnosis and plication of force. This is precisely what occurs
repair of the brake system when its performance when a vehicle’s brakes are applied: the force of
is less than satisfactory. When a vehicle’s brake the actuating system transfers the energy of the
system performance is reduced, the consequences vehicle’s motion to the brake drums or rotors
can be dangerous or even disastrous. To avoid where friction converts it into heat energy and
these undesirable occurrences, the automotive stops the vehicle. To understand this process more
technician must possess a good understanding of clearly, let’s take a closer look at energy in the
automotive brake system operation. brake system.

Energy Principles Kinetic Energy

Energy is the ability to do work. There are many Kinetic energy is a fundamental form of me-
forms of energy, but chemical, mechanical, and chanical energy; it is the energy of mass in mo-
electrical energy are the most familiar kinds in- tion. Every moving object possesses kinetic
volved in the operation of a vehicle (Figure 1). energy, and the amount of that energy is deter-
For example, when the ignition key is turned to mined by the object’s mass and speed. The
the Start position, chemical energy in the battery greater the mass of an object and the faster it
is converted into electrical energy to operate the moves, the more kinetic energy it possesses. Even
starter motor. The starter motor then converts the at low speeds, a moving automobile has enough
kinetic energy to cause serious injury and dam-
age (Figure 2).
The job of the brake system is to dispose of that
energy in a safe and controlled manner.
It is important to note that kinetic energy is
based on speed and mass, not weight. The differ-
ence is subtle, but one way to describe it is to say
that mass remains constant while weight can vary.
For example, an astronaut and a space shuttle

CHEMICAL SOUND
Figure 2 This vehicle shows the results if a vehicle’s
Figure 1 @ Energy, the ability to perform work, exists in kinetic energy is not dissipated in a controlled
many forms. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.) manner. (Courtesy of Jeffrey Rehkopf.)

Ff
BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION
resting on the launching pad have a weight differ- While the previous baseball examples indicate
ence of several hundred tons, but once in orbit the effect of weight on kinetic energy is less than
they weigh the same: nothing. Their respective that of speed, weight does have a major effect. The
masses, however, remain very different. If a space- equation for computing kinetic energy can show
walking astronaut grasps a wing and tries to exactly what that effect is. If a 3,000-pound vehicle
move the shuttle, the only thing that will move is traveling at 30 mph is compared to a 6,000-pound
the astronaut’s body. Despite the fact that both are vehicle also traveling at 30 mph, the equations for
weightless, the mass of the shuttle remains thou- computing their respective kinetic energies look
sands of times greater than that of the astronaut. like this (Figure 3):
Technically, weight is the mass of an object acted
upon by the force of gravity. Since the force of 3,000 Ib. X 30* mph
= 90,301 ft.-lb.
gravity is relatively constant on Earth, we will use 299
the terms “weight” and “mass” interchangeably
in this text.
6,000 Ib. x 302 mph
= 180,602 ft.-lb.
Weight and Speed Effects MNS)
Although both weight and speed contribute to ki-
netic energy, they do not affect it to the same de- The results show that when the weight of a vehi-
gree; speed has a much greater effect. Consider two cle is doubled from 3,000 to 6,000 pounds, its kinetic
balls, a lightweight foam baseball and a regulation energy is also doubled from 90,301 foot-pounds to
hardball that weighs nine times as much. If both 180,602 foot-pounds. In mathematical terms, kinetic
are thrown by a child at 10 miles per hour (mph), energy increases proportionally as weight in-
neither is likely to cause injury if it hits someone. creases. In other words, if the weight of a moving
Both balls travel at the same speed, but despite the
object doubles, its kinetic energy also doubles; if the
relatively large difference in weight, there is not a weight quadruples, the kinetic energy becomes four
significant difference in kinetic energy. times as great.
Now bring in a major league pitcher who can The baseball example also indicated that speed
throw the hardball 90 mph, nine times faster than the has a much greater effect on kinetic energy than
child. While a baseball thrown at 10 mph is nearly weight does. The equation for computing kinetic
harmless, the fastball can break bones or cause a con- energy can again be used to explain why this oc-
cussion. The baseball has the same weight in both curs. If a 3,000-pound vehicle traveling at 30 mph is
cases, but the nine-fold increase in speed results in compared to the same vehicle traveling at 60 mph,
much greater kinetic energy than did the nine-fold the equations for computing their respective kinetic
weight increase of the previous example. energies look like this (Figure 4):
The relative effects of speed and weight on ki-
netic energy hold true for all physical objects in-
3,000 Ib x 30? mph
= 90,301 ft.-lb.
cluding automobiles. To explain why this occurs, 29.9
it is necessary to look at kinetic energy from a
mathematical viewpoint. Engineers calculate ki- 3,000 lb x 60° mph
netic energy using the formula: = 361,204 ft.-lb.
29
Z
MV
== EF
29.9 c
= 90,301 FT.-LB.
Where:

m. = mass or weight of the vehicle in pounds

v = velocity of the vehicle in miles per hour
E = kinetic energy in foot-pounds (ft.-lb.)
29.9 is a constant that converts the measurement
into foot-pounds. = = 180,602 FT.-LB.
Another way to express this equation is:
30 MPH &>
weight X speed?
= kinetic energy Figure 3 Kinetic energy increases in direct proportion to
DEMe) vehicle weight. (Halderman & Mitchell, 0-13-099453-7.)

8 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

 Newton’s first law of motion that states that a
= 90,301 FT.-LB.
body at rest tends to remain at rest, and a body in
motion tends to remain in motion in a straight line
unless acted upon by an outside force.
The space shuttle described earlier is at rest on
the launch pad and remains so until acted upon
by an outside force, in this case its rocket engines.
As the shuttle reaches space, its engines are shut
7A. = 361,204 FT.-LB. off and, following Newton’s law, it attempts to
continue in a straight line away from the Earth.
60 MPH &> However, the outside force of gravity acts upon
Figure 4 @ Kinetic energy increases as the square of any the shuttle and bends its course into a curved path
increase in vehicle speed. (Halderman & Mitchell, called an orbit.
0-13-099453-7.)
Weight Transfer and Bias
The results show that the vehicle traveling at Inertia, in the form of weight transfer, plays a big
30 mph has over 90,000 foot-pounds of kinetic en- part ina vehicle’s braking performance. Newton’s
ergy, but at 60 mph the figure increases to over first law of motion dictates that a moving vehicle
350,000 foot-pounds. In fact, at twice the speed, the will remain in motion unless acted upon by an
vehicle has exactly four times as much kinetic en- outside force. The vehicle’s brakes provide that
ergy. If the speed were doubled again to 120 mph, outside force, but when the brakes are applied at
the amount of kinetic energy would grow to almost the wheel friction assemblies, only the wheels and
1,500,000 foot-pounds! In mathematical terms, ki- tires begin to slow immediately. The rest of the ve-
netic energy increases as the square of its speed. In hicle, all of the weight carried by the suspension,
other words, if the speed of a moving object doubles attempts to remain in forward motion. The result
(2), the kinetic energy becomes four times as great is that the front suspension compresses, the rear
(2° = 4). And if the speed quadruples (4), say from suspension extends, and the weight is transferred
15 to 60 mph, the kinetic energy becomes 16 times toward the front of the vehicle. The total weight of
as great (4° = 16). This is the reason speed has such the vehicle does not change, only the amount sup-
an impact on kinetic energy. ported by each axle (Figure 5).
To compound the problem of weight transfer,
Kinetic Energy and Brake Design most vehicles also have a forward weight bias,
even when stopped, as more than 50% of their
The relationships between weight, speed, and ki- weight is supported by the front wheels. This oc-
netic energy have significant practical conse- curs because the engine, transmission, and most
quences for the brake system engineer. If vehicle A other heavy parts are located toward the front of
weighs twice as much as vehicle B, it needs a brake the vehicle. Front-wheel-drive (FWD) vehicles, in
system that is twice as powerful. But if vehicle C particular, have a forward weight bias (Figure 6).
has twice the speed potential of vehicle D, it needs Whenever the brakes are applied, weight trans-
brakes that are not twice, but four times more fer and weight bias greatly increase the load on
powerful. In the 1950s when horsepower, vehicle the front wheels, while the load on the rear wheels
weights, and highway speeds all increased dra-
matically, many large, heavy vehicles had mar-
ginal brakes. Since the introduction of disc brakes, DIRECTION OF TRAVEL
however, most vehicles have had brake systems
BRAKING TENDS
with a good margin of safety. BRAKING TENDS TO TO LIFT REAR
FORCE DOWN FRONT 7, WHEELS
WHEELS

Inertia
Although brake engineers take both weight and
speed capability into account when designing a LESS BRAKING POWER
brake system, these are not the only factors in- NEEDED HERE NEEDED HERE
volved. Another physical property, inertia, also Figure 5 @ Inertia creates weight transfer that requires the
affects the braking process and the selection of front brakes to provide most of the vehicle’s
brake components. Inertia is defined by Isaac braking power. (Courtesy of EIS Brake Parts.)

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 9

 POWERTRAIN
Figure 6 @ This FWD vehicle has a forward weight bias that
places more than 60% of its weight over the front
wheels. (Courtesy of Hunter Engineering Company.)

is substantially reduced. This requires the front

brakes to provide 60%-80% of the total braking
force. To deal with the extra load, the front brakes
are much more powerful than the rear brakes;
they are able to convert more kinetic energy into
heat energy.

Interim Summary
friction assemblies to develop that heat, they
must be applied with great force; in fact, the force
1. When vehicle is doubled, required is so great that leverage and hydraulics
the braking power needed is also doubled. must be employed to allow a human being to ap-
2. If the same vehicle’s speed is doubled, the ply it. This section details the mechanical princi-
braking power needed will be ples used by braking actuating systems to create
times more than at the the necessary application force. Hydraulic actu-
lower speed. ating principles are covered in the next section.
3. Newton’s first law of motion states that a
body in motion tends to Levers

4. Weight transfer and weight bias increase the The primary mechanical principle used to in-
on the front of the vehicle crease application force in every brake system is
when the vehicle is moving forward and leverage. In the science of mechanics, a lever is a
the brakes are applied. simple machine that consists of a rigid object, typ-
of the ofa ically a metal bar, that pivots about a fixed point
vehicle do the most braking of the car. called a fulcrum. There are three basic types of
levers, but the job of all three is to change a quan-
tity of energy into a more useful form. The type of
Mechanical Principles lever chosen for a particular job is normally deter-
mined by the situation and the results desired.
The physical principles of kinetic energy and in- The following paragraphs examine the effects the
ertia describe the forces the brake system must three different kinds of levers have on the job of
convert into heat through friction. For the wheel moving a 10-pound weight.

10 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

First Class Lever Third Class Lever
A first class lever increases the force applied to it A third class lever actually reduces the force applied
and also changes the direction of the force to it, but the resulting force moves farther and faster
(Figure 7). With a first class lever, the weight is (Figure 9). With a third class lever, the fulcrum is lo-
placed at one end while the lifting force is ap- cated at one end and the weight is placed at the other;
plied to the other; the fulcrum is positioned at the lifting force is applied at some point in-between.
some point in-between. If the fulcrum is placed If a 10-pound weight is placed at the end of the lever,
twice as far from the long end of the lever as from it canbe lifted by a 20-pound force applied at the mid-
the short end, a 10-pound weight on the short dle of the lever. Although the force required to move
end can be lifted by a 5-pound force at the long the weight has doubled, the weight is moved twice as
end. However, the short end of the lever will far and twice as fast as the point on the lever where
travel only half as far as the long end. Moving the the force was applied. The closer to the fulcrum the
fulcrum closer to the weight will further reduce lifting force is applied, the greater the force required
the force required to lift it, but it will also de- and the farther and faster the weight will move.
crease the distance the weight is moved.
Levers in a Brake System
Second Class Lever
The levers in brake systems are used to increase
A second class lever increases the force applied force, so they are either first or second class. Sec-
to it and passes it along in the same direction ond class levers are the most common, and the
(Figure 8). With a second class lever, the fulcrum service brake pedal is a good example. Ina typical
is located at one end while the lifting force is ap- suspended brake pedal, the pedal arm is the lever,
plied at the other; the weight is positioned at the pivot point is the fulcrum, and the force is ap-
some point in-between. If a 10-pound weight is plied at the foot pedal pad (Figure 10).
placed at the center of the lever, it can be lifted by
a 5-pound force at the end of the lever. However, <— 1-1/2 FT aaa FT ——>
the weight will only travel half the distance the
end of the lever does. As the weight is moved
closer to the fulcrum, the force required to lift it
and the distance it travels are both reduced.
FULCRUM ff FORCE =WEIGHT
LEVER
Figure 9 @ A third class lever reduces force but increases the
speed and travel of the resulting work. (Chek-Chart,
0-13-048203-X.)

MASTER CYLINDER

FULCRUM
FORCE
FULCRUM
10-LB LEVER
WEIGHT
Figure 7 @ A first class lever increases force and changes the
direction of the force. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

1 FT 1417 FT a

sin®
FULCRUM 10-LB
=:WEIGHT FORCE
LEVER
Figure 10 @ This brake pedal assembly is a second class
Figure 8 @ A second class lever increases force in the same lever that provides a 5 to 1 mechanical
direction that it is applied. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.) advantage. (Halderman & Mitchell, 0-13-099453-7.)

11
BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION
 The force applied to the master cylinder by the
pedal pushrod attached to the pivot is much
greater than the force applied at the pedal pad, but
the pushrod does not travel nearly as far.
Leverage creates a mechanical advantage that,
at the brake pedal, is called the pedal ratio. For ex-
ample, a pedal ratio of 5 to 1 is common for manual
brakes, which means that a pressure of 10 pounds at
the brake pedal will result in pressure of 50 pounds
at the pedal pushrod. In practice, leverage is used
at many points in both the service and parking
brake systems to increase braking force while
making it easier for the driver to control the
amount of force applied.

Hydraulic Principles COMPRESSED AIR

In addition to the mechanical advantage provided Figure 12 Hydraulic systems must be air free to operate
by leverage, all modern cars, and many trucks, use properly. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)
hydraulic pressure to help increase brake applica-
tion force. They do so because hydraulic actuating
systems are governed by physical laws that make much pressure or force is placed on a quantity of
them very efficient at transmitting motion and liquid, its volume will remain the same. This trait
force. In addition, hydraulic principles make it eas- enables liquids in a closed system to transmit mo-
ier and more convenient to achieve large increases tion. Figure 11 shows a simple hydraulic system.
in application force than if the same gains were ob- If piston A is moved a distance of 1 inch, the liquid
tained by mechanical methods such as leverage. will be displaced ahead of it and piston B will
The laws of hydraulics explain how this is done. move 1 inch as well.
While liquids cannot be compressed, the same is
Non-Compressibility of Liquids not true of gasses. A gas such as air will compress,
and hydraulic systems must be free of air to work
Hydraulic systems use liquids to transmit motion. properly. The simple hydraulic system shown in
This is possible because, for all practical purposes,
Figure 12 has been contaminated with air.
a liquid cannot be compressed. No matter how Even though piston A is moved a distance of
1 inch, piston B will not move if the load on it is
PISTON greater than the pressure of the air in the system.
For example, if the load on piston B is 50 pounds
per square inch, the movement of piston A must
compress the air in the system to that same pres-
sure before piston B will begin to move.
Unfortunately, air requires a great deal of work
to compress to high pressures. The amount of pis-
ton travel in a hydraulic brake system is insuffi-
cient to compress even a small amount of air to
any appreciable degree. This is not to say that air
cannot transmit motion. If enough pressure is
available, as in an air brake system, air works
quite well. But a brake hydraulic system must be
air free or there will be serious problems.

Constancy of Pressure
LIQUID Brake hydraulic systems not only transmit mo-
tion, they also transmit force in the form of hy-
Figure 11 @ Because liquids cannot be compressed, they are draulic pressure. Pressure is the amount of force
able to transmit motion in a closed system. (Chek- applied to a specific area. It is usually measured in
Chart, 0-13-048203-X.) pounds per square inch (psi) or kilo-Pascals (kPa).
12 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION
 1-SQ.-IN PISTON AREA

100
PSI

1/2-SQ.-IN. PISTON AREA

100 LB
Figure 14 @ Mechanical force and master cylinder piston
Figure 13 @ Hydraulic pressure is the same throughout a area determine hydraulic pressure within the
closed system, and acts with equal force on brake system. (Halderman & Mitchell, 0-13-099453-7.)
equal areas. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

The formula used by engineers to compute pres-

The latter term comes, in part, from the name of sures within a brake system is:
Blaise Pascal, who in 1650 discovered an impor-
tant law governing pressurized liquids. Pascal
found that pressure on a confined liquid is trans-
mitted equally in all directions, and acts with
Where:
equal force on equal areas (Figure 13).
In a brake hydraulic system, Pascal’s law dic- F = mechanical force applied to the piston
tates that if 100 psi is produced by the master A = piston area in square inches (in.”)
cylinder, 100 psi will exist at every point through- P = pressure in psi
out the system. In practice, however, this is not al-
ways true because engineers install different Another way to express this equation is:
kinds of control valves in the system to modify
pressures for more balanced braking. force
Sepriacayoben 5 pounds per square inch
piston area
Hydraulic Pressure and Piston Size
Brake hydraulic systems are designed to operate It is important when using this equation to re-
alize that it is the surface area of the piston, not its
within a certain range of pressures. The amount of
diameter, that affects the pressure.
pressure at any given moment is determined by
Consider the examples shown in Figure 14. If a
two factors: the force applied to the brake pedal
mechanical force of 100 pounds is exerted by the
multiplied by the mechanical advantage of the
brake pedal pushrod onto a master cylinder pis-
pedal ratio, and the surface area of the master
ton with 1 square inch of surface area, the equa-
cylinder piston. The manner in which brake pedal
tion reads:
pressure and pedal ratio result in mechanical force
was described earlier. To understand how changes 100 Ib
in piston area affect hydraulic pressure, it is neces- a LOO psi
Apa
sary to once again take a mathematical approach.

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 13

 The result in this case is 100 psi of brake system Another way to express this equation is:
hydraulic pressure. However, if the same 100-pound psi x area = force
force is applied to a master cylinder piston with
twice the area (2 square inches) the equation will Once again, remember that it is piston surface
read: area, not diameter, that affects force. Some exam-
ples will demonstrate how this equation works.
100 Ib. In the simple brake system shown in Figure 15,
= 50 psi
Onis the pedal and linkage apply a 100-pound force on
a master cylinder piston with an area of 1 square
Doubling the area of the master cylinder piston inch. This results in a pressure of 100 psi through-
cuts the hydraulic system pressure in half. Con- out the hydraulic system. At the front wheels, the
versely, if the same 100-pound force is applied to 100 psi is applied to a brake caliper piston that has
a master cylinder piston with only half the area an area of 4 square inches. The equation for this
(0.5 or 1/2 square inch) the equation will show example is:
that the system pressure is doubled:
100 psi x 4 in.* = 400 lb.
100 Ib.
= 200 psi In this case, the difference in piston areas
Qikar-
(1 square inch compared to 4 square inches) re-
sults in the 100-psi brake pedal pushrod force
Application Force and Piston Size being increased for 400 pounds of application force
at the wheel friction assembly. Note, however, that
While the size of the master cylinder piston affects the hydraulic pressure is still 100 psi at all points
the hydraulic pressure of the entire brake system, within the system—the increase in application pres-
weight shift and bias require that the heavily sure is solely the result of 100 psi acting on a
loaded front brakes receive much higher applica- 4 square inch piston; the 400 pounds is a mechani-
tion force than the lightly loaded rear brakes. cal force, not hydraulic pressure.
These differences in force are obtained by using
different sized pistons in the wheel cylinders and
brake calipers. Remember, Pascal's law states that
a pressurized liquid in a confined space acts with 100 PSI x 4 IN? = 400 LB.
equal pressure on equal areas; as long as the pis-
tons in a hydraulic system have the same area, as
in Figure 13, 100 psi from the master cylinder will
result in 100 psi of friction assembly application
force. However, when equal pressure acts on un- BRAKE CALIPER
equal areas (i.e., different sized pistons) the brake
application force will differ as well.
The mathematical equation in the previous sec- 4-SQ.-IN. PISTON AREA
tion described how mechanical force at the brake
pedal pushrod is applied to the master cylinder 1-SQ.-IN PISTON AREA \
piston area and converted into brake system hy-
draulic pressure. Brake calipers and wheel cylin-
ders perform exactly the opposite; hydraulic
pressure applied to the wheel cylinder or brake
caliper piston area is converted back into mechan-
ical force that is used to apply the wheel friction as-
semblies. Since the variables are identical, the same
equation can be rewritten to explain how changes
in piston size affect brake application force. When
the equation is rewritten to solve for mechanical
force instead of hydraulic pressure, it reads:
lp eyeue= 1k
Where:
P = system hydraulic pressure in psi Figure 15 ® Differences in brake caliper and wheel cylinder
A = piston area in square inches piston area have a significant effect on brake
F = application force in pounds application force. (Halderman & Mitchell, 0-13-099453-7.)

14 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

 Computing Piston Area

For clarity of explanation, all of the hydraulic For example, if a caliper piston has a 2-inch
component examples in this section use pistons diameter (1-inch radius), the equation reads:
with surface areas that are easy to divide and
multiply. In real brake systems, piston sizes are 9.142 «41> = 3.142 sq: in.
chosen for other reasons, and their areas are Likewise, if a wheel cylinder piston has a 0.5 or
usually not simple numbers. The surface area of 1/2-inch diameter (0.25 or 1/4-inch radius), the
any hydraulic piston can be calculated with the equation reads:
formula:
3.142 x 0.25°= 0.196 sq. in.
aR°=A
As the results show, these common piston sizes
Where
result in uneven surface area totals. Choosing
the piston sizes and determining their surface
tm = 3.142
areas so that the vehicle will have proper
R = the radius of the piston diameter in inches
braking balance is one of the many jobs of the
A = the piston surface area in square inches
brake system engineer.
Another way to express this equation is:

3.142 x radius* = area

The drum brakes at the rear wheels of the same that whenever one kind of energy is increased, an-
brake system use wheel cylinders whose pistons other kind must be decreased. Or in even simpler
have three quarters of an inch (3/4 or 0.75) of surface terms, you don’t get something for nothing.
area (Figure 15). If the hydraulic system pressure re- In the previous disc brake example, the me-
mains 100 psi, the equation for this example is: chanical force available to apply the brakes is four
times greater because of the size difference be-
100 psi x 0.75 in.2 = 75 Ib. tween the master cylinder and caliper pistons.
Just as larger pistons increase application force, Some of the hydraulic energy is converted into in-
this example shows that smaller pistons decrease creased mechanical force. The tradeoff is that the
it. Once again the system hydraulic pressure re- larger caliper piston with the greater force will not
mains 100 psi at all points, but the smaller piston move as far as the smaller master cylinder piston.
is unable to transmit all of the available pressure. The amount of hydraulic energy converted into
As a result, the mechanical application force is re- mechanical motion is decreased. The relative
duced to only 75 pounds. movement of pistons within the brake system can
be calculated with the equation:
Piston Size Versus Piston Travel
Although the ability of hydraulic systems to in-
og
A 2
=M
crease and decrease application forces would seem
to make it easy to build very powerful brakes, there Where:
is another side to the process that must be consid- A, = the area of the master cylinder piston
ered. The first law of thermodynamics, which will A, = the area of the wheel cylinder or caliper
be discussed in greater detail later, states that en- piston
ergy cannot be destroyed; it can only be changed S = master cylinder piston stroke length
from one form into another. This can also be stated M = wheel cylinder or caliper piston movement

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 15

 Another way to express this equation is: 1-IN. PISTON ——>
Area, TRAVEL | 1-SQ.-IN. MASTER
x stroke = movement CYLINDER PISTON
Area,

In the case of the previous disc brake example,

the equation would read: ry

! /
yf
ie hae
Seline=21/4ine ie?

4 in.”
3/4-SQ.-IN.
WHEEL
The results show that in this example if the CYLINDER
master cylinder piston stroke is 1 inch, the caliper 3/4-SQ.-IN. athe
piston will move only 1/4 inch (Figure 16). WHEEL
If the caliper piston area were reduced to only CYLINDER
2 square inches, the application force would in- PISTON

crease to only 200 pounds, but the caliper piston

would travel 1/2 inch for a 1-inch master cylinder
stroke. 1-1/3 IN. TOTAL
The equation for computing the difference in PISTON TRAVEL
piston movement works for wheel cylinders as Figure 17 @ The decrease in application force created by a
well. In the previous drum brake example, the small wheel cylinder piston is offset by an
amount of force transmitted by the wheel cylinder increase in piston travel. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)
is less than the 100 psi that exists within the hy-
draulic system. If energy cannot be destroyed, the
extra 25 psi of pressure must be converted into an- travel 1 1/3 inches. With a dual-piston wheel
other form. The equation for this problem reveals cylinder like that shown in Figure 17, the total
where the energy goes: travel is divided between the two pistons.
If the wheel cylinder piston area were reduced
Hing to only 0.5 or 1/2 inch, the application force
SS iin = 1.33310. would be further reduced to only 50 pounds, but
OV oni
the wheel cylinder piston would travel 2 inches
The answer shows that if the master cylinder for a 1-inch master cylinder stroke.
again travels 1 inch, the wheel cylinder piston will In mathematical terms, piston travel changes as
the inverse of the change in the application force.
In other words, if the application force is doubled
ee
a
(2 = 2/1), the piston travel is halved (1/2). But if
the application force is halved (1/2), the piston
travel is doubled (2/1 = 2).
BRAKE CALIPER

4-SQ.-IN. CALIPER ly Hydraulic Principles and Brake Design

PISTON
When a brake system is designed, the hydraulic
PISTON relationships discussed previously play a major
TRAVEL = part in determining the sizes of the many pistons
1/4 re lig within the system. The piston sizes selected must
1 al ber move enough fluid to operate the wheel cylinder
and brake caliper pistons through a wide range of
travel, while at the same time they must create
enough application force to lock the wheel friction
assemblies. The piston sizes chosen should also
provide the driver with good brake pedal “feel”
so the brakes are easy to apply in a controlled
1-SQ.-IN. MASTER mannertr.
CYLINDER PISTON For example, a very small master cylinder pis-
Figure 16 ® The increase in application force created by a ton can provide a lot of hydraulic pressure with
large brake caliper piston is offset by a decrease light pedal effort, but it will not move enough
in piston travel. (Halderman & Mitchell, 0-13-099453-7.) fluid to operate brake calipers with large pistons.
16 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION
In addition, a small piston will give the brake dynamics mentioned earlier states that energy can-
pedala very “touchy” feel that makes modulation not be created or destroyed; it can only be converted
difficult and leads to premature brake lockup. A from one form into another.
large piston, in contrast, provides less pressure The wheel friction assemblies, as their name
and requires higher pedal effort, but it provides implies, use friction to convert kinetic energy into
plenty of fluid volume and results in a less sensi- heat energy. Friction is the resistance to move-
tive pedal feel that makes the brakes easier to con- ment between two surfaces in contact with one
trol. Most vehicles with disc brakes have large another. Brake performance is improved by in-
master cylinder pistons to move the required vol- creasing friction (at least to a point), and brakes
ume of fluid, and a power booster to reduce the that apply enough friction to use all the grip the
required brake pedal force. tires have to offer will always have the potential to
Brake caliper and wheel cylinder piston sizes stop a vehicle faster than brakes with less ability
must also be selected to provide the proper force, to apply friction.
travel, and feel for balanced braking. In practice,
caliper pistons cannot be too large because, al- Coefficient of Friction
though they would provide great force, excessive
pedal travel and fluid volume would be needed to The amount of friction between two objects or
move them the required distance. Wheel cylinders surfaces is commonly expressed as the coefficient
are found only on the rear brakes of modern vehi- of friction. The coefficient of friction, also referred
cles, and obtaining sufficient fluid volume and ap- to as the friction coefficient, is determined by di-
plication force is not a problem. The main concern viding tensile force by weight force. The tensile
in choosing between different size wheel cylinder force is the pulling force required to slide one of
pistons is to obtain proper front to rear brake bal- the surfaces across the other. The weight force is
ance under a wide range of stopping conditions. the force pushing down on the object being
pulled. The equation for calculating the coefficient
of friction is:
Interim Summary
A class lever increases
applied force and changes the direction of the |=
applied force.
A class lever increases force Where:
and moves the force in the same direction. F, = tensile force in pounds
3. Hydraulic pressure is in all G = weight force in pounds
directions in a closed hydraulic system. p = coefficient of friction
4. One hundred pounds of force acting on a
2-inch piston will create Another way to express the equation is:
pounds of hydraulic pressure.
5. One hundred pounds of force applied to a tensile force i rte
+++. | — 1coefficientot friction
inch piston will create weight force
200 pounds of hydraulic pressure.
This equation can be used to show the effect dif-
ferent variables have on the coefficient of friction.
Friction Principles At any given weight (application) force there are
three factors that affect the friction coefficient of
The opening part of this module explained that a vehicle brakes:
moving automobile has a great deal of kinetic en-
Surface finish
ergy. The next two sections discussed the mechan-
# Friction material
ical and hydraulic principles used by actuating
@ Heat.
systems to increase brake application force. This
final section will examine the physical laws and For reasons that will be explained later, the fric-
principles that affect how the wheel friction as- tion coefficient of the wheel friction assemblies of
semblies use the application force to convert ki- vehicle brake systems is always less than 1.
netic energy into heat energy and stop the vehicle.
The way the brake system disposes of kinetic en-
Surface Finish Effects
ergy is explained by the laws of thermodynamics,
which is the study of the relationship between me- The effect of surface finish on the friction coeffi-
chanical and heat energy. The first law of thermo- cient can be seen in Figure 18.
BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 17
 200-LB
WEIGHT
FORCE

CONCRETE Oe ny an Na
a et FLOOR bh ane Bae eae eee
CONCRETE . wy 6 ry . FE e ¢ es Re °
Ct . -&
FLOOR abe
ae ce
oo -

ee eos 2 . ee ian Figure 19 ® The type of friction materials affect the friction
’ - ze Lonel eA eo Mey mes ae Sees
“sae
. ae ears 3 seve % ss en foe
ts sige re ee
coefficient; the value in this example is only
0.05. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)
Figure 18 @ In this example, the coefficient of friction
between the wood block and concrete floor is Friction Material Effects
0.5. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)
Taking the previous example one step further,
consider the effect if a 200-pound block of ice, a to-
In this case, 100 pounds of tensile force is re- tally different type of material, is substituted for
quired to pull a 200-pound block of wood across a the wood block.
concrete floor. The equation for computing the co- In this case it requires only a 10-pound force to
efficient of friction is: pull the block across the concrete, so the equation
reads (Figure 19):
100 lb.
= 0.5 10 lb.
200 Ib. = 0.05
200 Ib.
The friction coefficient in this instance is 0.5.
Now take the same example, except assume that The coefficient of friction in this example de-
the block of wood has been sanded smooth which creases dramatically to only 0.05. Once again,
improves its surface finish and reduces the force even further reductions would be seen if the floor
required to move it to only 50 pounds. In this case, surface were changed to polish marble or some
the equation reads: other similar smooth surface.
It is obvious that the type of materials being
50 Ib. rubbed together have a very significant effect on
= 0.25
200 lb. the coefficient of friction. But, just as with surface
The friction coefficient drops by half, and it finish, the choice of materials for brake drums and
would decrease even further if the surface finish rotors is limited. Iron and steel are used most of-
of the floor were changed from rough concrete to ten because they are relatively inexpensive and
smooth marble. can stand up under the extreme friction brake
It is obvious that the surface finish of two con- drums and rotors must endure.
necting surfaces has a major effect on their coeffi- The brake lining material, however, can be re-
cient of friction. However, in automotive brakes, placed relatively quickly and inexpensively, and
the surface finish of the drums, rotors, and linings therefore does not need to have as long a service
is predetermined by the fact that they must be life. Brake shoe and pad friction materials play a
smooth enough for good wear. The brake engi- major part in determining coefficient of friction,
neer cannot alter their smooth surface finishes to and brake engineers use special care in selecting
change the friction coefficient of the brakes be- them. There are several fundamentally different
cause greatly increased wear would result. For ex- materials to choose from, and each has its own
ample, 60-grit sandpaper on a soft pine brake unique friction coefficient and performance
rotor would provide an excellent coefficient of characteristics.
friction, but only for a few stops.

18 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

Heat Effects Tires are an example where contact area makes
Heat is the third factor that affects the coefficient a difference. A\\ other things being equal, a wide
of friction, but its effects are the most difficult to tire with a large contact area on the road has a
generalize about because heat has varied influ- higher coefficient of friction than a narrow tire
ences at different times and on different types of with Jess contact area. This occurs because the
friction material. A little heat actually improves tire and road do not have a sliding relationship. A
the friction coefficient of most automotive brakes;
tire conforms to and engages the road surface;
they work best, just as an engine does, when during a hard stop, a portion of the breaking force
warmed to operating temperature (Figure 20). comes from shearing or tearing away the tire tread
However, if temperatures rise much beyond a rubber, The rubber’s tensile strength, its internal
certain point, the coefficient of friction begins to
resistance to being pulled apart, adds to the brak-
drop and braking efficiency is reduced. The effects ing efforts of friction. A racing tire making a hard
of heat on brakes are discussed further in the stop on dry pavement, for example, has a friction
Brake Fade section. coefficient of 1.0 or better; the transfer of material
between the two surfaces can be seen as skid
Friction Contact Area marks on the pavement.
The fact that brake friction materials have a fric-
It might seem logical that the amount of contact tion coefficient of less than 1.0 should not be seen
area between the brake lining and brake drum or as a deficiency. If they behaved like tires and
brake disc would be a fourth factor that affects the transferred materia] to the brake drum or disc,
coefficient of friction. A larger friction lining al- they would wear far too quickly, be much too
lows the applied force to be spread over more sur- “grabby” in operation, and would not be able to
face area, reducing distortion, and also allows withstand the heat generated in the wheel friction
more area to dissipate heat faster. However, for assemblies. And while the amount of contact area
sliding surfaces, such as those in wheel friction as- does not affect the coefficient of friction, it does
semblies, the amount of contact area has no effect have significant effects on lining life and the dissi-
on the amount of friction generated. This fact is re- pation of heat that can lead to brake fade.
Jated to the earlier statement that brake friction
materials always have a friction coefficient of less Static and Kinetic Friction
than 1.0. To have a friction coefficient of 1.0 or There are actually two measurements of the coef-
more, materia) must be transferred between the ficient of friction; the static friction coefficient and
two friction surfaces. the kinetic friction coefficient. The static value is
the coefficient of friction with the two friction sur-
HIGH faces at rest. The kinetic value is the coefficient of
friction while the two surfaces are sliding against
one another.
The coefficient of static friction is always higher
than that of kinetic friction, which explains why it
is harder to start an object moving than to keep it
moving. In the example in Figure 21, it takes
100 pounds of tensile force to start the wooden
block sliding. However, once in motion, it takes
only 50 pounds to keep it sliding.
The relatively high static friction is harder to
overcome than the somewhat lower kinetic fric-
tion. The static and kinetic friction coefficients for
several combinations of materials are shown in
FRICTION
COEFFICIENT
—-r Figure 22.
The difference between static and kinetic fric-
tion explains why parking brakes, although much
less powerful than service brakes, are still able to
hold a vehicle in position on a hill. The job of the
Low HEAT ——o HIGH
parking brakes is relatively easy because the sta-
Figure 0 & Some heat increases the coefficient of friction, tionary vehicle has no kinetic energy, and the brake
but too much heat can cause it to drop off lining and drum or disc are not moving when they
sharply. (GA- Catt, VIGIL) are applied. To start the vehicle moving, enough
aS eae
19
BRAKE SYSTEIA PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION
 200-LB Friction and Heat
WEIGHT
FORCE As already stated, the function of the brake system
is to convert kinetic energy into heat energy
through friction. But just how much heat is created
by this conversion process? Once again, a mathe-
matical equation can answer the question. Al-
though there are too many variables to obtain the
exact temperature increase of any specific compo-
nent, the average temperature rise of the brakes
during a single stop can be computed as follows:
K. Ss
Sey
Yi
Where:

K. = kinetic energy change in ft.-lb.

W, = weight of all the rotors and drums in
pounds
T, = temperature rise in Fahrenheit degrees
50-LB
TENSILE Another way to express this equation is:
FORCE
energy change
= temperature rise
77.8 X drum/rotor weight

To see how this works, consider a 3,000-pound

vehicle with a combined brake drum and rotor
Shightais : 4
weight of 20 pounds that is brought to a complete
for kine
: peemests . lana
Reet tell’4 in ’ SS , itou’ es ts (cate "sorbate“f 9%giy
Kes
oeGr ele gee ~ ‘
stop from 30 mph (Figure 23).
BLOCK IN MOTION We have already calculated that this vehicle has
Figure 21 ® The static friction coefficient of an object at rest 90,301 foot-pounds of kinetic energy, and since the
is higher than its kinetic friction coefficient once vehicle is coming to a full stop, the change in ki-
in motion. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.) netic energy during the stop will equal the entire
90,301 foot-pounds. Based on this information,
Coefficient of Friction
the equation for computing the rise in brake tem-
perature reads:
Contacting Surfaces Static Kinetic
90,301 ft.-Ib.
Steel on steel (dry) 0.6 0.4
TT. PAM ay:
e538 32)
Steel on steel (greasy) 0.1 0.05
Teflon on steel 0.04 0.04
Brass on steel (dry) 0.5 0.4
Brake lining on cast iron 0.4 0.3
Rubber tires TOTAL TEMPERATURE
on smooth pavement (dry) 0.9 0.8 INCREASE = 58° F (14° C)
Metal on ice _ 0.02
Figure 22 ® Every combination of materials has a different
static and kinetic friction coefficient. (Chek-Chart,
0-13-048203-X.)

force would have to be applied to overcome the

relatively high static friction of the parking brakes.
20-LB TOTAL DRUM
The service brakes, however, have a much more AND ROTOR WEIGHT
difficult job. The moving vehicle has a great deal of
Figure 23 ® Brake temperature increase is determined
kinetic energy, and the fact that the brake friction primarily by vehicle weight, drum and rotor
surfaces are in relative motion means that kinetic weight, and the change in kinetic energy.
friction makes them less efficient. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

20 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

 The total brake temperature increase in this case
ALL VALUES FORA
is 58°F (32°C). This increase is relatively small, but
the weight and speed of the vehicle are also rather 3,000-LB VEHICLE
low. Keep in mind it is the change in kinetic energy
that determines the amount of temperature in- 30-MPH REDUCTION pees
crease. As we have learned, kinetic energy increases 90,301 FT-LB. >
proportionately with increases in weight, and as
the square of any increase in speed. As a result, the 270,903 FT.-LB.

rate of temperature increase will follow these same 60 MPH

patterns. For instance, if the weight of the vehicle is 360,204 FT.-LB.

doubled to 6,000 pounds, the change in kinetic en-

ergy required to bring it to a full stop will be 180,602 452,505 FT.-LB.

foot-pounds. In this case, the equation will read:

812,709 FT.-LB.
180,602 ft.-lb.
77.8 X20 lb:
= 116°F (64°C) Figure 24 ® The change in kinetic energy required for a
30-mph speed reduction increases dramatically
at higher speeds. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)
Note that just as doubling the weight doubles
the amount of kinetic energy, it also doubles the
amount of temperature rise.
If the weight of the vehicle remains 3,000 pounds
but it is brought to a stop from 60 mph where it has
four times the kinetic energy, the equation reads:
361,204 ft.-lb.
Zp.onx 20h:
= 282°Fi129°G)
The temperature increase in this example again
matches the increase in kinetic energy which is
four times greater as a result of doubling the speed.
All of the previous examples are for vehicles
brought to a complete stop. However, because ki-
netic energy increases at a much greater rate as
speeds go up, a full stop from 30 mph creates far
less temperature increase than slowing a vehicle
from 60 to 30 mph. For a 3,000-pound vehicle, the
change in kinetic energy between 30 and 0 mph is
only 90,301 foot-pounds, but the change between percentage of the average temperature increase.
60 and 30 mph is 270,903 foot-pounds! The vehicle The increase at each axle is divided evenly be-
is slowed 30 mph in both cases, but three times the tween the two wheel friction assemblies unless
amount of kinetic energy must be converted into there is unequal traction from one side to the
heat when the faster moving vehicle is slowed. other, or there is a problem within the brake sys-
Figure 24 shows how a speed reduction of 30 mph tem itself.
requires the brake system to deal with increased
amounts of kinetic energy at higher speeds.
Repeated braking from such speeds, as might Brake Fade
occur while descending a mountain highway,
places much greater demands on a brake system It is a fact of brake life that drums and rotors are
than stop-and-go traffic around town. forced to absorb the heat of braking much faster
Remember that the temperature increase com- than they can dissipate it into the surrounding air.
puted with this equation is the average of all the The temperature of a brake drum or rotor may rise
friction generating components. Some of the heat more than 100°F (55°C) in only seconds during a
is absorbed by the brake drums and rotors, some hard stop, but it could take 30 seconds or more for
goes into the shoes and pads, and some is con- the rotor or drum to cool to the temperature that
ducted into the wheel cylinders, calipers, and existed before the stop. If repeated hard stops are
brake fluid. In addition, keep in mind that the demanded of a brake system, it can overheat and
front brakes provide 60%-80% of the total brak- lose effectiveness, or possibly fail altogether. This
ing force. Because of this, they receive a similar loss of braking power is called brake fade.

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 21

Interim Summary @ Hydraulic advantage
@ Power boosters.
1. The first law of thermodynamics states that
can only be changed from
one form to another.
Hydraulic Advantage
2. The amount of friction between two (2) sur- The third method of increasing application force,
faces is called of friction. hydraulics, is already used to some degree in
3. Three things that greatly influence the coeffi- every brake system. If the wheel cylinder or
cient of friction are , the caliper piston area is increased in relation to mas-
,and ; ter cylinder bore size, it is easier for the driver to
4. friction is the friction of two provide a given amount of application force.
surfaces when at rest. However, just as with increased mechanical ad-
vantage, increased hydraulic advantage requires
op friction is the friction of two
more brake pedal travel and reduces pedal re-
surfaces moving past each other.
serve. In addition, if the amount of hydraulic ad-
6. Brake is a loss of braking vantage built into the system is too great, the
power. brakes become hard to modulate in a panic stop.
7. Heat is a major cause of brake
Power Boosters
The fourth and final alternative to increase brake
application force is to install a power booster in the
The Need for Power Brakes system; this is by far the best method (Figure 25).
Power brakes were developed for three reasons. Generally, when a power booster is fitted, the
The first was the dramatic increase in vehicle brake pedal ratio is decreased and the master
weights and speeds during the 1950s and 1960s. cylinder bore size is increased. The combined ef-
Faster and heavier cars and trucks required more fect of these changes is to reduce pedal effort,
brake application force to convert their increased while greatly increasing pedal reserve.
kinetic energy into heat. As time passed, the Power boosters do not alter the brake hydraulic
amount of pedal pressure required to create this system in any fundamental way; they still allow
force became greater than the average driver braking even if the booster fails or its power sup-
could comfortably supply.
Second, the introduction and widespread adop-
tion of disc brakes made power brakes a necessity
on heavier cars. Most drum brakes have self-
energizing and/or servo action that increases
their application force. Disc brakes have neither,
and by nature require greater pedal pressures to
operate.
Finally, marketing reasons made power brakes
important. Car manufacturers looking to attract
customers noted that power brakes made a car
easier to drive. Power brakes first appeared on
large, expensive luxury cars, and were soon made
available across all model lines in response to
public demand.

Ways to Increase
Braking Power VACUUM-ASSISTED
BOOSTER
There are essentially four methods that can be HYDRAULICALLY
ASSISTED
used to reduce pedal pressure or increase applica- BOOSTER
tion force in a brake system. These methods are:
Pedal force Figure 25 @ Typical brake power boosters. (Chek-Chart,
@ Mechanical advantage 0-13-048203-X.)

22 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

 with power brakes have a brake pedal that is wide
enough to allow two-foot braking should the
booster fail (Figure 26).
Two types of power boosters are found on to-
day’s automobiles: those that use vacuum to in-
crease application force, and those that use
hydraulic pressure. The principles of vacuum, or
low air pressure, are explained in the following
section.

APPLICATION
FORCE Air Pressure High and Low
Most vacuum-powered brake boosters get their
vacuum supply from the engine intake manifold.
An engine is essentially a big air pump; the pis-
tons move up and down in the cylinders to pump
Figure 26 @ Wide power brake pedals allow two-foot in air and fuel, and pump out exhaust. They do
braking if power assist is lost. (Chek-Chart,
this by creating differences in air pressure. Air,
0-13-048203-X.)
both inside and outside an engine, has weight and
exerts pressure.
As a piston moves downward on an intake
ply is cut off. All boosters have a power reserve stroke with the intake valve open, it creates a larger
that provides assist for at least one hard stop, and area inside the cylinder for air to fill (Figure 27).
sometimes several light brake applications, even This lowers the air pressure within the cylin-
after power is lost. However, because power der. As a result, the higher-pressure air outside
brake systems are designed with the added force the engine flows in through the intake manifold
of the booster taken into account, the amount of in an attempt to fill the low-pressure area. Al-
brake pedal pressure required to slow or stop a car though it may seem as though the low pressure is
is much higher than in a non-boosted system once pulling air into the engine, it is really the higher
the reserve is used up. For this reason, some cars pressure outside that forces air in. The difference

HIGHER PRESSURE
im PARTIAL
THROTTLE PLATE = VACCUM VACCUM
RESTRICTION Qy
it |
KOE

rE
1 Sit
INTAKE
VALVE yh =~
eS TY: RaW
Sa EA

Figure 27 @ Airflow through a gasoline engine creates a partial vacuum in the intake manifold. (Courtesy of General Motors Corporation,
Service and Parts Operations.)

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 23

in pressure between two areas is called a pressure occurs only in space, and is never achieved in an
differential. engine’s intake manifold. Manifold vacuum
Because throttle valves and manifold shape re- varies with throttle position. The lowest manifold
strict intake airflow, high pressure air from out- vacuum (highest pressure) is commonly less than
side the engine is almost never able to move into 5 inches of mercury (127 mm Hg), and occurs
the cylinders fast enough to fill the space created. when the throttle is wide open with the engine un-
As a result, gasoline-powered internal combus- der load. The highest manifold vacuum (lowest
tion engines normally operate with a low- pressure) may be as much as 24 inches of mercury
pressure area, or partial vacuum, in the intake (610 mm Hg) when the car is rolling rapidly
manifold. Vacuum is a technical term that means downhill in gear with the throttle closed. Mani-
a total lack of pressure (0 psi); however, the word fold vacuum at idle typically falls between 15 and
“vacuum” is commonly used to refer to any pres- 20 inches of mercury (381 and 508 mm Hg), and
sure lower than atmospheric pressure. Atmos- most vacuum brake boosters are designed to op-
pheric pressure varies with altitude, but is erate with vacuum levels in this range.
approximately 14.7 psi at sea level (Figure 28).
Booster Vacuum Supply
Measuring Vacuum As previously discussed, most vacuum boosters
Vacuum is measured in inches or millimeters of get their vacuum supply from the engine intake
mercury (Hg), a figure that indicates how far a manifold (Figure 29).
column of mercury in a tube will rise when a vac- Diesel engines, however, run un-throttled (en-
uum is applied at one end, and atmospheric pres- gine speed is controlled strictly by the amount of
sure at the other. Or put another way, inches or fuel injected) and have little or no intake mani-
millimeters of mercury is a measurement of the fold vacuum. If a vehicle with a diesel engine is
pressure differential between the lower pressure equipped with a vacuum-powered brake
inside the tube, and the higher pressure outside it. booster, it must also be fitted with an auxiliary
A perfect vacuum will pull roughly 30 inches of vacuum pump.
mercury (762 mm Hg); however, perfect vacuum Auxiliary vacuum pumps come in several
forms and are powered in a number of ways. Belt-
driven add-on pumps, seen in Figure 30, are one
solution; however, many diesel engines are de-
signed with vacuum pumps that mount directly
to the engine and are driven internally (Figure 31).
An electrically powered vacuum pump is used
on some cars and trucks (Figure 32). These
pumps are turned on and off by a pressure switch
ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSURE
IN
Hg
cm ALTITUDE
IN KILOMETERS ALTITUDE
IN ATMOSPHERIC
psi
IN
PRESSURE on the booster, which means they operate only
when needed, and thus reduce power drain on
the engine.

1% OF ATMOSPHERE ABOVE THIS ALTITUDE

99% OF ATMOSPHERE BELOW THIS ALTITUDE

HALF THE
ATMOSPHERE
BELOW THIS
ALTITUDE INTAKE
MANIFOLD
Figure 28 ® Atmospheric pressure varies with altitude. (Chek- Figure 29 ® The intake manifold is the most common source of
Chart, 0-13-048203-X.) vacuum for power brakes. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

24 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

 Interim Summary
1. Brake boosters reduce brake
effort.
2. Brake boosters allow braking if the booster
fails.
3. The most common source for a vacuum type

oS
brake booster is the engine

VACUUM 4. Some vehicles use an

pump —” X vacuum pump that can be mechanical or
electric.

Supplemental Brake Assist Unit

Some manufacturers use a supplemental brake
assist (SBA) unit to supply vacuum in case of a
low vacuum condition. The unit contains a circuit
board and pressure sensor, a check valve, and an
PULLEY electrically operated vacuum pump. It mounts in
series with the booster vacuum line on the booster
Figure 30 @ A belt-driven auxiliary vacuum pump. (Chek-Chart, (Figure 33).
0-13-048203-X.)

OUTLET
FITTING

DRIVE LEVER ‘ a * e
Figure 31 @ A vacuum pump driven directly off the engine. Figure 33 ® The supplemental brake assist unit is mounted
(Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.) on the brake booster. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

— > CLIP
HEATERHOSE = SoS
: Se yp —, R RADIATOR SUPPORT

INLET HOSE

VACUUM PUMP
VACUUM SWITCH
OUTLET HOSE
Figure 32 @ An electrically powered vacuum pump. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 25

 During normal operation the engine supplies output pushrod at the front of the booster actuates
vacuum through the check valve to the booster. At the master cylinder primary piston.
this time, the SBA unit continuously monitors the The master cylinder side of the power chamber
vacuum in the booster. is equipped with an inlet fitting where vacuum is
When the vacuum becomes lower than de- supplied to the booster. On cars with auxiliary
sired, the SBA will turn on the vacuum pump to electric vacuum pumps, a pressure switch is in-
increase the vacuum back to the desired level. A stalled on the vacuum supply side of the power
timer is used in conjunction with the pump to de- chamber to control vacuum pump operation.
ter excessive pump run time. For instance, the Inside the power chamber is the diaphragm
timer can delay the vacuum pump from turning that is acted on by atmospheric pressure to in-
on with a lower-than-desired vacuum level. If crease brake application force. Most vacuum
the vacuum level does not increase before the boosters have a single diaphragm; however, a
time runs out, the vacuum pump will then turn dual-diaphragm tandem booster is used in some
on to increase the vacuum level to the desired applications (Figure 35).
levels. The use of two diaphragms allows the power
chamber to be smaller in diameter (though slightly
longer) so it will fit on vehicles with limited un-
Vacuum Boosters derhood space. Despite its reduced diameter, a
tandem booster usually has more diaphragm sur-
An integral vacuum booster mounts on the bulk- face area, and therefore supplies greater power as-
head between the brake pedal and the master sist, than a single diaphragm booster with a larger
cylinder (Figure 34).
diameter. In all other respects, single and dual-
The outside of the booster is a round, two-piece,
diaphragm boosters are the same.
stamped-steel housing called the power chamber. Also inside the power chamber between the in-
Some boosters have a reinforced plastic power put and output pushrods is the power piston as-
chamber to reduce weight. The power chamber sembly that controls booster operation (Figure 36).
mounts to the bulkhead at the rear, and the mas-
ter cylinder at the front. An input pushrod at the
rear of the booster attaches to the brake pedal. An
SINGLE-
DIAPHRAGM
FIREWALL BOOSTER
POWER
BOOSTER
MASTER
CYLINDER

VACUUM
MASTER SUPPLY
CYLINDER nA HOSE

ASSEMBLY

TANDEM
GASKET BOOSTER

Figure 34 ® An integral vacuum booster installation. (Chek- Figure 35 Single and tandem vacuum power boosters.
Chart, 0-13-048203-X.) (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

26 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

 VACUUM
ara SWITCH
PUSHROD
POWER _ REACTION
PISTON ASSEMBLY
RETURN \ INLET FITTING/
POWER SPRING CHECK VALVE
PISTON \
ASSEMBLY ye
INPUT FRONT HALF
PUSHROD OF POWER a
CHAMBER
DIAPHRAGM
SUPPORT PLATE
FILTER

DIAPHRAGM

REAR HALF
OF POWER
CHAMBER
POWER PISTON
BEARING

Figure 36 @ An integral vacuum power booster. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

The power piston, along with a support plate, is The amount of force created in this manner is
attached to the center of the diaphragm and proportional to the difference in pressure be-
moves back and forth with it. A return spring tween the two sides. In other words, the greater
holds the diaphragm, support plate, and power the pressure differential, the greater the force. To
piston rearward in the power chamber when the calculate the force, the pressure differential is
brakes are not applied. multiplied by the diaphragm surface area. For ex-
ample, if a power booster diaphragm has atmos-
Theory of Operation pheric pressure (14.7 psi) on one side, and a
Vacuum boosters use the principle of pressure dif- perfect vacuum (0 psi) on the other, the pressure
differential is:
ferential to increase brake application force. The
typical vacuum booster has a power chamber sep- 14°77 psi 0) pst 1477, psi
arated into two smaller chambers by a flexible di- If this pressure differential is applied to a di-
aphragm. When air pressure is greater on one side aphragm with 50 square inches of surface area, the
of the diaphragm than the other, a pressure differ- resulting force would be:
ential is created (Figure 37).
In an attempt to equalize pressure in the two 14.7 psi x 50 sq. in. = 735 pounds of force
chambers, the higher pressure exerts a force that
The previous equation assumes that one side of
moves the diaphragm toward the lower pressure
the diaphragm is acted on by a perfect vacuum;
area. Rods attached to the diaphragm transmit this
however, as already discussed, a perfect vacuum
force, along with that from the driver’s foot pres-
never occurs in an engine intake manifold. With a
sure on the brake pedal, to the master cylinder.
BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 27
 Atmospheric-Suspended Power Chambers
TO VACUUM
SUPPLY 50 SQ. IN. In an atmospheric-suspended power chamber,
FLEXIBLE there is atmospheric pressure on both sides of its
DIAPHRAGM diaphragm when the brakes are not applied.
When the brake pedal is depressed, vacuum is ad-
mitted to one side of the chamber to create the
POWER
CHAMBER
pressure differential needed to cause power boost.
The primary problem with atmospheric-
suspended power chambers is that when the en-
gine is not running, there is no reserve vacuum
BRAKE in the booster for braking. To get around this
PEDAL problem, most atmospheric-suspended boosters
235 LB FORCE use a separate small tank to store enough vac-
BRAKE uum for at least one hard stop, and sometimes
APPLICATION several light brake applications, should the en-
FORCE
14.7 PSI
gine stall. The atmospheric-suspended power
10 PSI ATMOSPHERIC chamber has not been used on cars since the
PARTIAL PRESSURE mid-1960s.
VACUUM

Vacuum-Suspended Power Chambers

Virtually all modern vacuum boosters use a
4.7 PSI vacuum-suspended power chamber that has vac-
PRESSURE uum on both sides of its diaphragm when the
DIFFERENTIAL
ACTING ON brakes are not applied. When the brake pedal is
DIAPHRAGM depressed, atmospheric pressure is admitted to
Figure 37 @ Vacuum boosters work on the principle of one side of the chamber to create the pressure dif-
pressure differential. (Halderman & Mitchell, ferential needed to cause power boost.
0-13-099453-7.) The primary advantage of the vacuum-
suspended power chamber is that it always has a
vacuum reserve stored in its power chamber to
provide assist should the vacuum source to the
more typical intake manifold vacuum of 20 inches booster be interrupted. All of the vacuum boosters
of mercury (10 psi), the pressure differential act- described in this module have vacuum-
ing on the diaphragm would be: suspended power chambers.
14.7 psi — 10 psi = 4.7 psi
Vacuum Check Valves and Filter
If we once again multiply this times the area of
the diaphragm, the result (shown in Figure 37) is: To maintain a supply of vacuum in the storage
tank or power chamber, vacuum-assisted power
4.7 psi X 50 sq. in. = 235 pounds of force brake systems are equipped with one-way check
Vacuum booster diaphragms are sized to fit ap- valves. The check valve seals the vacuum passage
plications and provide the necessary application to the booster whenever pressure is higher in the
force. Modern vacuum boosters are capable of pro- supply line than it is in the booster. The valve re-
viding hundreds of pounds of application force. opens as soon as the pressure in the supply line is
lower than in the booster. In this way, the lowest
possible pressure (highest vacuum) is maintained
Vacuum Booster Suspension in the booster at all times.
All power chambers operate in one of two ways. Most systems have a single check valve built
The difference lies in the way they create the pres- into the inlet fitting on the booster power chamber
sure differential between the two halves of the (see Figure 29), although some cars and trucks use
chamber. The two types of power chambers used a separate valve installed in the vacuum supply
line (Figure 38).
on vacuum brake boosters are called:
Vehicles that use an auxiliary vacuum reservoir
Atmospheric suspended to supplement the vacuum stored in the booster
# Vacuum suspended. have two check valves, one in the conventional lo-

28 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

 ACTIVATED
CHARCOAL
POWER FILTER
BOOSTER
VACUUM

INTAKE
MANIFOLD BRAKE BOOSTER
Figure 38 @ An inline vacuum check valve. (Chek-Chart, Figure 40 ® A vacuum supply line filter is used to trap fuel
0-13-048203-X.) vapors. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

VACUUM
RESERVOIR

INLINE
CHECK
VALVE

INTAKE MANIFOLD

Figure 39 @ A brake system with an auxiliary vacuum

reservoir and dual check valves. (Chek-Chart,
0-13-048203-X.) vapors are drawn out of the filter and into the en-
gine to be burned.

cation on the booster, and another between the in-

Phases of Operation
take manifold and vacuum reservoir (Figure 39).
In power brake systems that use manifold vac- The typical vacuum-suspended integral power
uum from a gasoline engine, the check valve booster has five phases of operation:
serves an additional purpose: it keeps fuel vapors @ Brakes not applied
out of the booster. These fumes can attack the rub- ¢ Brake application
ber diaphragms and seals in boosters, and lead to @ Brakes holding
premature failure. The check valve allows air to Brakes fully applied
flow only from the booster to the engine. If a check ¢ Brake release.
valve were not used, low pressure in the booster
would allow some of the air-fuel mixture to enter Most of the operational descriptions that follow
the booster when the throttle was opened and are based on illustrations of a power booster that
manifold pressure increased. uses a rubber reaction disc to provide brake pedal
In addition to a check valve, some cars have a feel. Some boosters use a reaction plate and levers
charcoal filter in the vacuum supply line (Figure 40). for this purpose. Although the two designs differ
This filter traps and absorbs any fuel vapors in their physical construction, the same basic con-
that may leak toward the booster as a result of a trol valves are used in both. Where there is a sig-
weak or defective check valve. Whenever mani- nificant variation in the way the two designs
fold pressure is less than booster pressure, the fuel operate, both systems are explained.

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 29

 Brakes Not Applied This also does two things. First, it allows the
When the brakes are not applied, the input
floating control valve to extend under spring pres-
pushrod return spring holds the pushrod and valve sure and seal the vacuum control port; this prevents
plunger rearward in the power piston (Figure 41).
vacuum from entering the rear half of the power
This does two things. First, the backside of the
chamber. Second, the valve plunger moves away
plunger seats against the floating control valve from the end of the floating control valve and opens
and closes the atmosphere control port; this pre- the atmosphere control port; this lets atmospheric
vents atmospheric pressure from entering the rear pressure enter the rear half of the power chamber
half of the power chamber. Second, the plunger through a filter installed where the input pushrod
compresses the floating control valve against enters the chamber. A slight sound of rushing air
spring tension and opens the vacuum control may be heard at this time, although many boosters
port; this clears a passage between the front and have a silencer that eliminates most of the noise.
rear halves of the power chamber so there is equal
vacuum in both. Because the diaphragm and
power piston assembly is held rearward by the
power piston return spring, no pressure is placed
on the master cylinder at this time.
This movement of air into
Brake Application the rear chamber of the
brake booster
may be
When the driver applies the brakes, pedal pres-
sure overcomes input pushrod return spring pres- ay
sure and moves the pushrod and valve plunger The loudness of this airflow
forward in the power piston (Figure 42). varies from vehicie to vehich
bi

VACUUM CONTROL
VACUUM INLET POWER PISTON PORT (OPEN)
RETURN SPRING VACUUM VACUUM CONTROL
ages CHECK DIAPHRAGM FLOATING BOWER PIC On oas PORT (CLOSED)
CONTROL
VALVE REACTION
Disc VALVE RETURN SPRING TAIVE FLOATING
(COMPRESSED) PLUNGER CONTROL
pecuue FLOATING VALVE
CONTROL
(EXTENDED)
VALVE
RETURN INPUT
SPRING PUSHROD

LPL A

PUSHROD ATMOSPHERE
CONTROL
INPUT
PORT
PUSHROD
(OPEN)
NO FORCE
POWER
CONTROL\ petuRN FORCE BRAKE
TO MASTER PASSAGE SPRIN TO MASTER BOWER CONTROL PEDAL
CYLINDER PISTON o CYLINDER Beran PASSAGE APPLICATION
VALVE ATMOSPHERE CONTROL
PLUNGER — poRT (CLOSED) REACTION
DISC
(J) vacuum 2) ATMOSPHERE (_] vacuum fg ATMOSPHERE
Figure 41 ® A vacuum booster in the unapplied position. Figure 42 # A vacuum booster as the brakes are applied.
(Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.) (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

30 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

 As a result of these actions, there is low pres- Brakes Fully Applied
sure in the front half of the power chamber, and
Under very heavy braking, the brake pedal may
higher pressure in the rear half. This pressure dif-
be pushed hard enough to force the valve plunger
ferential moves the diaphragm and power piston
so far forward that it bottoms in the power piston
assembly forward against power piston return
assembly (Figure 44).
spring pressure. The application force created in
At this point, the vacuum control port is closed,
this manner is applied to the master cylinder
the atmosphere control port is wide open, and full
through the body of the power piston, the reaction
atmospheric pressure exists in the rear half of the
disc, and the output pushrod.
power chamber. This means the maximum possi-
ble pressure differential is present in the power
Brakes Holding
chamber, and the booster is supplying as much
Once the desired rate of deceleration is achieved, power assist as it can. This is called the booster
no further pressure is applied to the brake pedal, vacuum run-out point.
and the input pushrod and valve plunger are The vacuum run-out point can be felt by the dri-
held in a fixed position. As long as the atmos- ver as a distinct hardening in the feel of the brake
pheric control port remains open, pressure in- pedal. This occurs for two reasons. The main one
creases in the rear half of the power chamber, and is that once the booster reaches vacuum run-out,
the diaphragm and power piston move forward. any additional braking force must be supplied en-
When the power piston moves far enough, the tirely by the driver through foot pressure on the
floating control valve (attached to the power pis- brake pedal.
ton) seats against the backside of the valve The second reason the brake pedal becomes
plunger and closes the atmosphere control port harder during vacuum run-out is that the device
(Figure 43). used to provide pedal feel is bypassed at this time.
At this point, both the atmosphere control port When the valve plunger seats against the power
and the vacuum control port are closed. As a re- piston in a booster with a rubber reaction disc, the
sult, there is a fixed pressure differential between disc is compressed by the extension on the front of
the front and rear halves of the power chamber, the valve plunger to the point where it is virtually
so the level of power assist and braking force re- solid. In a booster that uses a reaction plate and
mains constant. This is called the booster hold- levers to provide feedback, the intake pushrod ap-
ing position. The booster always seeks the plies the valve plunger with such force that the
holding position whenever brake pedal pressure
is constant.
POWER
PISTON PLUNGER SEATED
RETURN AGAINST POWER PISTON
REACTION POWER PISTON SPRING VACUUM
VALVE PLUNGER VACHUM CONTROL
PORT
VACUUM PASSAGE
VALVE (CLOSED)
VACUUM PLUNGER
CONTROL INPUT
PORT (CLOSED) PUSHROD

PEDAL APPLICATION
ATMOSPHERE CONTROL
PORT (CLOSED) BES ATMOSPHERE CONTROL
PORT (FULL OPEN)
CONTROL PASSAGE REACTION CONTROL PASSAGE
DISC POWER PISTON
(] VACUUM {3} ATMOSPHERE
(_] vacuum [3 ATMOSPHERE
Figure 43 @ A vacuum booster in the holding position. (Chek- Figure 44 ® A vacuum booster in the fully applied position.
Chart, 0-13-048203-X.) (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION [¢%]wok

levers collapse and the forward end of the valve means that once braking begins and force is ap-
plunger makes metal-to-metal contact with the plied to the master cylinder, a counterforce is also
output pushrod. In both types of boosters, the re- created. As governed by Newton’s third law, the
sult is a solid connection between the brake pedal counterforce is equal to the hydraulic pressure in
and output pushrod. the master cylinder, and is transmitted in the op-
posite direction back into the booster through the
Brake Release output pushrod. Because the force and counter-
force must always be equal, the harder the brakes
When the driver releases the brake pedal, the input are applied, the stronger the counterforce will be.
pushrod return spring moves the pushrod and
valve plunger rearward in the power piston. This
does two things. First, the backside of the valve Pedal Feel with Reaction Disc
plunger closes the atmosphere control valve; this In the power booster shown in Figure 45, the
prevents any further increase in pressure in the counterforce acts on a rubber reaction disc in the
rear half of the power chamber. Second, the valve power piston.
plunger compresses the floating control valve The reaction disc compresses under the force,
against spring pressure and opens the vacuum flexes outward into the space occupied by the ex-
control port; this clears the passage to the vacuum- tension on the end of the valve plunger, and
filled front half of the booster. At this time, any moves the plunger rearward. This seats the back-
residual air pressure in the rear half of the booster side of the plunger against the floating control
is drawn out through the connecting passage and valve to close the atmosphere control port and
vacuum inlet fitting, and into the intake manifold. prevents further pressure increase in the rear half
When pressure is again equal on both sides of the of the power chamber. At the same time, the reac-
diaphragm, the booster will be in the brakes not tion disc acting on the valve plunger transmits
applied position shown in Figure 41. feedback to the brake pedal through the input
pushrod.
Brake Pedai Feel If more braking power is needed, further pres-
sure on the brake pedal moves the valve plunger
If a power booster applied the brakes strictly as forward, opens the atmosphere control port, and
previously described, the amount of power assist increases the pressure differential between the
would increase or decrease in sudden steps as the two halves of the power chamber. This increases
various ports in the booster opened and closed. brake application force, but it also increases the
And once the booster reached the holding posi- counterforce, causing the reaction disc to deform
tion, only the foot pressure applied by the driver and again push back against the extension on the
would be felt at the brake pedal. To ensure front of the valve plunger. The plunger again
smooth, controllable stops, a brake system must
provide the driver with feedback on how hard the
brakes are being applied. This feedback, com-
monly called pedal feel, is the increasing resis- REACTION DISC PLUNGER VALVE PLUNGER
COMPRESSES EXTENSION
tance to further pedal pressure that occurs as the
brakes are applied harder.
The hundreds of pounds of application force
created by a power booster cannot all be fed back
through the brake pedal or it would force the
pedal against driver foot pressure into the unap-
plied position. Instead, power boosters have
mechanisms that transmit a fixed proportion of
the braking force back to the brake pedal to pro-
vide pedal feel. Generally, 20%-—40% of the force
applied to the master cylinder is relayed back to COUNTERFORCE
the driver. As mentioned earlier, this is done FROM BRAKE FEEDBACK
through either a rubber reaction disc or a reaction HYDRAULIC TO BRAKE
plate and series of levers. PRESSURE PEDAL
The process used to provide pedal feel relies on
a basic law of physics, Sir Isaac Newton’s third (_) vacuum E-] ATMOSPHERE
law of motion, which states that for every action Figure 45 @ Pedal feel provided by a rubber reaction disc.
there is an equal and opposite reaction. This (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

32 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

moves rearward to seat the atmosphere control Interim Summary
port, restore the booster to the holding position,
and transmit feedback to the brake pedal. This cy- 1. Integral vacuum boosters mount on the
cle occurs repeatedly as the brake pedal is pushed forward bulkhead between the
harder and harder.
and the
Whenever the brakes are applied, the reaction
disc is compressed. The harder the brakes are ap-
2. Most modern vacuum boosters use a
plied, the more the disc is compressed and the
suspended power chamber.
greater the amount of feedback it transmits to the
3. Vacuum type brake boosters work on the
brake pedal. Engineers specify both the thickness
principle of
of the reaction disc and the hardness of the rubber
it is made of to provide a pedal feel that is pro-
4. Vacuum supply lines and hoses between the
portional to brake application.
brake booster and the vacuum source may
havea in them.
Pedal Feel with Reaction Plate and Levers
5. Check valves in the vacuum supply are used
In the booster shown in Figure 46, the counter- to prevent
force acts on a reaction plate mounted to the rear in the vacuum booster power chamber when
end of the output pushrod. pressure is higher in the supply line than in
The reaction plate then pushes against a series the brake booster power chamber.
of levers that swing around their pivots and ex-
tend rearward to contact the end of the valve
plunger. The levers push the valve plunger rear- Hydraulic Boosters
ward and seat the backside of the plunger against
the floating control valve; this closes the atmo- Hydraulic boosters have several factors in their
sphere control port and prevents further pressure favor. They are generally smaller than vacuum
increase in the rear half of the power chamber. It boosters, and therefore easier to fit into the engine
also transmits feedback to the brake pedal compartments of downsized cars. In addition,
through the plunger and input pushrod. much greater assist is available from a hydraulic
Just as with the reaction disc, the reaction plate booster than from a vacuum booster. This makes
and lever mechanism cycles repeatedly as braking hydraulic boosters especially well suited for ap-
pedal pressure is increased. And just as the reaction plications that require high master cylinder pres-
disc is always compressed when the brakes are ap- sure, such as cars with four-wheel disc brakes and
plied, the levers are always deflected to a greater or medium duty trucks. Finally, hydraulic boosters
lesser degree during brake application to provide are ideally suited for use with diesel engines that
pedal feel proportional to brake application force. have no intake manifold vacuum.
Hydraulic brake boosters use an existing power
supply—hydraulic pressure from the power steer-
REACTION ing pump. However, some hydraulic boosters are
PLATE VALVE PLUNGER powered by a dedicated electric motor and pump
assembly attached to the booster itself. Hydraulic
power boosters are divided into two categories:
# Mechanical-hydraulic
Electro-hydraulic.

Mechanical-Hydraulic Boosters
Mechanical-hydraulic boosters mount on the
firewall between the brake pedal and the master
REACTION cylinder in the same location as a vacuum booster
COUNTERFORCE LEVERS FEEDBACK
FROM BRAKE TO BRAKE (Figure 47).
HYDRAULIC PEDAL Mechanical-hydraulic boosters do not change
PRESSURE the brake or steering systems in any substantial
way from those systems used with a vacuum
(_] vacuum @3 atmosPHERE booster. While the capacity of the power steering
Figure 46 Pedal feel provided by a reaction plate and pump is increased, the steering box itself is not
levers. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.) changed.

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 33

 RETURN PORT L RETURN SPRING
FITTING peat
SPOOL
SPOOL VALVE
VALVE SPOOL PLUG O-RING
O-RING

a!
we SLEEVE
| SPOOL PLUG
BRACKET

ST, © am 10

f
ay

y
>|
rH > if
by
! @\
i

Ki i

HOUSING | RETAINER
BOOT HOUSING COVER BOLT (5) SPOOL PLUG
ASSEMBLY HOUSING PISTON POWER RETAINER
SEAL POWER SEAL PISTON
BRACKET NUT PISTON/ACCUMULATOR RETURN SPRING

Figure 47 @ A Bendix Hydro-Boost II hydraulic power booster. (Courtesy of Allied Signal Automotive Aftermarket.)

MASTER
PUMP AND CYLINDER
RESERVOIR

WN fe Ql| TO OTHER
ND Wa REAR BRAKE
HYDRO-BOOST
% POWER BRAKE y

wr
TO OTHER
FRONT BRAKE COMBINATION VALVE

6 REAR BRAKES
~ GEAR | | FRONT BRAKES (DRUM)
(UNMODIFIED) (DISC)

Figure 48 @ A Bendix Hydro-Boost hydraulic booster installation. (Courtesy of Allied Signal Automotive Aftermarket.)

To provide power, three fluid lines are routed to

the power booster (Figure 48).
One supplies hydraulic pressure from the power
steering pump to the booster. The second routes
hydraulic pressure from the booster to the power
steering gear. The third is a low-pressure fluid re-
turn line from the booster to the power steering
pump reservoir. The overall system is designed so VALVE
the power brake and steering systems do not inter-
fere with one another, whether in use or at rest.
A hydraulic power booster (Figure 47) is a rela-
tively simple mechanism that consists of input
TMA
and output pushrods and four basic operating LAND VALLEY LAND
parts: a spool valve, a lever and linkage, a reaction Figure 49 ® The basic operation of a spool valve. (Chek-Chart,
rod, and a power piston. 0-13-045203-X.)
The spool valve is a machined rod with raised
“lands” and cutaway “valleys.” As the spool
valve changes position in its bore, the lands and The spool valve and its bore are very finely fin-
valleys align with various ports in the valve bore ished, and rely on this finish to provide sealing.
to prevent or allow the flow of hydraulic pressure The movement of the spool valve is governed
through the booster (Figure 49). by the lever. The bottom of the lever pivots on the
34 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION
power piston, while a lever pin near the center of Brakes Not Applied
the lever is attached to the reaction rod. The reac-
tion rod slides in a bore machined into the rear of When the brakes are not applied, the spool valve
the power piston; movement of the reaction rod is held in a rearward position by its return spring
causes the lever to pivot and thus changes the po- (Figure 50).
sition of the spool valve in its bore. The power pis- Approximately 100 to 150 psi of hydraulic pres-
sure enters the booster from the power steering
ton slides in a bore in the booster housing and is
pump at this time; however, a valley on the spool
normally held in the rearward position by a return
spring. valve allows the pressure to pass straight through
to the steering box, and the lands on the spool
valve prevent any pressure from entering the
Phases of Operation power chamber. To ensure that any pressure leak-
Mechanical-hydraulic power boosters have five age past the spool valve does not create applica-
phases of operation: tion force, the power chamber is open to the
low-pressure return line through a vent port that
Brakes not applied leads to the hollow center of the spool valve.
@ Brake application
Brakes holding
Brake Application
Brake release
@ Reserve braking. When the brakes are applied, the input pushrod
applies pressure to the reaction rod (Figure 51).

ACCUMULATOR | OCU MUEATOR

SPRING ACCUMULATOR PISTON
GY“Mh
LG IELTSLE
PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE

ACCUMULATOR
ACCUMULATOR DUMP VALVE
CHARGING VALVE

FROM STEERING PUMP ——

TO FLUID RESERVOIR «=

SPOOL Nr
ZAI Beso LEVER
VALVE ILLay

PLUG > AQ LEVER PIN

pltdttlts INPUT PUSHROD

FRONT Zl
HOUSING | sy
SPRING (
RETAINER f TUUA

a a);SPOOL VALVE
CAG
WILL
WW A
POWER
CHAMBER
OUTPUT PUSHROD REACTION ROD POWER PISTON
Figure 50 @ A Hydro-Boost hydraulic booster in the unapplied position. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X/Modified by WyoTech, 2006.)

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 35

 TO FLUID TO FLUID TEERING PUMP
FROM STEERING PUMP
ae RESERVOIR APO BS

ii INPUT
POWER PUSHROD SPOOL ROD POWER CHAMBER
VALVE BEACON CHAMBER
ROD PISTON
POWER
PISTON PRESSURE CHAMBER TO
CREATE PEDAL FEEL
Figure 51 ® A Hydro-Boost hydraulic booster as the brakes
are applied. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.) Figure 52 @ A Hydro-Boost hydraulic booster in the holding
position. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

Because it is not bottomed in the power piston, valve rearward in its bore. This closes the port that
the reaction rod moves forward and causes the allows additional pressure into the power chamber,
lever to pivot on the power piston, moving the and since the vent port near the back end of the
spool valve forward in its bore. Movement of spool valve also remains closed, the amount of
the spool valve does two things: it closes the pressure in the power chamber (and therefore
power chamber vent port, and it allows fluid power assist) is held constant. This is the holding
pressure to pass through a valley on the spool position of the power booster.
valve, into the hollow center of the spool valve,
and from there into the power chamber. The Brake Release
pressure in the power chamber then moves the
power piston forward to help apply the output When the brakes are released, the input pushrod
pushrod to the master cylinder. and reaction rod travel rearward, causing the
At the same time the spool valve moves for- lever to pivot on the power piston and move the
ward to allow fluid pressure into the power cham- spool valve all the way rearward in its bore. This
ber, the valley shape on the valve begins to restrict does two things. It closes the port that allows fluid
fluid flow through the booster to the power steer- pressure into the power chamber, and it opens the
ing gear. The farther the valve moves, the greater vent port near the back end of the spool valve.
the restriction. Because the power steering pump Pressure in the power chamber then escapes
moves the same volume of fluid with each revo- through the hollow center of the spool valve into
lution, the restriction in flow demands that pres- the low-pressure return line to the reservoir. The
sure increase so all of the fluid can be moved booster is then in the brakes not applied position
through the booster. As system pressure increases, shown in Figure 50.
so too does the pressure in the power chamber,
and therefore the amount of power assist. The re- Reserve Braking
striction provided by the spool valve can cause All Hydro-Boost systems are equipped with an
hydraulic pressure to rise as high as 1,450 psi in accumulator that stores hydraulic pressure to pro-
some applications. A pressure relief valve pre- vide reserve stopping ability in the event power is
vents pressure increase beyond this point. lost to the booster. This can be caused by an engine
stall, a broken pump drive belt, a burst hose, or a
Brakes Holding pump mechanical failure. Hydro-Boost I systems
Once the desired rate of deceleration is achieved, have two or three stops in reserve, Hydro-Boost II
no further pressure is applied to the brake pedal, systems have one or two.
and the input pushrod and reaction rod are held The Hydro-Boost I units have a spring-loaded
in a fixed position (Figure 52). accumulator like that shown in Figure 53; the ac-
As pressure in the power chamber increases, the cumulator can be attached to the outside of the
power piston moves forward, causing the lever to booster or remote mounted on the inner fender
pivot around the lever pin and move the spool panel.

36 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

 ACCUMULATOR mulator pressure is depleted, the reaction rod will
bottom in the power piston; this creates metal-to-
metal contact through the booster to allow full
manual braking.

Brake Pedal Feel

As pressure in the power chamber increases, it

moves through a small passage into the space be-
DUMP VALVE
tween the power piston and the reaction rod. This
creates a counterforce that moves the reaction rod
DUMP VALVE
ACTUATOR and lever rearward, causing the spool valve to
also move rearward in its bore and thus moderate
application force. The counterforce also acts di-
rectly through the reaction rod and input pushrod
to provide the driver with pedal feel. Because the
hydraulic pressure in front of the reaction rod is
acting on only a small part of the total power pis-
ton area, the amount of force fed back to the pedal
POWER POWER is less than, but still proportional to, the total
PISTON CHAMBER braking force being applied.
Figure 53 @ An accumulator gives the Hydro-Boost
hydraulic booster reserve braking power. Electro-Hydraulic Boosters
(Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)
Electro-hydraulic (E-H) boosters are compact,
self-contained systems that do not require exter-
nal hydraulic lines because they use an electric
Early Hydro-Boost I units have a nitrogen gas
pump to provide hydraulic pressure for the
charged accumulator in place of the spring-loaded
booster (Figure 54).
design. With the introduction of Hydro-Boost II the
E-H boosters also use brake fluid as their oper-
gas-charged accumulator was integrated into the
ating fluid, which eliminates any chance of power
power piston inside the booster (Figure 47). This
steering fluid and brake fluid becoming acciden-
makes Hydro-Boost II units both smaller and
tally mixed. They provide an excellent reserve of
lighter than earlier models. braking power in the event power to the booster
The accumulator is charged by power steering
is lost.
pump pressure during normal braking or steering
There are actually two types of E-H boosters:
(Figure 50). Pressure enters the accumulator
basic models used with conventional brake sys-
through a check valve that opens when the supply
tems and those that are integrated into an antilock
line pressure is greater than that in the accumula-
tor. A fixed orifice controls the rate at which the ac-
cumulator is charged so there will be a minimal
effect on fluid flow to the steering gear. In addi-
tion, the accumulator can also be charged during
braking through the backside of the dump valve
which is exposed in the boost pressure chamber. If
pressure in the chamber during braking rises
above that in the accumulator, the dump valve
will unseat and open a direct passage to the accu-
mulator. A relief valve vents the accumulator to
the low-pressure fluid return line if pressure rises
above approximately 1,400 psi.
If braking is attempted and power steering
pump pressure is unavailable, extra pedal travel
causes an actuator on the spool valve sleeve to
mechanically open the accumulator dump valve
(Figure 53). This releases accumulator pressure di- Figure 54 @ An electro-hydraulic power booster, showing
rectly into the power chamber to actuate the the pump motor and accumulator. (Chek-Chart,
power piston and apply the brakes. Once accu- 0-13-048203-X.)

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 37

braking system. Basic models used with a con-
ventional braking system were used in the early
1980s by various vehicle manufacturers.

Interim Summary
1. Many hydraulic boosters use hydraulic
pressure from the

2: contain
lands and valleys.
3. The spool valve power
steering in
and through the hydraulic brake booster.
4, Some hydraulic brake boosters have an tem used to slow and stop the vehicle during every-
day driving and does not include the antilock or
hydraulic pump instead of traction control system. Service brakes are applied
using power steering pump pressure. by pushing on the brake pedal, which pressurizes
5. All types of brake booster have a limited the brake hydraulic system and applies the friction
for brake application in the assemblies at all four wheels to stop the vehicle.
event of a vacuum or hydraulic pressure The time interval between force applied at the
supply failure. brake pedal and braking action at the wheels is
only a fraction of a second, but these events are
linked by a long chain of mechanical and hydraulic
actions that combine to provide the braking power
Service Brake System needed to stop the car. Each link in this chain is
Components carefully engineered to perform a specific function
in the overall braking process, and a weakness or
When technicians talk about a vehicle’s brake sys- failure at any point can result in greatly reduced
tem, they are usually referring to the service brakes stopping power or total brake failure. The follow-
(Figure 55). Manufacturers may also refer to the ser- ing sections trace the flow of braking force through
vice brakes as foundation brakes or base brakes. a typical modern brake system and provide basic
The term “service brakes” refers to the primary sys- descriptions of the most common components.

MASTER CYLINDER
POWER
BRAKE
BRAKE HOSE BRAKE
PEDAL

\ eee ham
PARKING
BRAKE PARKING
BRAKE LINE \

L <a

METERING
VALVE
BRAKE WARNING
LIGHT SWITCH
DISC BRAKE DRUM BRAKE
(FRONT) PROPORTIONING (REAR)
VALVE
Figure 55 @ A typical brake system with front disc and rear drum friction assemblies. (Courtesy of DaimlerChrysler Corporation.)

38 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

Pedal Assembly blies. Although the fluid leaving the master cylin-
When the driver steps on the brake pedal, it der is under very high pressure, the actual volume
moves a pushrod attached near the top of the of fluid moved is no more than a few ounces.
pedal arm (Figure 56). Because of the mechanical Early brake systems had master cylinders with a
single fluid outlet that supplied pressure to all four
advantage designed into the pedal assembly, the
wheels (Figure 58). All modern systems use a dual
pedal pushrod transmits a force several times
master cylinder that contains two (2) hydraulic cir-
greater than that applied to the pedal pad.
cuits with separate fluid outlets (Figure 59). Each of
Power Booster the hydraulic circuits supplies two or more of the
wheel friction assemblies. This ensures that at least
On most late-model brake systems, the pedal partial braking power will be retained if there is a
pushrod enters a vacuum, hydraulic, or electro- failure in one of the hydraulic circuits.
hydraulic assisted power booster, where it actu-
ates the booster control valve (Figure 57). The
booster further increases the braking force which
VACUUM
passes out of the booster through the booster POWER eee
pushrod.

Master Cylinder
The booster pushrod (or the pedal pushrod on sys-
tems without a power booster) enters the brake
master cylinder (Figure 58). The master cylinder
converts the mechanical force of the pushrod into
hydraulic pressure that is distributed to the wheels.
The master cylinder is similar to a hollow tube.
One end is closed except for a fluid line exiting to
MASTER
the wheels; the other end is sealed off by a sliding CYLINDERS
piston that is moved by the pedal or booster
pushrod. A brake fluid reservoir keeps the cylinder
full of fluid at all times. When the pushrod moves
the piston toward the closed end of the cylinder,
fluid trapped ahead of the piston is forced out
through the brake line to the wheel friction assem-

MASTER PEDAL PEDAL

CYLINDER PUSHROD SUPPORT HYDRAULIC
BRACKET POWER BOOSTER
Figure 57 @ Typical vacuum and hydraulic brake boosters.
(Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

FLUID
see)
OUTLET
RESERVOIR

PEDAL
PUSHROD

POWER BRAKE BOOSTER

FIREWALL

BRAKE PEDAL PISTON

Figure 56 The brake pedal is the driver’s control Figure 58 @ A simple brake master cylinder converts
mechanism for the brake system. (Chek-Chart, mechanical pedal force into hydraulic pressure.
0-13-048203-X.) (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 39

 PISTON FLUID
ets RESERVOIRS

SWITCH
PISTON TERMINAL
FLUID OUTLETS
Figure 59 @ Since 1967, all vehicles sold in the United States
have been equipped with a dual-circuit master
cylinder for added safety. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

Hydraulic Lines and Hoses

As pressurized fluid leaves the master cylinder, it
is routed to the wheel friction assemblies through
brake lines made of steel tubing or reinforced
rubber hose. Steel tubing that is solidly attached to Figure 60 ® Hydraulic switches and control valves are part
the vehicle chassis. makes up most of the brake of most brake systems. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)
lines. The flexible rubber hoses connect the steel
lines to the wheel friction assemblies that move
with the suspension.
INSPECTION ANCHOR PLATE
Brake lines are designed to contain the high
pressure of the brake hydraulic system and resist HOLE
deterioration from exposure to brake fluid. The
outsides of the lines are also protected to prevent BRAKE PAD
damage from the elements or materials thrown up
by the tires. Special fittings are required on all
brake lines to provide fluid tight connections;
where a single line must be split into two, brass or
steel junction blocks are used.

Hydraulic Switches and Valves

Once the fluid leaves the master cylinder, it does
not necessarily go directly to the wheels; it usually
passes through one or more hydraulic valves
along the way (Figure 60). The valves and switches SPLASH SHIELD 7%
serve a number of purposes, too involved to de-
Figure 61 @ The brake caliper is mounted as part of the disc
scribe here, but for the most part, they either sense
brake assembly. (Halderman & Mitchell, 0-13-099453-7.)
variations in hydraulic pressure as an indication of
fluid leakage, or they modulate hydraulic pressure
in some manner to ensure better braking perfor-
mance. These valves can be individual units, or
calipers and wheel cylinders apply the brake pads
they may be put together in various combinations. and shoes to stop the vehicle.
Brake calipers are used with disc brakes, and
are found on the front and rear brakes (Figure 61).
Calipers and Wheel Cylinders
On many vehicles, drum brakes are used on the
Hydraulic pressure is transferred from the master rear wheels. The wheel cylinder is the hydraulic
cylinder, through the lines and hoses, to the brake component of the drum brake assembly that op-
calipers and wheel cylinders at each wheel. The erates the brake shoes (Figure 62).

40 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

 BLEEDER VALVE HOLLOW BOLT ass

FLUID INLET

SPRING CUP SEAL

PISTON PISTON
RUBBER
CUP EXPANDER GROMMETS
Figure 62 ® A cross section of a wheel cylinder, showing all of
CLAMPS
its internal parts. (Halderman & Mitchell, 0-13-099453-7.)

Figure 63 @ Brake fluid reservoirs come in many shapes and

S1Zes. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

Brake Fluid Reservoir

To operate properly, a hydraulic brake system must

be completely filled with air-free brake fluid. How-
ever, the amount of fluid required to fill the system
will vary. Temperature changes cause brake fluid to
expand and contract; brake application forces fluid
out of the wheel friction assemblies which in-
creases total hydraulic system volume; and brake
Master Cylinders lining wear leaves the wheel cylinder and brake
caliper pistons farther out in their bores, which re-
quires additional fluid to fill the resulting space.
Construction
The brake fluid reservoir stores a supply of brake
The master cylinder converts the mechanical force fluid to compensate for these changes.
provided by leg power, leverage, and in many Brake fluid reservoirs come in many forms;
cases a power booster into hydraulic pressure. some are cast in metal as part of the master cylin-
This pressure is then distributed to the wheel fric- der body, while others are separate parts made of
tion assemblies where it is converted back into plastic or nylon (Figure 63).
mechanical force that applies the brakes. While Separate reservoirs either attach to the master
there are several different designs of master cylin- cylinder with rubber grommets, or they clamp or
ders, they all have certain basic parts in common. bolt directly to the cylinder body. The fluid reser-
Some of the parts, such as pistons and seals, are voir may include a fluid level sensor (Figure 64).
also used in wheel cylinders and brake calipers. Where the master cylinder is mounted in a dif-
The basic elements that make up a master cylinder ficult to reach location, a remote-mounted reser-
are described in the following sections. voir is sometimes used (Figure 65). Remote

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION At

 DRUM DISC
BRAKE RESERVOIR BRAKE RESERVOIR

~ LOW BRAKE
a _ FLUID LEVEL
SWITCH
SSS
OL ZEEEZZZZI NO

LZ pongo
Figure 64 @ The brake fluid level sensor is located in the
fluid reservoir. (Courtesy of DaimlerChrysler Corporation.) MASTER CYLINDER BODY
Figure 66 @ When the two sides of a dual reservoir have
unequal sizes, the larger reservoir is for the disc
brakes. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)
RESERVOIRS

LINES TO
MASTER
voir for the front brakes is bigger. This ensures
CYLINDER there will be enough fluid to keep the brake
calipers filled as the brake pads wear and the rel-
atively large caliper pistons remain farther out in
their bores. When the hydraulic system is split so
a front disc brake and a rear drum brake are ap-
plied by each circuit, the reservoirs for both cir-
cuits are the same size.

Reservoir Covers
MASTER Brake fluid reservoirs are fitted with covers to pre-
LINES TO CYLINDER
BRAKES
vent dirt and other particulates from contaminat-
ing the fluid. When the reservoir is cast into the
master cylinder body, the cover is often a metal
stamping held in place by a wire bail (Figure 67).
Figure 65 ® Remote mounted fluid reservoirs are used A composite master cylinder may have nylon or
where it would be difficult to check and fill a plastic reservoirs with caps made of plastic, nylon,
reservoir mounted on the master cylinder. (Chek- or rubber that thread or snap into place.
Chart, 0-13-048203-X.) The reservoir covers on many cars have fluid
level sensors built into them. These sensors acti-
vate a warning light on the instrument panel if the
reservoirs can be made of metal, plastic, or nylon, fluid level falls below a safe level (Figure 68).
and they are connected to the master cylinder All brake fluid reservoir covers are vented to
with steel or plastic tubing or a rubber hose. equalize pressure in the air space above the fluid
All cars built after 1966 are equipped with a as the level rises and falls. With the cover sealed
dual master cylinder that divides the brake sys- air tight, a partial vacuum would be formed
tem into two separate hydraulic circuits. The two whenever the fluid level fell. The vacuum would
circuits are served by two independent fluid prevent fluid from entering the hydraulic system
reservoirs, although in most cases they are com- and, if strong enough, could pull air into the sys-
bined into a single housing (Figure 66). tem past the wheel cylinder seals.
When the hydraulic system is split so the front Venting the brake fluid reservoir creates a prob-
disc brakes are applied by one circuit and the rear lem in systems that use polyglycol brake fluid. If
drum brakes are applied by the other, the reser- polyglycol fluid is not kept out of contact with air,

42 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

 RESERVOIR
COVER

RESERVOIR
COVER

7 RESERVOIR
DIAPHRAGM

| GROMMET

CYLINDER
BODY

TUBE SEAT

CAST COMPOSITE
(A) (B)
Figure 67 @ The reservoir cover may be held in place by (A) a wire bail or (B) a snap fit. (Halderman & Mitchell, 0-13-099453-7.)

RESERVOIR TANK at the same time it is able to flex up and down as

the fluid level changes.
TO FRONT WHEEL The fluid reservoirs on the master cylinders of
CYLINDERS some import cars have plastic floats that serve
TO REAR
WHEEL much the same purpose as a rubber diaphragm.
CYLINDERS The floats ride on top of the fluid and limit air
exposure to only a small ring around their outer
edge.
>
Body
The cylinder body is the basic building block of
oe PRIMARY PISTON
the entire master cylinder assembly (Figure 69).
RUBBER PISTON Cups PISTON The brake fluid reservoir attaches to the outside
Figure 68 @ This master cylinder uses a fluid level sensor of the cylinder body, as do the brake lines that
built into the cap. A float and magnetic switch carry the hydraulic pressure to the wheel friction
operate a warning light in the instrument panel.
assemblies. Inside the cylinder is the bore that
(Courtesy of Toyota Motor Sales USA, Inc.)
contains the pistons and seals that create the hy-
draulic pressure that operates the brake system.
it will quickly absorb enough moisture to reduce For each master cylinder piston, there are two
its boiling point to a dangerous level. To isolate the small openings between the fluid reservoir and
fluid from the air while still allowing pressure to the cylinder bore (Figure 70). The function of these
equalize, a rubber diaphragm may be installed be- holes, called compensating and replenishing
tween the reservoir and the cover (see Figure 67). ports, is explained later.
The diaphragm seals tightly around the edge of Allearly master cylinders, and some built today,
the reservoir cover to isolate the fluid from the air; are made of cast iron. Cast iron master cylinders

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION A3

 INTEGRAL are sturdy, although heavy, and the fluid reser-
RESERVOIRS voir is usually cast as part of the cylinder body.
To provide a good sealing surface, the bore of a
cast iron master cylinder body is drilled slightly
undersize and heated red hot in a furnace. A
steel ball bearing of the appropriate diameter
is then forced into the cylinder bore to expand
the opening to the finished size. This compresses
the metal that forms the bore and produces a
“bearingized” surface that is exceptionally
TUBING smooth and durable.
SEATS Most newer brake systems have aluminum
OUTLETS master cylinders that use a separate plastic or ny-
lon fluid reservoir. The main reason for the change
CYLINDER BORE
is a reduction in weight that contributes to better
Figure 69 ® The master cylinder body provides the fuel economy, although aluminum master cylin-
foundation for the brake hydraulic system. (Chek-
ders are also less costly to manufacture. Alu-
Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)
minum is a much softer metal than cast iron, so the
bore of an aluminum master cylinder must be
anodized to protect it from corrosion and provide
a suitable surface for good sealing and a long ser-
COMPENSATING
PORTS
vice life. Anodizing is a process that creates alu-
REPLENISHING minum oxide that is much harder than pure
aluminum.

Pistons
Simple master cylinders contain a single piston
that slides in the bore with only a few thousandths
of an inch clearance (Figure 71).
The piston is larger at its ends where the seals
fit, and narrower in the center, so a small chamber
of fluid is created between the two ends of the pis-
ton. When force is applied to the piston by the
brake pedal or power booster pushrod, it moves
CYLINDER forward in the master cylinder bore and creates
BORE CYLINDER BODY the hydraulic pressure that actuates the wheel
Figure 70 ® Compensating (vent) and replenishing (filler) friction assemblies. When the brake pedal is re-
ports allow brake fluid to pass between the leased, a spring in front of the piston helps return
reservoir and the cylinder bore. (Chek-Chart, it to its retracted position.
0-13-048203-X.) Dual master cylinders contain a pair of pistons,
one for each of the hydraulic circuits (Figure 72).
The piston closest to the mouth of the cylinder,
the one that contacts the brake pedal or power
booster pushrod, is called the primary piston. The
piston located toward the front of the cylinder is
called the secondary piston. Each piston has its
own return spring, and the spring on the primary
piston may be attached to the piston with a re-
tainer and screw.
Master cylinder pistons can be made of either
steel or aluminum, although aluminum pistons
are used almost exclusively in modern brake sys-
tems because they are lighter and less expensive
to manufacture. The softness of aluminum pistons

44 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

 —<——————_ RESERVOIR COVER
BOOT
PUSHROD

PISTON
RETAINING
RING

ie
RESIDUAL
PRESSURE
CHECK VALVE

PRIMARY
CUP SEAL

SECONDARY \e)
CUP SEAL
CUP PROTECTOR
PISTON RETAINER
Figure 71 @ Simple master cylinders contain a single piston and return spring. While no longer used for brake systems, this
design is still used in hydraulic clutch systems. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

SECONDARY PISTON SECONDARY

STOP BOLT RETURN SPRING

y
MASTER SECONDARY
CYLINDER BODY PISTON ASSEMBLY

Sf
SPRING e7C >
PRIMARY PISTON
ASSEMBLY
moe —“G @
PRIMARY @
SEAL

SECONDARY
PISTON
TUBE SEAT
INSERTS SECONDARY
SEALS RETAINER
RING
Figure 72 @ Dual master cylinders contain a pair of pistons and return springs. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X./Modified by WyoTech, 2006.)

also provides increased cylinder body life when Piston Seals

they are used in a cast iron master cylinder. De- ; ;
spite the lubricating effects of brake fluid, there is Bene 7ss ide aescsc epee ene
still friction as the pistons slide back and forth. An ibys cai cylin Be iia Without Hee San
Se ieee P os hes ie han we ae fluid would bypass the pistons and the master
a Pachee CA eeoSin cylinder would be unable to produce and hold the
i
hydraulic pressure necessary to operate the

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 45

brakes. Some seals have a hole through their cen- The secondary piston in the dual master cylin-
ter where they mount on the piston; others have der may have two or three cup seals on it. The seal
solid centers with a flat back that butts against a on the front of the piston is the primary seal, the
parallel surface on the end of the piston. second seal is the secondary seal, and the third
At least two seals are used on every master seal, if equipped, is the separator seal. Not all sec-
cylinder piston (Figure 71): a primary seal and a ondary pistons use a separator seal (Figure 74).
secondary seal. The primary seal is located at the The primary and secondary seals are used to push
front of the piston; its job is to create hydraulic brake fluid into the brake lines as the piston
pressure. The secondary seal is located at the rear moves forward and on to the wheel assemblies.
of the piston; its job is to prevent fluid from es- The secondary seal also prevents brake fluid from
caping the master cylinder. escaping the secondary circuit into the primary
Because of their shape, the seals used on master circuit. The rearmost seal is called the separator
cylinder pistons are called cup seals, which are a seal and its purpose is explained later in this sec-
type of lip seal. With a cup seal, the fluid seal is tion. The lips on the primary and secondary seals
created by an angled lip on the outer edge of the face forward toward the master cylinder outlets
cup that contacts the cylinder bore (Figure 73). The while the separator seal faces rearward toward
outside diameter of the lip is a little larger than the primary piston primary seal. The primary pis-
that of the cylinder bore, and this causes the lip to ton typically has two seals: a primary and a sec-
be compressed slightly when the seal is installed. ondary. The primary seal is positioned at the front
of the piston and the secondary seal is at the rear
of the piston. If the primary piston secondary seal
leaks, the brake fluid will leak into the brake
LIP booster, down the outside of the forward bulk-
OPEN CENTER va head, on the inside of the bulkhead into the vehi-
cle where it can be difficult to detect.
When the brakes are not applied, the small
amount of lip compression provides all of the seal-
ing force. When the brakes are applied, pressure
created in front of the cup forces the lip tightly
against the cylinder bore; this additional sealing
force enables cup seals to contain very high hy-
draulic pressures. With a cup seal, the sealing lip
always faces the pressure to be contained.
An important trait of cup seals is that they seal
in only one direction. If the pressure on the back
side of the seal becomes greater than the pressure
on the cup side, the lip will collapse and fluid will
bypass the seal. In effect, a cup seal acts like a one-
way check valve. As explained later, the one-way
SOLID CENTER me

SECONDARY PISTON PRIMARY PISTON

SESSA Apa
Al
i
Fre RULER
COUNCUCUUGYD

PRIMARY SECONDARY PRIMARY SECONDARY

SEAL SEAL SEAL SEAL
Figure 74 This master cylinder uses a secondary seal
Figure 73 ® Brake master cylinders use cup seals to prevent without a separator seal on the secondary
fluid leakage between the pistons and cylinder piston. (Courtesy of General Motors Corporation, Service and
walls. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.) Parts Operations.)

46 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

sealing ability of cup seals plays an essential part commonly called a dual master cylinder, which
in master cylinder operation. creates pressure for two separate hydraulic cir-
cuits. The cylinder is designed so that a leak in one
Interim Summary hydraulic circuit will have limited effect on the other
circuit. This ensures that in the event of a failure at
il brakes are the primary sys- least partial braking power will be retained. Most
tem used to slow and stop the vehicle. rear-wheel-drive (RWD) cars use a dual-circuit
Zelhe con- brake system with a front/rear split (Figure 76); half
verts mechanical force into hydraulic pressure. of the master cylinder actuates the front brakes
3. The brake fluid reservoir stores the supply of while the other half actuates the rear brakes.
brake fluid for the brake system. A dual-circuit braking system with a front/rear
4. The brake split is satisfactory for a RWD car, but such a sys-
can be made as part of the master cylinder or tem could cause serious problems if used on a
as a separate part and sometimes not front-wheel-drive (FWD) vehicle. FWD cars have
mounted remotely from the a strong forward weight bias that is made even
more pronounced by weight transfer during brak-
5. The master cylinder contains a ing. This means the rear brakes of FWD cars do
. , and seals. very little work in stopping the car; in a hard stop,
6. Master cylinders can have one or more they may supply as little as 15% of the total brak-
ing power. If the dual-circuit brake system on a
7. Piston seals the escape of FWD car were split front to rear, failure of the
the be- front brakes would leave the car with almost no
tween the piston and the cylinder bore. stopping ability.
8. Cup seals are a type of lip seal that seal fluid To solve this problem, brake system engineers
pressure in developed the diagonal split dual-circuit brake
system (Figure 77).
With this design, the right front and left rear
Dual Circuit Brake Systems brakes are operated by one hydraulic circuit,
while the left front and right rear brakes are oper-
A single piston master cylinder provides only one
ated by the other circuit. In the event of partial
brake hydraulic circuit (Figure 75).
system failure, at least one front and one rear
Because all the brakes are operated by a single
brake will continue to work. This means approxi-
pressure source, a leak at any point in the system
mately 50% of the total braking power is always
will cause complete brake failure. To provide an
available with this system. Having braking on one
extra margin of safety, dual-circuit brake systems
front and one rear brake assembly on opposite
were developed. A dual-circuit brake system uses
a master cylinder with two piston assemblies,
DUAL MASTER
CYLINDER
SINGLE-PISTON
MASTER CYLINDER

Figure 76 ® The dual-circuit brake system on rear-wheel-

Figure 75 @ Until 1967, most brake systems had only a drive vehicles has a front/rear split. (Courtesy of
single hydraulic circuit. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.) Ford Motor Company.)

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 47

 DUAL MASTER RETURN RETURN COMPENSATING
CYLINDER SPRING SPRING PORT
REPLENISHING

PRIMARY
PISTON

SECONDARY SECONDARY
PISTON CUP SEAL

PRIMARY STOPPER PRIMARY SECONDARY

CUP SEAL BOLT CUP SEAL CUP SEAL
Figure 78 ® A dual master cylinder, brakes not applied.
(Courtesy of Toyota Motor Sales USA, Inc.)

Figure 77 @ A diagonally split dual-circuit brake system is

fluid reservoir; others enter from outside the
used on most front-wheel-drive vehicles.
(Courtesy of Ford Motor Company.) cylinder body. A copper washer is fitted under the
head of exterior stop bolts to prevent fluid leaks.
On other master cylinders, the primary piston
return spring serves as the secondary piston stop.
corners also provides better braking stability than The return spring attaches to the primary piston
having only front-rear-wheel brake operation. stop. The return spring attaches to the primary
piston with a retainer and screw, and extends a
“Dual Piston Master Cylinder Operation fixed distance forward to contact the secondary
piston. In these applications, the secondary piston
Dual master cylinders have two fluid reservoirs return spring is less powerful than the primary re-
and two pistons fitted end-to-end in the cylinder turn spring so it cannot overpower the primary
bore. The rear piston, actuated by the master spring and cause the secondary piston to move
cylinder or power booster pushrod, is called the too far rearward in the bore.
primary piston. The forward piston, normally ac- There is no hydraulic pressure in any part of the
tuated by hydraulic pressure, is called the second- master cylinder at this time; all chambers are under
ary piston. atmospheric pressure only. All of the sealing force
Each piston has primary and secondary seals. is provided by the compressed lips of the cup seals.
The area in front of the primary cup seals is called The compensating port in front of each piston
the high-pressure chamber; this is where the hy- primary seal is open when the brakes are not ap-
draulic pressure that operates the brakes is cre- plied. The compensating port provides a very
ated. The area in-between the primary and small passage between the brake fluid reservoir
secondary cup seals is called the low-pressure and the high-pressure chamber of the master
chamber. Fluid in this area is never under high cylinder. The compensating port serves two im-
pressure, but it plays an important part in master portant functions. First, it allows fluid to flow into
cylinder operation. the master cylinder when the hydraulic system is
initially filled. Then, once the system is in service,
Brakes Not Applied it allows fluid to flow between the reservoirs and
When the brakes are not applied, both pistons of high-pressure chambers to compensate for
a dual master cylinder are held in the fully re- changes in hydraulic system fluid volume. These
tracted position by their respective return springs changes are caused by variations in fluid temper-
(Figure 78). ature or wear of the brake linings.
The primary piston bottoms against a retaining The replenishing port behind each piston pri-
ring at the mouth of the cylinder. The secondary mary cup seal is also open when the brakes are not
piston can bottom in one of two ways. On some applied. The replenishing port is larger than the
cylinders, a bolt threaded into the cylinder body compensating port, and provides a passage be-
provides a stop for the secondary piston. Some tween the fluid reservoirs and the low-pressure
stop bolts enter the cylinder bore from inside the chambers of the master cylinder. The replenishing

48 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

ports keep the low-pressure chambers filled with of the master cylinder into the brake lines and
brake fluid that will be required when the brakes out to the wheel friction assemblies. Hydraulic
are released. pressure is relatively low until all of the clear-
ance is taken up in the brake system, but once the
Brake Application pads and shoes solidly contact the rotors and
drums, hydraulic pressure builds up rapidly and
As the brake pedal pushrod moves the primary braking force is applied. As the pressure builds,
piston forward in the master cylinder bore, a small it forces the lips of the primary seals tightly
amount of fluid from the primary high-pressure against the cylinder bore to prevent any hy-
chamber is forced out of the compensating port draulic pressure from escaping into the low-
into the fluid reservoir. This small amount of fluid pressure chamber.
movement can be observed as a squirt or fountain The replenishing ports remain open during
of fluid if the brakes are applied while the reservoir brake application to keep the low-pressure cham-
cover is removed and can cause brake fluid to spill ber filled with brake fluid. In fact, the replenishing
onto plastic or painted areas, causing surface dam- port is always open and the fluid in the low-
age to those areas. Once the compensating port is pressure chamber is never under more than at-
closed by the primary cup seal, the primary high- mospheric pressure unless there is a problem in
pressure chamber is effectively sealed. This occurs the master cylinder.
because the lip of the rearmost cup seal on the sec-
ondary piston faces the lip of the primary cup seal.
Primary Circuit Failure
Continued movement of the primary piston
forces fluid through the primary circuit to the ap- The extra margin of safety provided by a dual mas-
propriate wheel friction assemblies. Pressure in ter cylinder comes into play when there is a leak in
the primary high-pressure chamber also moves either of the hydraulic circuits. If the leak occurs in
the secondary piston forward in the master cylin- a part of the brake system served by the primary
der bore. Like the primary piston, the secondary circuit, hydraulic pressure will not be created in
piston forces a small amount of brake fluid from the primary high-pressure chamber, and will
the secondary high-pressure chamber into the therefore be unavailable to actuate the secondary
fluid reservoir through the compensating port. piston. When this happens, the pedal pushrod
Once the secondary piston moves far enough to moves the primary piston forward until it physi-
close the compensating port, the entire master cally contacts the secondary piston (Figure 80).
cylinder is sealed and brake fluid is pumped This transfers pushrod force directly to the sec-
through both hydraulic circuits to the wheel fric- ondary piston which then creates pressure in the
tion assemblies (Figure 79). secondary hydraulic circuit.
Since the fluid trapped in the high-pressure
chambers cannot be compressed, it is forced out Secondary Circuit Failure
If the leak occurs in a part of the brake system
served by the secondary circuit, the primary high-
PISTON CUR COMPENSATING pressure chamber will remain sealed, but no hy-
PORT draulic pressure will be developed because the
secondary piston will simply shift forward in the
bore. In this case, additional brake pedal travel

CONTACT

SECONDARY PRIMARY SECONDARY PISTON PRIMARY PISTON ©

PISTON PISTON
Figure 80 ® Primary circuit failure in a dual master cylinder.
Figure 79 @ A dual master cylinder in the brakes applied
(Courtesy of Toyota Motor Sales USA, Inc.)
position. (Courtesy of Toyota Motor Sales USA, Inc.)

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 49

moves the secondary piston until an extension on the brake shoes in contact with the drums and
the front of the piston bottoms on the end of the discs to compress the gas created when the fluid
cylinder body (Figure 81). This allows any further boils. The amount of fluid needed in these situa-
primary piston movement to create pressure in tions is usually more than can be delivered by a
the primary hydraulic circuit. single stroke of the master cylinder. The one-way
sealing characteristics of cup seals combined
Brake Release with the action of the fluid replenishing port en-
able the master cylinder to act as a fluid pump
When the brake pedal is released, return springs at that can help restore some of the lost braking
the brake pedal and in the master cylinder help re- power.
turn the system to the brakes not applied position As previously described, every time the driver
previously described. Because the master cylinder releases the brake pedal, pressure drops in the
pistons are small and light, they return to the re- high-pressure chambers and brake fluid bypasses
tracted position almost immediately. However, the the primary cup seals to equalize pressure ahead
brake fluid pumped into the brake lines and wheel of the piston. Once the piston is fully retracted,
friction assemblies during application has greater fluid returning from the brake lines passes
inertia and cannot return as quickly. This creates a through the compensating port into the fluid
pressure drop in the high-pressure chambers, and reservoir. However, if the driver pumps the brake
if nothing were done to compensate, the reduced
pressure would cause the piston to return very
sluggishly.
To avoid this problem, master cylinders take INLET
ORIFICES| PORT
advantage of the one-way sealing ability of
the primary cup seals. When the brakes are re-
leased and pressure drops below the atmos-
pheric pressure in the low-pressure chambers,
the lip of the primary seal collapses and fluid
bypasses the seal until pressure in the chambers
is equalized (Figure 82). Many pistons have
small holes drilled behind the seal to let the
fluid through.
Once the piston reaches the fully retracted po-
sition, the lips of the primary cup seals expand
and regain their seal against the cylinder bore. As Figure 82 ® The one-way action of the primary cup seal
excess fluid returns from the brake lines and allows fluid to bypass the seal and allows the
wheel friction assemblies, it is diverted back into rapid return of the master cylinder pistons.
the reservoirs through the now open compensat- (Courtesy of Toyota Motor Sales USA, Inc.)

ing port (Figure 83).

Brake Pumping
Normally, less than a fluid ounce of brake fluid is COMPENSATING
moved by the master cylinder to apply the
brakes. But when mechanical brake fade or vapor
lock occurs, additional fluid is required to keep

fs gteeeg

SECONDARY PISTON PRIMARY PISTON

Figure 83 ® Excess fluid returns to the reservoir through
Figure 81 ® Secondary circuit failure in a dual master the compensating port. (Courtesy of Toyota Motor
cylinder. (Courtesy of Toyota Motor Sales USA, Inc.) Sales USA, Inc.)

50 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

pedal rapidly, some of the returning fluid remains disc brake calipers. When the brakes are not ap-
in the lines while additional fluid that bypasses plied, low-drag calipers retract the caliper pis-
the primary seals is pumped into the system. This tons and brake pads farther from the brake
supplies the extra fluid needed to combat brake rotors to reduce friction and improve fuel econ-
fade or vapor lock. omy. If a standard dual master cylinder was used
on a car with low-drag calipers, excessive pedal
Interim Summary travel would be required to move enough brake
fluid to take up the additional clearance. This
1. Dual circuit brake systems help prevent would leave little pedal reserve, and braking ac-
entire brake system in the tion would be delayed. To compensate for the in-
event of a hydraulic pressure creased clearance of low-drag brake calipers,
ina line or hose. quick take-up master cylinders provide a large
2. Dual circuit brakes can be designed as a volume of fluid when the brakes are first ap-
or ora plied.
type system. There are two main differences between a stan-
3. Dual diagonal brake systems allow for better dard dual master cylinder and a quick take-up de-
vehicle in the event of a sign. The first is that a quick take-up cylinder has
brake hydraulic system leak. a stepped bore that creates an oversize primary
4. Dual brake system master cylinders typically low-pressure chamber (Figure 84). The fluid
use pistons. stored in this chamber is used to take up the extra
5. Compensating ports allow fluid to flow clearance in low-drag brake calipers.
the reservoir during initial The second difference is the prescence of a
brake application. quick take-up valve, located between the fluid
6. During brake application, the compensating reservoir and the cylinder bore (Figure 85).
port also allows fluid to flow into the reser- The quick take-up valve seals the fluid passage
voir as it due to heat. between these two areas, and allows fluid to pass
7. The replenishing port is only under certain conditions. The outside of the
than the compensating port. valve seals to the cylinder body with a cup seal,
8. The replenishing port allows fluid to fill the while an internal fluid passage is kept closed by a
low pressure chamber for quick spring-loaded check ball. Several holes around the
edge of the valve allow fluid access to the back
side of the cup seal, and a small bypass groove is
cut into the seat of the internal check ball.
Quick Take-Up Master Cylinder The following sections explain how the over-
The quick take-up master cylinder, also called a size primary low-pressure chamber and the quick
fast fill master cylinder, is a type of dual master take-up valve work together to take up the addi-
cylinder used on cars equipped with low-drag tional clearance in low-drag brake calipers.

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 51

 SECONDARY HIGH-
PRESSURE CHAMBER

QUICK TAKE-
UP VALVE

PRIMARY
CUP SEAL PRIMARY LOW-
SECONDARY LOW- PRIMARY HIGH- PRESSURE
PRESSURE CHAMBER PRESSURE CHAMBER CHAMBER
Figure 84 ® Quick take-up master cylinders can be identified by their oversize primary low-pressure chamber. (Chek-Chart,
0-13-048203-X.)

ELUID RETAINING CYLINDER serving the primary piston must travel through
HOLES RING BODY the small bypass groove cut in the quick take-up
valve check ball seat.

Brake Application
When the brakes are applied, the primary piston
moves forward in the cylinder bore. This reduces
the total area of the primary piston low-pressure
chamber because the small diameter area behind
the primary cup seal has less volume than the
large diameter area being reduced by the piston
movement. Since the low-pressure chamber is get-
ting smaller and the brake fluid it contains cannot
be compressed, a portion of the fluid must exit the
BYPASS
GROOVE
chamber in some way.
The quick take-up valve prevents the fluid from
CHECK peli Soh returning to the reservoir; the path around the
COMPENSATING
outside of the valve is blocked by the cup seal, and
the hydraulic pressure in the low-pressure cham-
Figure 85 ® The quick take-up valve controls fluid flow to ber is not high enough to unseat the quick take-up
and from the primary low pressure chamber.
valve check ball at this time. A small amount of
(Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)
fluid does escape through the bypass groove in
the check ball seat, but it is not enough to affect the
overall operation of the system.
Since the passage to the reservoir is closed, the
Brakes Not Applied
only other way out for the fluid is past the pri-
When the brakes are not applied, a quick take-up mary cup seal (Figure 86).
master cylinder functions exactly the same as a As the volume of the low-pressure chamber
standard master cylinder. Both of the pistons are shrinks, pressure on the trapped fluid increases
in their fully retracted position, and all of the com- until it exceeds that of the fluid in the primary
pensating and replenishing ports are open. Fluid high-pressure chamber. The lip of the primary cup
to the secondary piston ports flows in directly seal then collapses and fluid from the low-
from the reservoir, but all fluid to or from the ports pressure chamber bypasses the seal and flows out

52 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

 PRIMARY HIGH- REDUCED PRIMARY pressure chambers, causing the lips of the primary
PRESSURE CHAMBER LOW-PRESSURE cup seals to collapse and allowing fluid from the
CHAMBER VOLUME low-pressure chambers to bypass and equalize the
pressure. Fluid in the secondary low-pressure
chamber is supplied directly from the reservoir
through the replenishing port, but the quick take-
up valve affects the flow of fluid to the primary
low-pressure chamber.
ST GI MEIDI LD POG ILE
pL ITIL IIE FL) 7 As the primary piston returns and pressure
drops in the primary high-pressure chamber, the
primary cup seal collapses to allow fluid from
PRIMARY the low-pressure chamber to enter. However, the
CUP SEAL
cup seal and check ball of the quick take-up
Figure 86 @ As the brakes are applied, reduced low-pressure valve prevent fluid from freely entering the re-
chamber volume results in a pressure increase plenishing port. This extends the pressure drop
that causes fluid to bypass the primary cup seal. into the primary low-pressure chamber, and
(Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)
from there through the replenishing port to the
underside of the quick take-up valve. Atmos-
pheric pressure on the fluid in the reservoir then
of the master cylinder to the wheels where it takes forces fluid through the holes around the outside
up the clearance in the low-drag brake calipers. edge of the quick take-up valve and past the
Once all of the clearance at the calipers has backside of the cup seal (Figure 87B). This fluid
been eliminated, pressure in both the low- passes through both the compensating and
pressure and high-pressure chambers begins to
increase. When the pressure reaches 70 to 100 psi,
the spring-loaded check ball in the quick take-up - RESERVOIR
valve opens and allows fluid in the low-pressure
chamber to return to the reservoir (Figure 87A).
With the pressure once again greater in the high-
pressure chamber than in the low-pressure cham- CHECK BALL
UNSEATED
ber, the primary cup regains its seal and the cylinder
functions like a standard dual master cylinder.
Since both the primary and secondary pistons and
cup seals are now the same diameter, equal pressure

Li
is delivered to both hydraulic circuits.
All of the quick take-up actions occur in the hy-
draulic circuit served by the primary piston. How-
YW

ever, if the brake system is split diagonally, an BRAKE APPLICATION

equal volume of fluid is needed to take up the B
clearance in the circuit served by the secondary
piston. As long as the quick take-up valve remains
closed, the secondary piston will move a greater
distance than the primary piston. This keeps hy- UP SEAL LIP
OLLAPSED
00
draulic pressure and fluid displacement the same
in both the primary and secondary circuits. Once
the quick take-up valve opens, both pistons move
together at the same rate, just as a standard dual Gra [a]
master cylinder.

Brake Release
f
When the brake pedal is released, the return
springs move the primary and secondary pistons BRAKE RELEASE
to their retracted positions. As in any master cylin- Figure 87 ® The one-way sealing abilities of both a spring-
der, the pistons return faster than the fluid in the loaded ball check valve and a cup seal are used in
lines can follow. This reduces pressure in the high- the quick take-up valve. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 3][e)

replenishing ports to equalize pressure in the At rest (pedal released) there is free flow of
low- and high-pressure chambers. fluid to the rest of the hydraulic system, both
feed and return. For example, during a traction
control event, the ABS controller may need to
Master Cylinder Variations draw fluid from the master cylinder reservoir to
The master cylinders discussed so far are the con- apply a brake caliper, and then return the fluid
ventional types that use a compensating port that when no longer needed. The center-port valve al-
allows for variations in brake fluid volume within lows this to happen. When the brakes are ap-
the system when the pedal is released. This com- plied, the ports close with the first movement of
pensating port is a small hole, as small as 0.040” in the pistons to seal off the fluid. Braking occurs in
some cases; this allows fluid to expand and return the same manner as with a conventional master
from the wheels when needed (Figure 88). The cylinder.
small hole also minimizes loss of fluid into the
reservoir when the pedal is first applied. Combination Master Cylinder
Some vehicles with antilock brakes (ABS) This variation combines the conventional master
and/or traction control systems require a larger cylinder and the port-less type so that one piston
volume of fluid flow to and from the reservoir dur- is of the center valve type and one piston uses the
ing ABS or traction control events. Modifications
compensating port (Figure 90).
to the master cylinder pistons allow this to occur. The type of master cylinder used will depend
on the brake system’s options. Typically the ap-
Center-Port Master Cylinder plications are:
Center-port master cylinders do not use compen- @ Vehicles without ABS will use a conventional
sating ports but instead use a fluid port and valve master cylinder with compensating ports in the
located in the center of the cylinder pistons primary and secondary pistons.
(Figure 89). They are also called ’port-less” mas-
ter cylinders, referring to the lack of a compensat-
ing port.

COMPENSATIN
PORTS

Figure 88 @ The conventional master cylinder uses a small

compensating port to allow for fluid return and
expansion when the pedal is released. (Courtesy of
DaimlerChrysler Corporation.)

CENTER VALVES CENTER COMPENSATING

VALVE PORT
Figure 89 ® The center valve or port-less master cylinder
has no compensation ports and uses two center- Figure 90 ® The combination master cylinder has both a
mounted valves instead. (Courtesy of DaimlerChrysler center valve and a compensating port. (Courtesy of
Corporation.) DaimlerChrysler Corporation.)

54 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

@ Vehicles with ABS may use a port-less (center FLUID RETURNING TO
port) secondary piston and compensating port MASTER CYLINDER
in the primary.
@ Vehicles with ABS and traction control systems
may use the port-less (center port) type valve
on both the secondary and primary pistons.

Brake Valves
Pascal's law states that hydraulic pressure will be
AIR BUBBLES RETRACTED
the same at all points within a hydraulic system. SEALING LIPS
However, after years of development, brake sys-
Figure 91 ® The momentary drop in pressure created when
tem engineers have determined that vehicle the brakes are released can draw air into the
brakes work better if the amount of timing of the hydraulic system. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)
hydraulic pressure within the system is altered in
certain ways. The hydraulic valves regulate pres-
sure within the brake system to provide faster and
more controllable stops.
Four basic types of hydraulic valves are used in
vehicle brake systems: SPRING

@ Residual pressure check

@ Metering
RESIDUAL CHECK MASTER
Proportioning
VALVE Rast CYLINDER
@ Combination. FLUID
OUTLET
Residual pressure check valves are used pri-
marily on older vehicles with four-wheel drum
brakes. Metering and proportioning valves are
found on most newer brake systems, and they are
often combined with a hydraulic switch to forma Se

TUBING SEAT
combination valve. The operation of these valves
and the reason they are needed are explained in Figure 92 ® Most residual check valves are located under
the tubing seats in the master cylinder outlet
the following section.
ports. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)
Residual Pressure Check Valve
Residual pressure check valves, often simply
called residual check valves, maintain between 6 RESERVOIR

ee
and 25 psi of residual pressure in the brake lines at
all times. Residual check valves are important be-
cause the sealing lips of wheel cylinder cup seals
tend to relax away from the cylinder walls and al- WD
if
low air to enter the hydraulic system. This is most
likely to occur when the brakes are released and
the retracting master cylinder piston creates a mo-
mentary pressure drop in the wheel cylinders
(Figure 91). The pressure trapped in the brake
lines by the residual check valve keeps the sealing
lips of the cup seals in firm contact with the wheel
YD:
RESIDUAL MASTER CYLINDER
cylinder bores to prevent air from entering the CHECK VALVE PISTON RETURN
system. SPRING
Residual check valves are often located under the Figure 93 ® Some older brake systems locate the residual
tube seats in the master cylinder outlet ports that check valve at the end of the master cylinder
supply fluid to drum brakes (Figure 92). bore. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)
In some older vehicles, the check valve may be
housed in the end of the master cylinder (Figure 93).

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 55

 Regardless of the type or location of the resid- The second reason residual check valves are sel-
ual check valve, the brake system is designed so dom seen today is that they are not used with disc
any application force created by residual pressure brakes. Early brake caliper pistons with lip seals
is less than the force of the brake shoe return use cup expanders to prevent air leaks, and the
springs. If this is not done, residual pressure will O-ring seals in all late-model calipers maintain
cause the brakes to drag. an airtight seal even under a slight negative pres-
sure. The square cut O-ring seals used in late-
model calipers also retract the piston slightly
Residual Check Vaive Operation
when the brakes are released, allowing the disc
All residual check valves work in essentially the pad to move slightly away from the rotor. In ad-
same manner. When the brakes are applied, the dition, brake calipers do not have return springs;
center of the valve opens and allows unrestricted if hydraulic pressure was retained in the brake
fluid flow to the wheel friction assemblies lines, the brakes would always be slightly ap-
(Figure 94A). When the brakes are released, re- plied. The resulting drag would reduce fuel econ-
turning fluid unseats the check valve against omy and cause unnecessary friction that would
spring pressure, and fluid flows around the out- shorten brake pad life.
side of the valve back into the master cylinder The final reason residual check valves are fast
and fluid reservoir (Figure 94B). When line pres- disappearing is the diagonally split dual brake
sure drops to the residual value controlled by the system that operates both a disc and a drum brake
spring tension, the check valve seats and pres- off each hydraulic circuit. This type of system
sure is held in the lines (Figure 94C). would require two residual check valves, one in
the line to each rear brake. The extra cost and com-
plication of dual check valves are easily avoided
Systems Without Residual Check Valves
by using cup expanders.
Although residual check valves were once found
in almost every brake system, they have rarely Metering Valve
been used since the early 1970s. There are a num-
ber of reasons for this. First, mechanical cup ex- Brake systems with front disc and rear drum
panders were developed to keep cup seal lips in brakes sometimes use a metering valve to with-
contact with the wheel cylinder walls (Figure 95). hold hydraulic pressure from the front brakes un-
Compared to residual check valves, cup ex- til the rear brakes have begun to apply (Figure 96).
panders are simpler, cheaper, less prone to failure, This is done because disc brakes apply much
and easier to work on. faster than drum brakes; disc brake pads are usu-
ally in light contact with the rotors, while drum
brake shoes are retracted away from the drums. De-
TUBING SEAT laying front brake application until the clearance in
A
RESIDUAL CHECK the rear brakes has been taken up helps keep the
front brakes from momentarily locking when the
FLOW TO = & seni LAZZ Be
FROMa
WHEEL >= MASTER
pedal is lightly applied at slow speeds on slippery
CYLINDER “S SE ‘eZ CYLINDER pavement. The metering valve also improves
brake balance during light braking, and helps
BRAKE APPLICATION equalize lining wear at the front and rear axles.
B

On
LLL LEE
LF LZ FLOWTO CUP
ol SS waster EXPANDERS
CYLINDER B oN LINDER

Cc

6 TO 25 PSI ,.
NO FLUID
RESIDUAL
FLOW
PRESSURE

RETURN SPRING
BRAKE NOT APPLIED
Figure 95 @ Mechanical cup expanders are one factor that
Figure 94 ® Operation of a residual check valve installed led to the elimination of residual check valves.
under a tubing seat. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.) (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

56 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

 Some metering valves, like those shown in When the brakes are not applied, the strong
Figure 96, were often a separate component in- spring seats the piston and prevents fluid flow
stalled in the brake line from the master cylinder around it. At the same time, the weak spring holds
to the front brakes. Today, most metering valves the valve stem to the right and opens a passage
are part of a combination valve that contains other through the center of the piston. Brake fluid is free
hydraulic valves and switches. to flow through this passage to compensate for
changes in system fluid volume.
Metering Valve Operation When the brakes are applied and pressure in the
front brake line reaches 3 to 30 psi, the tension of
A metering valve consists of a piston controlled by the weak spring is overcome and the metering
a strong spring and a valve stem controlled by a valve stem moves to the left (Figure 98); this closes
weak spring (Figure 97). the passage through the piston and prevents fluid
flow to the front brakes. The small amount of pres-
sure applied to the calipers before the metering
valve closes is enough to take up any clearance, but
not enough to generate significant braking force.
While fluid flow to the front calipers is shut off,
the rear brake shoes move into contact with the
drums, braking begins, and hydraulic pressure
throughout the braking system increases. When
the pressure at the metering valve reaches 75 to
300 psi, the tension of the strong spring is over-
come and the valve stem and piston move farther
to the left (Figure 99). This opens a passage
around the outside of the piston and allows fluid
to flow through the valve to the front brake
calipers.
When the brakes are released, the strong spring
seats the piston and prevents fluid flow around it.
At the same time, the weak spring opens the fluid
passage through the center of the piston. Excess
fluid returns to the master cylinder through this
Figure 96 @ Typical metering valves. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.) passage and the valve is ready for another brake
application.

STRONG PISTON
SPRING VALVE PISTON VALVE CLOSED
TO FRONT BRAKE

TO FRONT BRAKE
WEAK VALVE COMPRESSED 3 TO 30 PSI PRESSURE
SPRING OPEN SPRING
Figure 97 @ A metering valve when the brakes are not Figure 98 ® A metering valve under light pedal pressure.
applied. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.) (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 57

 VALVE STEM VALVE OPEN front wheel lockup from being a problem during
TO FRONT BRAKE light braking or when the brakes are first applied.
Most RWD cars without metering valves are
equipped with four-wheel disc brakes. Since the
clearance between the pads and rotors is approxi-
mately the same at all four wheels, there is no
need to delay front brake actuation. Some of these
cars also have antilock brake systems that prevent
the wheels from locking at any time. Other RWD
cars without metering valves have a predomi-
nantly forward weight bias, like FWD cars, and
therefore benefit from having the front brakes ap-
plied sooner.

Proportioning Valve
75 TO 300 PSI
COMPRESSED SPRING PRESSURE A proportioning valve improves brake balance
Figure 99 ® A metering valve while normal braking is in during hard stops by limiting hydraulic pressure
progress. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.) to the rear brakes (Figure 100).
A proportioning valve is necessary because in-
ertia creates weight shift toward the front of the
vehicle during braking. The weight shift unloads
Systems Without Metering Valves the rear axle, which reduces traction between the
The metering valve was introduced along with tires and the road and limits the amount of stop-
disc brakes in the 1960s. At that time, all domestic ping power that can be delivered. Unless applica-
cars had RWD and large, powerful engines with tion pressure to the rear wheels is limited, the
fast idle. When engineers did cold weather testing brakes will lock, making the car unstable and
of the first disc brakes on these cars, they found the likely to spin. The best overall braking perfor-
front brakes often locked for a moment when they mance is achieved when the front brakes lock just
were applied on slippery pavement. At the same before the rear brakes.
time, the fast idling engine would still be driving Cars with front disc and rear drum brakes re-
the rear wheels because clearance in the drum quire a proportioning valve for additional rea-
brakes had not been taken up. Metering valves sons. First, disc brakes require higher hydraulic
were developed to prevent these problems and pressure for a given stop than do drum brakes; in
provide safer braking. However, automobiles a disc/drum system, the front brakes always need
have changed a great deal since the introduction of more pressure than the rear brakes. Second, once
disc brakes. In recent years, the metering valve has braking has begun, drum brakes require less pres-
been eliminated from the brake system of most sure to maintain a fixed level of stopping power
FWD, and some RWD, automobiles because test-
ing has shown it to be unnecessary or undesirable.
There are three reasons FWD cars do not use
metering valves. First, they usually have a diago-
nally split dual braking system that would require
a separate metering valve for each hydraulic cir-
cuit. This would make the brake system more
costly and complicated. Second, FWD cars have a
forward weight bias that requires the front brakes
to supply up to 80% of the total braking power.
Since the front brakes do most of the work, it is de-
sirable to apply them as soon as possible when the
brake pedal is depressed; a metering valve would
create a slight delay. Finally, until all the clearance
in the brake system is taken up, there will not be
enough pressure in the brake hydraulic system for
the front disc brakes to overcome the engine
torque applied to the driven front wheels. Engine Figure 100 Some early proportioning valves look like simple
torque and a heavy front weight bias help prevent brake line fittings. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

58 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

than they did to establish that level; in a proportioning valves, one for each hydraulic circuit.
disc/drum system, the rear brakes will always These valves may be combined into a dual propor-
need less pressure than the front brakes. A pro- tioning valve (Figure 102), but many brake systems
portioning valve is used to compensate for these now use separate valves installed between the mas-
differences because it is easier to reduce pressure ter cylinder and the brake lines (Figure 103). The
to the rear brakes than to increase pressure to the front and rear valves on the master cylinder are dif-
front brakes. ferent and must not be interchanged.
The proportioning valve does not work at all
times, however. During light or moderate brak-
Proportioning Valve Operation
ing, there is insufficient weight transfer to make
rear-wheel locking a problem. Before proportion- A simple proportioning valve consists of a
ing action will begin, brake system hydraulic pres- spring-loaded piston that slides in a stepped bore
sure must reach a minimum level called the split (Figure 104).
point. Below the split point, full system pressure is The piston is exposed to pressure on both sides:
supplied to the rear brakes (Figure 101). Above the the smaller end of the piston is acted on by pres-
split point, the proportioning valve allows only a sure from the master cylinder, while the larger end
portion of the pressure through to the rear brakes. reacts to pressure in the rear brake circuit. The ac-
The proportioning valve gets its name from the tual proportioning valve is located in the center of
fact that it regulates pressure to the rear brakes in
proportion to the pressure applied to the front
brakes. Once system hydraulic pressure exceeds TO LEFT REAR ae
the split point, the rear brakes receive a fixed per- Z CAV TO RIGHT REAR BRAKE
centage of any further increase in pressure. Brake
DUAL PROPORTIONING VALVE
engineers refer to the ratio of front to rear brake
pressure proportioning as the slope (Figure 101).
Full system pressure to the rear brakes equals a
slope of one, but if only half the pressure is al-
lowed to reach the rear brakes, the proportioning
valve is said to have a slope of 0.50. The propor- TO RIGHT
FRONT
tioning valves on most cars have a slope between BRAKE
0.25 and 0.50.
The first proportioning valves were located in
the brake line between the master cylinder and the
rear wheels (Figure 100). Today, many proportion- SECONDARY BRAKE LINE
ing valves are part of a combination valve. Diago-
nally split dual braking systems require two PRIMARY BRAKE LINE
Figure 102 @ A dual proportioning valve is found on some
import vehicles. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)
1,100 HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
PRESSURE TO
FRONT BRAKES
900 10-MM THREAD

REAR BRAKE
700 PRESSURE

500

300
PRESSURE
(PSI)
OUTPUT MASTER
PROPORTIONING CYLINDER
100 VALVES BODY

100 300 500 700 900 =3=1,100

INPUT PRESSURE (PSI) Figure 103 ® Proportioning valves that mount to the master
Figure 101 @ The split point and slope control the operation of cylinder body are used on many vehicles. (Chek-
the proportioning valve. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.) Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

oiwo
 PISTON TRAVEL BEFORE ———
| | <—_———_
FROM MASTER
VALVE CLOSING CYLINDER VENT

FROM MASTER
CYLINDER
VALVE
OPEN
VENT LARGE
SURFACE
AREA
y
fi 3s :
ILIA
NE ee
ORE af |

SMALL PISTON TO REAR TO REAR

SURFACE BRAKES PISTON BRAKES
AREA VALVE
CLOSED
Figure 104 @ The proportioning valve piston can travel within
the range shown without shutting off pressure to Figure 105 @ At the split point, the proportioning valve
the rear brakes. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.) piston closes the fluid passage through the
valve. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

the piston and is opened or closed depending on the force developed on the larger piston area in
the pressure of the piston in the stepped bore. the rear circuit moves the piston back to the left
When the brakes are first applied, hydraulic and closes the valve. The difference in surface
pressure passes through the proportioning valve area between the two ends of the piston deter-
to the rear brakes. Hydraulic pressure is the same mines the slope of the valve, and thus the per-
on both sides of the piston, but because the side centage of system pressure allowed to reach the
facing the rear brakes has more surface area than rear brakes.
the side facing the master cylinder, greater force is As long as*system pressure continues to in-
developed and the piston moves to the left against crease, the piston will repeatedly cycle back and
spring tension. At pressures below the split point, forth, opening and closing the proportioning
the piston remains within the range of travel valve, and maintaining a fixed proportion of full
shown in Figure 104; the proportioning valve is system pressure to the rear brakes. When the
open, and pressure to both the front and rear brakes are released, the spring returns the piston
brakes is the same. all the way to the right, which opens the valve and
As the car is braked harder, increased system allows fluid to pass in both directions.
pressure forces the piston so far to the left that the
proportioning valve is closed (Figure 105).
Height-Sensing Proportioning Valve
This seals off the brake line and prevents any ad-
ditional pressure from reaching the rear brakes. Some light trucks, and a few cars, are fitted with a
The pressure at the moment the proportioning height-sensing proportioning valve that varies the
valve first closes is the split point of the valve. From balance between the front and rear brakes based
this point on, the rear brakes receive only a portion on vehicle loading (Figure 106).
of the pressure supplied to the front brakes. This is desirable because trucks undergo a ma-
As the system pressure (the pressure to the jor change in weight bias when they are loaded. A
front brakes) increases, enough force is developed truck with an empty bed can make little use of its
on the master cylinder side of the piston to over- rear brakes, but a fairly loaded truck is able to ap-
come the pressure trapped in the rear brake cir- ply a good deal of stopping power at the rear axle.
cuit. This forces the piston back to the right and The weight bias of a car does not change as dra-
opens the proportioning valve. Some of the matically as that of a truck, but a full load of pas-
higher pressure enters the rear brake circuit, but sengers and luggage can still cause a substantial
before pressure in the two circuits can equalize, rearward shift, particularly ina FWD sedan.

60 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

 VALVE Te)
ASSEMBLY <=

®)
y Wee
/ HEIGHT-SENSING

Ome
PROPORTIONING VALVE
LOCATION

LESS REAR BRAKE PRESSURE

Figure 106 ® A height-sensing proportioning valve provides the vehicle with a variable brake balance, depending on load.
(Courtesy of General Motors Corporation, Service and Parts Operations.)

TO REAR applied to the rear brakes for a longer time before

BRAKES
proportioning begins.
+~ The distance between the vehicle chassis and
PROGRAM SPRING the axle or suspension member is carefully engi-
neered into the design of a height-sensing propor-
p PLUNGER
tioning valve. Any modification to the vehicle that
FROM affects the relationship of these parts will ad-
MASTER versely affect brake balance and could cause an
CYLINDER
accident. Lift kits, airbags, air shocks, heavy duty
springs, and coil-over load booster shock ab-
CAM sorbers are some of the parts that could cause
problems.

LEVERS Electronic Brake Proportioning

On some vehicles, proportioning valves are no
AXLE
longer used to limit brake pressure to the rear
Figure 107 ® A stepped cam is used to alter the split point of brakes. Instead, this becomes a function of the
this height-sensing proportioning valve. (Chek- antilock brake system (ABS) controller. Called
Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)
electronic variable brake proportioning
(DaimlerChrysler) or dynamic proportioning
A height-sensing proportioning valve attaches (GM), this system eliminates the need for a me-
to the vehicle chassis and is operated by levers or chanical proportioning valve. Using the ABS con-
springs attached to the rear axle or a suspension troller software and the rear wheel hydraulic
member. As the vehicle is loaded, the distance be- control circuits, optimum front and rear balance is
tween the chassis and the axle or suspension maintained at all times.
member changes, causing the levers to rotate a The ABS computer compares the rear-wheel
cam inside the proportioning valve (Figure 107). speed deceleration rate to the front-wheel speed
The cam has two or more steps that adjust the deceleration rate based on wheel speed sensor in-
position of the valve in the center of the piston to puts. When the rear wheels show deceleration that
alter the split point of the valve. With a light load, is slightly greater than the front wheels, the elec-
the split point pressure is low and brake propor- tronic proportioning function is activated. The con-
tioning begins early. With a full load, the split troller will then pulse the rear wheels until the
point pressure is raised and full system pressure is wheel speeds equalize.

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 61

Combination Valves
Combination valves that contain several hy- SWITCH
draulic valves and switches were introduced in TERMINAL
the early 1970s because they were cheaper to man-
ufacture and install than several separate valves.
They also made for a neater hydraulic system
with fewer fittings where leaks might develop.
The various valves and switches in a combination
valve function the same as the separate parts.
There are several types of combination valves
(Figure 108). Two-function valves combine a pres-
sure differential switch with either a metering
valve or a proportioning valve. Three-function
valves combine a pressure differential switch with
both a metering valve and proportioning valve SWITCH
(Figure 109). TERMINAL

METERING—PRESSURE DIFFERENTIAL
Figure 108 @ Typical two-function combination valves. (Chek-
Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

METERING PRESSURE .PROPORTIONING

VALVE DIFFERENTIAL VALVE
SWITCH

INLET FROM INLET FROM

MASTER MASTER
CYLINDER CYLINDER

OUTLET TO OUTLET TO
FRONT BRAKE REAR BRAKES

METERING
VALVE
STEM

OUTLET TO
FRONT BRAKE

Figure 109 @ A cross section of a three-function combination valve. (Halderman & Mitchell, 0-13-099453-7.)
62 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION
Brake System Switches Figure 109). In some brake systems, the pressure
differential switch is built into the master cylinder
In addition to hydraulic control valves, most body (Figure 110). To prevent false signals, the
brake systems also have several hydraulic or me- pressure differential switch is always installed up-
chanical switches. Mechanical switches use the stream of any hydraulic control valves that alter
physical movement of a brake system component pressure within the system.
to operate the switch contacts. Hydraulic switches
use the pressure within the brake system to oper-
ate the switch contacts. Sometimes,
Pressure Differential Switch Operation
either a me-
chanical or a hydraulic switch can be used to There are three basic designs of pressure differen-
perform the same job. tial switches: those with a single piston and center-
Switches in the brake system are commonly ing springs (Figure 111); those with two pistons and
used to warn of problems within the hydraulic centering springs (Figure 112); and those with a sin-
system, and to operate the vehicle brake lights. In gle piston but no centering springs (Figure 113).
addition, the switches may be part of a related sys- The basic operation of all three switches is the
tem, such as: same, but they do differ in the way they actuate the
warning light.
Parking brake system (parking brake “ON”
indicator)
Antilock brakes (brake pedal depressed INPUT
signal)
Cruise control (disengage when brake pedal is PLUG
depressed)
@ Transmission shift lock (allow/disallow move-
ment of the shifter).
These jobs could be done with switches:
Pressure differential
Fluid level O-RING
Stoplight
Cruise control PISTON
@
¢ Active
ooo suspension
@ Transmission TCC.

Pressure Differential Switch

se

Dual-circuit braking systems provide an extra Figure 110 ® This pressure differential switch is integrated
margin of safety by actuating the brakes with two into the master cylinder. (Halderman & Mitchell,
separate hydraulic circuits; if there is a failure in 0-13-099453-7.)
one circuit, the other will supply enough braking
power to allow the vehicle to be driven to a shop
for repairs. A requirement of DOT regulations is SWITCH STUD WARNING
that a warning light must indicate when there is a LIGHT SWITCH
partial system failure of the brakes. One way of
doing this is with a pressure differential switch.
These switches are commonly used on vehicles
into the 1990s but are becoming less common on
PISTON
on
[
1c
ira

late-model vehicles.
Because the brakes still work to a limited de- PL
gree, some drivers might continue to operate the
vehicle unaware of the need for immediate ser- saiiti
LZ I LLL LP
(tie
vice. The pressure differential switch compares ems

the pressure in the two hydraulic circuits, and ac-

tuates the red brake warning light (RBWL) on the
06 CENTERING
instrument panel if their pressures become un- =e SPRINGS
equal due to loss of fluid or other fault.
Pressure differential switches may be a separate Figure 111 @ A pressure differential switch with centering
assembly, or part of a combination valve (see springs. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 63

 WARNING
WARNING LIGHT SWITCH
SWITCH LIGHT SWITCH PLUNGER
PLUNGER

Sheds
igi

CENTERING DUAL CENTERING

SPRING PISTONS SPRING

Figure 112 ® A pressure differential switch with dual

Figure 113 @ A pressure differential switch without
pistons and centering springs. (Chek-Chart,
centering springs. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)
0-13-048203-X.)

LOWERED SWITCH RAISED SWITCH GROUNDED

PLUNGER PLUNGER TERMINAL

Zl VT a
|iii‘Dinimiiay)
=Of) fine LL hod

PISTON PISTON PISTON

CENTER CENTER CENTER
A B Cc
Figure 114 ® The shape of the pressure differential switch piston is used to operate the warning light circuit. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

Each end of the piston in the pressure differen- As shown in Figure 114, the shape of the pres-
tial switch is exposed to the pressure in one of the sure differential switch piston determines how the
dual brake hydraulic circuits. When the brakes are warning light circuit is grounded. If the center of
operating properly, pressure in the two circuits is the piston is higher than surrounding areas, the
the same, and both ends of the piston are acted on switch button drops down to ground the switch,
with equal force; this keeps the piston centered in position A. If the center of the position is lower
the bore. When a leak occurs in one of the circuits, than surrounding areas, the switch button is
pressure on that side of the piston drops, and the pushed upward to ground the switch, position B.
higher pressure on the opposite end moves the And if the center of the piston is open, the piston
piston toward the weak side activating the switch. itself completes the ground when it contacts the
The switch is usually a normally open (NO) push- metal stud projecting into the bore, position C.
button type switch (Figures 114A and 114B) or a In any dual braking system, pressure between
metal contact (Figure 114C). the two circuits will vary slightly until all the

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

clearance in the wheel friction assemblies is taken Fluid Level Switch Operation
up. Two methods are used to prevent the warning
light from coming on during these variations. In A typical electrical diagram for the fluid level sen-
some cases, centering springs prevent the piston sor is shown in Figure 117.
from moving far enough to activate the switch un- In this simplified schematic, the brake warning
less there is a significant pressure difference be- light gets power from the battery through the ig-
tween the two circuits. Switches without nition switch with the key on. Either the brake
centering springs use the tapered ramps leading fluid level switch or the parking brake switch can
to the raised portion of the piston to accomplish supply a ground that will turn on the warning
the same job. light.
On vehicles with antilock brakes and/or body
control modules, the system is a bit more complex
Interim Summary (Figure 118).
1. The proportioning valve limits brake fluid
pressure to the FLUID LEVEL
during hard application to SENSOR WIRING
ROD-MOUNTED HARNESS
improve brake balance and prevent real CONTACT RESERVOIR CONNECTOR
wheel ‘

A SFL (LL
COVER
peiie valves hold off pressure [PTO SO BANS QARAANAANN gs a
to the front disc brakes until the clearance in
the rear drum brakes has been taken up. a
be LEN
\ Lv
EAE
rT
y
2 1 Eearre
epg
WOO!)
3. Residual pressure valves
SS

Xa ;m4
,Aid
pee eet tS ee in the
lines to the rear drum brakes when the
brakes are released.

Fluid Level Switch var |

} Nor
DABVLBVESSAVS
m—
SIVRSUA
SS
Say

eS —D<S OGLE
Q

Some dual braking systems use a fluid level

SSRe Sey]
¢: O

switch instead of a pressure differential switch. y Lax Var GU.

The fluid level switch turns on a warning light in
the instrument panel when the amount of brake FLOAT MASTER FIXED RESERVOIR
fluid in the reservoir falls below a safe level. The CYLINDER CONTACTS
drop in fluid level can result from either brake Figure 115 @ A movable contact brake fluid level switch.
wear or leaks within the hydraulic system. One or (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)
two fluid level switches may be used, depending
on the design of the reservoir.
Fluid level switches are usually built into the
reservoir or reservoir cover, and consist of two
fixed contacts and a rod-mounted contact con-
nected to a float (Figure 115).
When the fluid in the reservoir is at a safe level,
the float holds the rod-mounted contact sus-
pended above the fixed contacts. If the fluid level
falls below a safe level, the float drops and the
rod-mounted contact connects the fixed contacts
and completes the circuit that turns on the instru-
ment panel warning light.
A second type of fluid level switch uses a mag-
net mounted in the bottom of the reservoir float SWITCH MAGNET
(Figure 116). When the fluid level drops low Figure 116 @ A magnetic fluid level switch. (Chek-Chart,
enough, the magnet trips a reed switch beneath 0-13-048203-X.)
the reservoir to turn on the warning light.

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 65

 IGNITION
SWITCH

ee

BRAKE BATTERY

AONEaesZo}
<\ialele| Vela

Figure 117 @ This brake warning system allows either the fluid level or the parking brake to turn on the brake warning light.
(Courtesy of Toyota Motor Sales USA, Inc.)

SS) a FFUSe
J H2 4 ABS ! Block - Instrument Panel
I Fuse 22 !\/p
i J1¥ 410A j Cluster (IPC
7
i H
| rd |

0.35 BRN | 441

K3 | C203

0.35 BRN | 441

Power
Distribution
Schematics $203 (L35 Only)
in Wiring
Systems 441
ee a
P100

441 A1\ C1
[ts lgnhionsiee eee en ee Linen acl ; Electronic
| Voltage |CONN ID} aBsstcs j Brake
1 Brake Fluid Class 2 | Control

7 — Sy" pom! _!Module

BBY ~—s: BB
0.35 ae 333 1122

Brake 0.35 LT GRN }1037

EAfea
2
Switch
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WiReart
Wiper
— , LOPS) bicep
i
Ai21c1
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Class 2 [E6NNID) ;Body
A 1 Park = , Control
0.35 BLK} 350 1) Brake C2=24 BLU] ;Module
A ee 4,1. Slee
Signal c3=16ae PPL} |1 (BCM)
* Fuse 0.5 BLKI350)) (allt) aan as uke tae el eee
Ground 1 Block - B10;C1
Distributio
Schematics I Underhood
in Wiring 1 1 LT BLU} 1134
Systems i
Ground
Distribution
Schematics A
in Wiring Park
Systems Brake

Switch

Figure 118 ® This wiring diagram shows how the fluid le vel switch signals the electronic brake control module (EBCM) that
the brake fluid is low. The EBCM then requests the instrument cluster to turn on the red brake warning light
(RBWL). (Courtesy of General Motors Corporation, Service and Parts Operations.)

66 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

 However, this type of system is much more Multi-function brake light switches are used on
common than the simple system previously men- many vehicles (Figure 120).
tioned; most late-model vehicles operate in this In addition to the brake light function, the
manner. In this system, the brake fluid level switch may also control the operation of the cruise
switch is an input to the electronic brake control control or the ABS. The brake light switch will
module (EBCM). When the fluid is low, the fluid have a set of normally open contacts for the brake
level switch grounds circuit number 333 at the lights and a set of normally closed contacts for the
EBCM. The EBCM then communicates with the cruise control. This eliminates the need for two
instrument panel and requests that the red brake separate switches.
warning light be illuminated. The instrument
cluster then turns on the warning light. Stoplight Switch Operation

Stoplight Switch The brake lights’ electrical operation is similar to

the operation of the brake fluid level warning sys-
The job of the stoplight switch is to turn on the tem. That is, the brake lights receive power from
brake lights at the back of the vehicle when the the brake light switch when the pedal is pressed
brakes are applied. A properly adjusted stoplight and turns on the bulbs. Figure 121 is a typical
switch will activate the brake lights as soon as the wiring schematic for a General Motors pickup
brake pedal is applied and before braking action truck.
actually begins at the wheels; this allows drivers The electrical current flow is as follows:
of following vehicles the maximum amount of
time to react and apply their own vehicles’ brakes 1. Stop/hazard fuse gets voltage from the
if necessary. battery.
The stoplight switch operates directly off the 2. The voltage goes to the stop lamp switch, or-
brake pedal arm (Figure 119). ange wire.
These switches are adjusted to turn on the 3. When the switch is closed, current flows to
brake lights as soon as the driver’s foot moves the the turn signal switch.
pedal off its stop. On some vehicles, the stoplight 4. Current flows through the turn signal switch
switch itself serves as the brake pedal stop and to the stop filament in the stop lamp bulb.
can be used to adjust the pedal freeplay. 5. Current flows through the bulb to ground,
Stoplight switches are normally open; when lighting the stop lamp.
the brakes are applied, the switch closes to com-
plete the stoplight circuit. The switch is held
open against spring tension, and when the brakes
are applied, the spring extends and closes the
switch.

Figure 120 @ The multifunction stoplight switch may

include a second switch to control the cruise
control. (Courtesy of Jeffrey Rehkopf.)
Figure 119 @ Typical stoplight switches. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

67
BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION
 r
0.8 LT BLU; 20
meee
IPower Thea * Fuse
“1, ].sTOP/HAZARD! Block-
)

[*s,]
i
Multif tion"
ifunction
TTT TOT ooc ccc ccc Distribution
le | earemat ;
. Turn! FiAWirng LT BLU} 20
Signal! “0.8 LT BLU] 20
Signal! oo ae B | C330
Ti

Signals Signals
j
Distribution| |9,g
P
=8P300
Schematics
Schematics Schematics

mienTaTk Wedp mins (herds 0.8 ORN] 140

. le) stems ene ae
: |0.8 oxen 19
O8YELIi8 NN TG ARC!
ener i
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A | C420

0.8 YEL
80.8DKGRN | 19
0.8* 0.8 LT BLU} 20
ee A DKGRN | 19
r
; Inboard Schemati
ab SP (es) Tail/Stop irengines
Signal and Turn Controls
Lamp - Gy} ee Center
at | Right cued oo
Stop Lamp
0.8 BLK| 1250 (CHEE)
Aj etiddy Mass A 0.5 BLK{1150 at
roun
Outboard Outboard Distribution
Tail/Stop Gass cS) Tail/Stop S420 Schematies
and Turn and Turn in Wiring
Signal G G oo Systems
Lamp - amp -
Left 0.8 BLK 1250 Right 3 BLK |1150
0.8 BLK} 12

Ground P300
1 BLK} 1250 0.8 BLK Distribution
Schematics in
Wiring Systems
£ G400 2 G310

Figure 121 @ This wiring diagram shows the flow of current when the brake lamp switch is closed. (Courtesy of General Motors
Corporation, Service and Parts Operations.)

Brake Lines
Brake lines carry brake fluid from the master
cylinder to the wheel cylinders and brake calipers.
The brake lines contain and direct the pressure of
the brake hydraulic system. To do this, they must
be strong enough to contain pressure, flexible
enough to prevent fracture from vibration, and
tough enough to resist rust and corrosion. Since SEAMLESS MULTIPLE PLY
brake lines are an important safety related item, Figure 122 Steel brake tubing is double walled for
special caution and care must be taken in their strength and plated for corrosion resistance.
manufacture, selection, and installation. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-045203-X.)

Brake Tubing
Most of the total length of the brake lines consists For maximum strength and durability, all mod-
of rigid tubing. Single-wall copper tubing was ern brake systems use double-wall brake tubing
used for early brake lines, but this type of tubing made from copper plated steel sheet. There are
has a number of disadvantages. The single-wall two basic types of double-wall tubing: seamless
construction combined with the softness of copper and multiple ply (Figure 122).
results in relatively low burst strength. In addi- To make seamless tubing, the steel sheet is
tion, vibration causes copper to harden and be- rolled a minimum of two times and then run
come brittle, which leads to cracking and leaks. through a furnace where the copper plating melts
Finally, copper is very susceptible to corrosion. and brazes the tubing into a single piece. Multiple
68 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION
ply double-wall brake tubing is built like two sin- Brake Hoses
gle wall tubes, one inside the other. The inner and
outer tubes are individually seamed, and the While brake tubing is solidly mounted to the ve-
seams must be positioned at least 120 degrees hicle chassis, the wheel cylinders and brake
apart. Then, just as with seamless construction, the calipers are mounted on suspension parts that
two-ply tubing is run through a furnace where it is move. Flexible brake hose is used to carry brake
brazed into a single piece. All double-walled brake fluid between the fixed and moving portions of
tubing is plated with tin, zinc, or a similar sub- the hydraulic system (Figure 124).
stance for protection against rust and corrosion. The hoses attach to the tubing at brackets on the
Just as with brake fluid, the SAE has guidelines chassis that position the hose away from moving
for brake tubing. SAE standard J1047 specifies that parts that might cause damage (Figure 125).
an 18-inch section of brake tubing should be able
to withstand an internal pressure of 8,000 psi. The
tubing should also be capable of being bent
360 degrees around a mandrel five times its diame-
ter without kinking, cracking, or developing other
flaws. Additional tests check the tubing’s resistance
to fatigue, heat, impacts, rust, and corrosion.
Brake tubing is available in a variety of diame- HOSE
ters. Many U.S.-built vehicles are fitted with 3/16- FITTINGS
inch (4.75 mm) outside diameter tubing, as are
some import vehicles. Imported vehicles also may
use 5-mm tubing as a standard size; the technician
must take care to use the proper size since the 4.75-
mm tubing and the 5-mm tubing cannot be easily
identified by eye. Other brake tubing sizes that
may be used in automotive brake systems are 1/8”, PROTECTIVE
1/4”, 5/16”, and 3/8”; metric sizes include 4 mm, RIBS
5mm, 6 mm, and 8 mm. Special “armored” brake
tubing is sometimes used where the tubes are ex-
posed under the car (Figure 123). Armored tubing
has a hardened steel spring coiled around it to pro- Figure 124 @ Brake hoses span the gap between fixed brake
vide extra protection against impacts and abrasion. tubing and moving wheel friction assemblies.
Brake tubing can be purchased in various (Chek-Chart, 0-13-045203-X.)
lengths with fittings already attached, or it can be
custom made from tube stock by the technician.
Replacement brake tubing is sold only in straight TUBE FITTING HOSE
sections, so any time a tube is replaced the new RETAINING
part must be bent to fit. Special care must be taken
when bending brake lines to prevent kinks that re-
strict fluid flow and lead to cracks. A few special
types of brake tubing can be bent by hand, but
most tubing requires the use of a special sleeve or
tubing bender to prevent kinks.

BRACKET

Figure 123 Armored brake tubing is protected by a coiled

steel spring in areas that may be exposed to Figure 125 @ Special brackets are used where brake hoses
damage from impacts. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.) attach to brake tubing. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 69

 The out-board end of the hose often attaches di- the hose along its length. These markings help the
rectly to the wheel cylinder or brake caliper, but on technician install the hose without twisting it. A
some front wheel brakes, the hose is routed to a twisted brake hose is under much greater stress
second bracket where it connects to a short section and may rupture under pressure. Other tests re-
of steel tubing that supplies the fluid to the caliper. quire the hose to meet minimum standards for ex-
The extra steel line helps isolate the rubber hose pansion, tensile strength, water absorption, and
from heat and allows easier routing of the hose. brake fluid compatibility. The resistance of the
Like brake fluid and tubing, brake hose is a hose to whipping action, low temperatures,
safety related part subject to a number of perfor- ozone, and end fitting corrosion is examined as
mance requirements. DOT regulations specify well.
that brake hoses must have burst strength of not In many ways, the rubber hoses are the weakest
less than 5,000 psi, and be able to withstand link in the brake system. They are porous and al-
4,000 psi of pressure for two minutes without rup- low polyglycol brake fluid to absorb moisture
turing. To meet these requirements, brake hoses through their walls from out of the air. Ozone in
are made from several layers of fabric impreg- the atmosphere attacks the rubber, causing it to
nated with synthetic rubber (Figure 126). Cotton age and crack.
fabric was used up until the mid-1960s, but rayon External wear can also result if a hose rubs
has been used almost exclusively since 1968. against the frame or suspension, particularly at
To ensure that the end fittings on the brake hose the front suspension when the wheels are turned
will not leak or come loose, DOT regulations re- to full lock. Hoses are carefully selected and posi-
quire that they be permanently attached. Nor- tioned to avoid such contact, and some hoses have
mally, the fittings are crimped or swaged onto the raised rubber ribs around them to provide protec-
hose at very high pressures (Figure 127). Special tion from any abrasion. For this reason, a brake
equipment is required for this operation; so, un- hose should only be replaced with the proper
like brake tubing, brake hose cannot easily be cus- original equipment part or its equivalent.
tom made by a technician in the field. Brake hoses are also subject to internal failures
DOT regulations also mandate that replace- that can be difficult to diagnose. A bulge or bubble
ment brake hoses be marked with raised ribs or on the outside of a hose is a sign of an internal
two 1/16-inch wide stripes on opposite sides of leak, but a hose problem impossible to see is a rub-
ber flap torn loose inside the hose that acts as a
one-way check valve (Figure 128).
FITTING
If the flap is positioned toward the master
cylinder, it will delay or prevent hydraulic pres-
sure from reaching the wheel cylinder or brake
caliper. If the flap faces the friction assembly, the
brake will not release or will release slowly and
drag. In both cases, the car may pull to one side.

FABRIC
PLYS

RUBBER PLYS

Figure 126 @ Brake hose gets its strength from several layers Figure 127 ® These typical hose fittings are all swaged into
of fabric and synthetic rubber. (Chek-Chart, place for a permanent, leak-free seal. (Chek-Chart,
0-13-048203-X.) 0-13-048203-X.)

70 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

FABRIC AND
RUBBER PLYS FLAP

SWAGING FITTING
Figure 128 @ A rubber flap torn loose inside a brake hose
can create braking problems. (Chek-Chart,
0-13-048203-X.)

Because of the possibility of internal damage,

brake calipers or other parts should never be hung
by the brake hoses during repairs.
Yet another problem with rubber brake hoses is
that they expand slightly when holding pressure.
This expansion can be felt as sponginess at the
brake pedal. DOT regulations specify that brake
hose must be labeled with the letters “HR” which
indicate the hose has regular expansion character-
istics, or “HL” indicating that the hose has low ex-
pansion characteristics.
One answer to the problems of water absorp-
tion and hose expansion is steel braid-covered
Teflon brake hose (Figure 129). Originally devel-
oped for aircraft use, this type of hose is made of
a strong, flexible Teflon tube covered with braided
stainless steel wire. Figure 129 ® Steel braid-covered Teflon brake hose is an
The Teflon tubing does not expand nearly as expensive solution to the problems caused by
much as the fabric and rubber of conventional rubber hose. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)
brake hose, and the steel braid cover helps control
any expansion that does take place.
In addition, the cover is so chafe resistant that it
takes a hacksaw to cut through it. At the present
time, steel braid-covered Teflon brake lines are threads are not used in brake hydraulic systems be-
used only on racing cars, although aftermarket re- cause they leak under high pressures, and the fe-
placement hose kits are available for high perfor- male portion of the fitting can split if overtightened.
mance street cars. There are several types of fittings used in brake
systems. Some are based on SAE specifications
Brake Line Fittings while others are metric designs regulated by the
International Organization for Standardization
Because of the high pressures within the brake
(ISO). All of the fittings, however, fall into two ba-
system, brake lines use special fittings that ensure
sic groups:
strong connections and prevent leaks. Brake tub-
ing always has male fittings on both ends, while @ Compression fittings
brake hose ends may have either male or female ¢ Flair fittings.
fittings. The fittings on master cylinders, wheel
cylinders, and brake calipers are invariably fe-
Compression Fittings
male, and female fittings are also used on junction
blocks such as tees, elbows, and unions. Compression fittings, as their name implies, make
The threads of fittings for domestic cars are stan- a connection by compressing a sealing washer be-
dard SAE fine sizes such as 3/8 x 24 or 1/2 x 20. tween parallel surfaces that are tightened against
Imported cars use metric fittings, with 10 x 1.0 be- one another. In brake systems, the sealing washers
ing the most common thread size. Tapered pipe are usually made of copper.

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 71

 The compression fittings in brake systems are el- SLEEVE
ther straight compression fittings or banjo fittings. COMPRESSES NUT
TUBING
Straight compression fittings are sometimes
used on the end of a brake hose that attaches to a
wheel cylinder or brake caliper (Figure 130).
The sealing washer is compressed between the
fitting and the cylinder or caliper body. Straight
compression fittings are usually attached to the
end of a brake hose and are not free to rotate. For
this reason, they must be installed and tightened
before the other end of the hose is connected to the Vv
brake tubing. FITTING chalga
The banjo fitting gets its name from its shape, Figure 132 @ Spherical sleeve compression fittings should
which resembles the instrument of the same name never be used to repair steel brake lines. (Chek-
(Figure 131). Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)
A banjo fitting allows the brake hose to exit the
wheel cylinder or brake caliper at a right angle, banjo fitting, then passes out through the hollow
which can be a major benefit where clearance is bolt into the cylinder or caliper. The connection is
limited. Brake fluid passes from the hose into the sealed with two washers installed on the bolt on
either side of the banjo. Banjo fittings are subject
to leakage from distortion if overtightened.
SEALING
The spherical sleeve compression fitting shown
in Figure 132 is used to join sections of tubing.
This fitting works by compressing two brass
rings, or ferrules, that clamp down on the tubing
and create a seal. While this type of fitting is ac-
ceptable in low-pressure applications, it is unreli-
able and unsafe for use in high-pressure steel
FITTING brake lines.
COPPER RING
Figure 130 @ Straight compression fittings are sometimes
used where hoses connect to wheel cylinders Flare Fittings
or brake calipers. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)
Flare fittings are used for most of the connections
in modern brake systems. While flare fittings do
HOLLOW BOLT we.
use compression to affect a seal, they have tapered
seats and do not employ a separate sealing
washer. Both SAE inch and ISO metric flare fit-
tings are used in brake systems; however, the two
are not interchangeable.

BANJO FITTING SAE Flare Fittings

AIL SAE flare fittings used in automotive brake ap-
plications have a 45-degree taper on the male part
COPPER
RINGS

CALIPER

Figure 131 ® The banjo fitting enables a brake line to make a

90-degree turn. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

72 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

 SEAT

S \ . \\

XS Oh Uy Yy. GG
7.

yyVy
(/
Yj YHARN
~ te 4,

SEALING Yi “
SURFACE | Y MY
YU YY
Me,

Uy Yyy
Vite
,
YU
y

Figure 134 @ The SAE inverted flare fitting is a common

type used on most domestic brake systems.
(Halderman & Mitchell, 0-13-099453-7.)

42° >

Figure 133 @ Standard SAE flare fittings are used for brake
line connections in some instances. (Chek-Chart,
0-13-048203-X.)

of the fitting, and a 42-degree taper on the tubing A

LAL
KLLLLLLLA
seat in the female part of the fitting. The three de- “yyQ
gree difference in angles creates an interference fit
that provides a better seal and strengthens the
connection. DOUBLE SINGLE
SAE flare fittings come in two varieties: stan- Figure 135 @ Both single and double flares will work in an
dard flare and inverted flare. Brake hose ends SAE flare fitting, but only the double flare is
sometimes use a standard flare fitting where they strong enough to be safe in brake lines. (Chek-
attach to a fixed component (Figure 133). Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

A standard flare fitting does not use any type of

separate sealing surface; when the fitting is tight-
ened, the tapered faces of the male and female female part of the fitting. The brake tubing actu-
parts of the fitting are forced into contact to create ally serves as the sealing surface in this design.
the seal. There are two types of tubing flares that can be
Far more common is the inverted flare fitting used with SAE fittings: single flares and double
that is used on all SAE brake tubing connections flares (Figure 135). The single flare is the simplest
(Figure 134). type, but single flares are never used on brake tub-
In an inverted flare fitting, a male tubing nut ing because they have a tendency to crack and
compresses a flared section on the end of the tube leak. The double flare is much stronger and is
against the tapered face of the tubing seat in the used on all SAE brake tubing fittings.

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 73

 Z <OZIILLLE
TUBING
SEAT

Figure 137 ® The ISO tubing flare has a unique shape that is
not compatible with SAE fittings. (Chek-Chart,
0-13-048203-X.)

This makes for a stronger, more leak-free connec-

Figure 136 @ The ISO flare is used in most European, and tion that is also less subject to overtightening.
many domestic, brake systems. (Chek-Chart,
0-13-048203-X.)
Interim Summary

Replacement brake tubing is sold with a pre- il SUE

formed double flare on each end. When a section activate when pressure is
of tubing is cut to length in the field, a special flar- lost on one of the hydraulic circuits assisting
ing tool is used to form a new double flare. in turning on the brake warning light on the
dash.
ISO Flare Fittings
can detect leaks by monitor-
The ISO flare fitting is a metric design first used on ing the fluid level in the brake fluid reservoir.
the brake tubing of many imported cars. Because 3. Brake light switches can be used for the
it offers several advantages, domestic manufac- lights and cruise control
turers are also adopting the ISO flare fitting on
many newer models (Figure 136). 4. Brake lines and Hoses brake
The shape of the actual flare is different from fluid from the master cylinder to the wheel
that of the SAE double flare. The ISO design is assemblies.
open rather than folded back on itself, and the re-
sulting shape is sometimes referred to as a “bub-
ble flare” (Figure 137).
As the tubing nut is tightened, the flare is com-
Wheel Cylinders
pressed and forced outward to create the seal. The Wheel cylinders actuate drum brake friction as-
angle designed into the tapered seats actually semblies by converting hydraulic pressure from
pushes the flare more tightly into the seal rather the master cylinder into mechanical force that
than squeezing it out as in the SAE flare fitting. moves the brake shoe linings into contact with the

74 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

brake drums. Although there are minor differ- ders. Another brake line routes fluid from that
ences in wheel cylinder designs, all cylinders op- cylinder to the one at the other rear wheel. A sin-
erate in essentially the same way and contain gle bleeder screw on the second wheel cylinder is
certain basic parts: used to bleed the entire rear brake circuit.
Cylinder body
@ Pistons Wheel Cylinder Pistons and Seals
@ Seals
@ Cup expanders The cylinder bore inside the wheel cylinder body
Dust boots. contains one or two pistons that move toward the
open ends of the cylinder when hydraulic pres-
sure is applied to them. As ina brake master cylin-
Components
der, fluid is prevented from escaping through the
Wheel Cylinder Body gaps between the pistons and the bore by rubber
seals. Cup seals are used in virtually all modern
The foundation of any wheel cylinder is the cylin-
wheel cylinders, although O-ring seals have been
der body (Figure 138). The body is made of cast
used in a few applications in the past.
iron or aluminum and contains the bore in which
the cylinder pistons operate. As in a master cylin-
der, the bore is bearingized or anodized (depend-
ing on the metal used) to provide a long wearing
and corrosion resistant surface.
Hydraulic pressure enters the wheel cylinder
through a brake line inlet fitting machined into BLEEDER
SCREW
the cylinder body. In a single piston cylinder, the TO LEFT
inlet is located at the closed end of the cylinder; in TO RIGHT REAR BRAKE

tf va
REAR BRAKE
a dual piston cylinder, the inlet is at the center of
the cylinder between the two pistons.
A bleeder screw is also threaded into the wheel
cylinder body. The fluid passage to the bleeder
screw is located at the highest point in the cylin-
der bore when the cylinder is installed on the ve-
hicle. This allows air to be easily purged from the
hydraulic system.
In rare cases, a wheel cylinder body will have
FROM MASTER
two brake line fittings but no bleeder screw. This CYLINDER
type of cylinder is used when the rear brakes are
connected in series (Figure 139). Figure 139 ® Some vehicles connect the rear wheel cylinders
In this system, the brake line from the master in series and use a single bleeder screw. (Chek-
cylinder connects to one of the rear wheel cylin- Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

DUST CUP FLUID BLEEDER CUP DUST

BOOT SEAL INLET va SCREW SEAL BOOT

CYLINDER CYLINDER RETURN SPRING AND

PISTON BORE BODY CUP EXPANDERS PISTON

Figure 138 @ A typical drum brake wheel cylinder. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 75

Cup Expanders getting onto the brake linings where it would re-
duce stopping power and cause the brakes to grab.
When the brakes are applied, fluid pressure flares
the sealing lips of the cup seals and holds them
tightly against the cylinder bore. However, when
Wheel Cylinder Designs
the brakes are released, the retracting master There are three basic wheel cylinder designs in
cylinder piston creates a momentary pressure use today:
drop that can draw air past the cup seals into the
Single-piston
hydraulic system. Two methods are used to main-
Straight-bore dual-piston
tain a good seal under these conditions.
@ Stepped-bore dual-piston.
Older vehicles used residual pressure check
valves to maintain a small amount of hydraulic All three types of cylinders operate the same,
pressure in the brake lines and wheel cylinders at but each is used only in specific kinds of drum
all times. Since the early 1970s, however, most cars brake assemblies.
have used spring-loaded metal cup expanders to The single-piston wheel cylinder is the simplest
physically hold the sealing lips of the cup seals type (Figure 141). It contains one piston and oper-
against the cylinder bore (Figure 140). ates a single brake shoe. A pair of single-piston
Cup expanders consist of small metal cones wheel cylinders is required for a typical drum
that are pressed against the inside of the sealing brake friction assembly.
lips by spring tension. Compared to residual The straight-bore dual-piston wheel cylinder is
check valves, cup expanders are simpler, cheaper, the most common type (Figure 142). It contains
less prone to failure, and easier to work on. two pistons and operates two brake shoes, one at
The spring that forces the cup expanders each end. Most modern drum brakes use one
against the seals serves two other purposes as dual-piston wheel cylinder in each drum brake
well. First, it takes up any slack between the pis- friction assembly.
ton, piston pushrod (if used), and brake shoe. This
helps keep brake pedal travel to a minimum. Sec- BLEEDER SCREW
FLUID PASSAGE
ond, in dual piston cylinders, the spring centers

ny
the pistons in the bore and prevents them from
blocking the fluid inlet passage. Gm WG
(¢@”“G
Wheel Cylinder Dust Boots
The open ends of the wheel cylinder are sealed with
rubber dust boots that keep dirt, brake dust, and
moisture out of the cylinder bore. These materials
can damage or cause rapid wear of the cup seals
and cylinder bore, which result in fluid leaks and
shortened service life. The dust boots also prevent
minor brake fluid seepage past the cup seals from
Figure 141 @ A single-piston wheel cylinder. (Chek-Chart,
PISTON 0-13-048203-X.)

SPRING BLEEDER SCREW

FLUID PASSAGE

Wy
wssstdlos

CUP SEAL

CUP
EXPANDERS
MRLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLL
LLLL
Figure 140 ® Cup expanders mechanically hold the cup
sealing lip against the wheel cylinder bore. Figure 142 ® A straight-bore dual-piston wheel cylinder.
(Halderman & Mitchell, 0-13-099453-7.) (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)
76 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION
 The stepped-bore dual-piston wheel cylinder is tons, acting directly or through pushrods, force the
the rarest type (Figure 143). brake shoe linings into contact with the brake
This design of cylinder also contains two pistons drum, creating friction to stop the car.
and operates two brake shoes, but the pistons and When the brakes are released, the shoes are re-
their respective bores have different diameters. This tracted from the drums by return springs, and
creates unequal force at the two ends of the wheel fluid returns from the wheel cylinders through the
cylinder; the brake shoe on the side with the large brake lines to the master cylinder. Residual pres-
piston is applied with greater force than the shoe on sure check valves or cup expanders prevent air
the side with the smaller piston. from entering the hydraulic system at this time.

Wheel Cylinder Operation

All wheel cylinders operate in basically the same
Brake Calipers
manner. When the brakes are applied, pressure is The wheel cylinder is only one element of a drum
routed from the master cylinder through the brake brake friction assembly; it serves a single function
lines and into the wheel cylinders. The pressure, that is relatively easy to describe. In contrast, the
contained in the cylinders by the cup seals, acts on brake caliper is the primary component of a disc
the back sides of the wheel cylinder pistons, forcing brake friction assembly; it serves many functions,
them outward in their bores (Figure 144). The pis- not all related to the brake hydraulic system.
Brake calipers actuate disc brake friction as-
BLEEDER SCREW semblies by converting hydraulic pressure from
FLUID PASSAGE the master cylinder into mechanical force that
moves the brake pads into contact with the brake
rotors. Despite the design differences referred to
TILL previously, all brake calipers operate essentially
the same and contain certain basic parts:
@ Caliper body
@ Pistons
@ Piston seals
@ Dust boots.

Components
Brake Caliper Body
LARGE-DIAMETER SMALL-DIAMETER
PISTON PISTON The foundation of any disc brake is the caliper
Figure 143 @ Stepped-bore dual-piston wheel cylinders body, a U-shaped casting that wraps around the
apply the brake shoes with unequal force. (Chek- brake rotor (Figure 145).
Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)
INSPECTION ANCHOR PLATE
HOLE

CALIPER BRAKE PAD

BODY

== i __ ae llP'4 ROTOR

Figure 144 @ When the brakes are applied, hydraulic Figure 145 @ The caliper body houses the hydraulic
pressure moves the wheel cylinder pistons components of a disc brake friction assembly.
outward in their bore. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.) (Halderman & Mitchell, 0-13-099453-7.)

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

=]|
 Brake caliper bodies are usually made of cast iron, with more moving parts. They also place the fluid
although high performance cars sometimes have chamber of the caliper closer to the passing air-
aluminum alloy calipers to reduce weight and dissi- flow for better cooling.
pate heat better. Single-piston brake caliper bodies Two piston calipers are built in two types. One
are usually made in one piece, but multi-piston design uses a fixed caliper with a bore on each
calipers that position pistons on both sides of the ro- side of the rotor (Figure 147).
tor are manufactured in halves that bolt together The second type is a floating/sliding caliper
with high-strength bridge bolts. Many caliper bod- with both pistons located on the in-board side of
ies incorporate an inspection hole or slot through the rotor (Figure 148).
which a technician can check brake pad wear. The first type is stronger than a single-piston
At the front axle, the brake caliper mounts to the design and both types can provide higher appli-
steering knuckle. Rear disc-brake calipers are at- cation force because of their larger piston area. In
tached to a mounting bracket that is connected to addition, the greater overall mass of two-piston
either the drive axle assembly or the left or right calipers allows them to absorb and dissipate more
rear knuckle. Calipers that bolt solidly to the sus- of the heat from braking without passing that heat
pension are called fixed calipers; the body of a on to the brake fluid. Some late models use sliding
fixed caliper does not move at any time. However,
on most late-model cars, the caliper body is free to
move within a limited range on an anchor plate that CALIPER HALF
is solidly bolted to the suspension. These designs O-RINGS
are called sliding or floating calipers.
SEAL PISTON SHIM
Piston Bores wai DUST BOOT
The caliper body contains one to four bores that hold RETAINER
the caliper pistons. If one piston is used, the bore is
on the in-board side of the caliper (Figure 146).
Single-piston calipers are used on most late-
model cars because they are simple, inexpensive,
easy to service, and less likely to leak than calipers
PS!
ANTI-RATTLE
SPRIN
~

BLEEDER SCREW

SEAL

is PISTON
BRAKE
PAD
INNER PAD
RETAINER Ve.
DUST BOOT
CALIPER BODY
PISTON a
SEAL
BLEEDER SCREW —”
oa
CALIPER HALF
Figure 147 @ A two-piston caliper, with a piston on each
Figure 146 @ A single piston brake caliper. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)
side of the rotor. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

78 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

 —~A, if
\ ie
A \\——— Y” ——— ay
a"
\ | te ne
\ \ ke
Se

Figure 148 @ This two-piston caliper uses phenolic pistons

Figure 150 ® The four-piston caliper may be used on some
and an aluminum housing to reduce heat
high performance vehicles. (Courtesy of Toyota Motor
transfer to the brake fluid. (Courtesy of Jeffrey
Sales USA, Inc.)
Rehkopf.)

CALIPER BLEEDER two-piston calipers in the rear and sliding four-

HALVES PEE SCREW
piston calipers in the front.
so ANTI-RATTLE Three-piston calipers are relatively rare and have
SPRING a single large bore on the inside of the rotor and two
smaller bores on the outside (Figure 149).
This style of caliper has the same advantages as
a two-piston caliper, but also provides additional
clearance for the wheel at the outside of the caliper.
RETAINING The pistons are sized so the force created by the two
PIN CLIP
small pistons is equal to that provided by the single
PAD
RETAINING large one. Multiple piston calipers also exert force
over a larger area of the brake pad, making it less
likely to bend under (severe) brake application.
Calipers with four pistons place two bores on
both sides of the rotor (Figure 150).
Four-piston calipers are strong and powerful,
PISTON and provide wheel clearance equal to that of a
three-piston caliper. However, compared to
PISTON single-piston calipers, they are more costly, com-
SEAL plex, and difficult to service. Four-piston calipers
were used on some early disc brakes, but in recent
sy years have been limited to high performance and
luxury applications.
RETAINING
PIN CLIP
BRAKE ey
PISTON BEDS RETAINING
PISTON PIN
SEALS
Figure 149 @ Three piston calipers use two different sizes of
pistons. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 79

 O-RING BLEEDER
Brake Fluid Routing SCREW
INTERNAL
Brake fluid pressure is supplied to the piston bores FLUID
through brake line inlet fittings machined into the PASSAGES
caliper body. In order to clear the wheels, tires, and
other suspension parts, brake lines always con-
nect to the in-board side of the caliper body. The
majority of calipers have a single brake line inlet
fitting. Calipers with two brake line inlet fittings
are used in triagonal dual-circuit brake systems.
Calipers manufactured in halves use one of two
methods to route fluid to the piston on the out-
board side of the caliper. Most have drilled inter-
nal passages that are sealed at the caliper split
with rubber O-rings (Figure 152). The O-rings fit
into machined grooves in the caliper halves, and
are compressed when the caliper is assembled.
Older split calipers, and some newer high per-
formance designs, use an external crossover tube
to provide a fluid path between the halves
(Figure 153).
Standard threaded brake line fittings are used
at both ends of the tube. External crossover tubes
are preferred in heavy duty calipers because in-
ternally drilled passages weaken the caliper body. CALIPER
In addition, extreme application pressures can / HALF
cause caliper flex that can lead to leaks if O-ring
CALIPER “BRIDGE
seals are fitted at the caliper split. HALF
One, two, or sometimes three bleeder screws are
BOLT
located on the caliper body to allow trapped air to
be bled from the system. As with wheel cylinders, ROTOR
the fluid passages leading to the bleeder screws
Figure 152 @ Internally drilled fluid passages are common
are located at the highest points of the caliper bores in multi-piston calipers. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)
80 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION
 | PHENOLIC
i STEEL
©} Acuminum
350

CALIPER 300

250

200

150

100

50

CROSSOVER
TUBE
°F
PISTON
SURFACE
SIDE
FLUID 60
TEMPERATURE 120 180 240 ~—«-300
APPLICATION TIME IN SECONDS WITH ROTOR AT 500°F
Figure 154 @ Different caliper piston materials have
Figure 153 @ An external fluid crossover tube is used on some
differing rates of heat transfer. (Chek-Chart,
multi-piston calipers. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)
0-13-048203-X.)

when the caliper is installed on the car. On some is transferred into the caliper piston and from
cars, brake calipers can be accidentally swapped there into the brake fluid. If too much heat is trans-
side to side and still bolt to the suspension mount- ferred through the piston, the brake fluid will boil
ing points. The only problem is that the bleeder and vapor lock will occur.
screws will be at the bottoms of the calipers, mak- The design of caliper pistons plays a big part in
ing it impossible to bleed air from the system. limiting the heat they transfer into the fluid. The
centers of most pistons are hollow to reduce the
surface area in contact with the brake pad; and
Brake Caliper Pistons the airspace in the hollow area serves as an addi-
The brake caliper pistons form the meeting point tional insulator. However, the most important
between the brake hydraulic system and the me- factor affecting heat transfer is the caliper piston
chanical action of the disc brake friction assembly. material.
The pistons move outward in their bores under At the present time, caliper pistons are made
hydraulic pressure, and mechanically force the from four materials:
brake pads against the brake rotor to stop the car. @ Aluminum
To do their job reliably, caliper pistons must be @ Cast iron
strong, durable, and resistant to corrosion caused @ Steel
by moisture, brake fluid, road salt, and other @ Phenolic plastic.
chemicals. Caliper pistons must maintain their
size and shape under extremes of both tempera- The chart in Figure 154 shows how pistons
ture and pressure, and they should be as light as made of these materials conduct heat under con-
possible to reduce unsprung weight and aid fuel trolled test conditions. The advantages and disad-
economy. But perhaps the most important trait of vantages of each material are discussed in the
a caliper piston is its ability to prevent or slow the following text.
transfer of heat to the brake fluid.
Aluminum Pistons
While the inner side of a caliper piston is in con-
stant contact with the brake fluid in the caliper Where weight is the main concern, aluminum pis-
bore, the outer side rides against the metal back- tons can be used. They are seldom used on pro-
ing plate of the brake pad. Brake pads routinely duction vehicles because they have a number of
operate at temperatures above the boiling point of disadvantages. First, when aluminum is heated it
brake fluid. During heavy use, brake pad temper- expands at a much greater rate than cast iron. This
atures can exceed the fluid boiling point by sev- means that aluminum pistons require fairly large
eral hundred degrees Fahrenheit. Some of the heat clearances in the caliper bore, which can lead to

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 81

leaks and other problems. And although alu- that they are relatively heavy and they conduct
minum pistons are anodized, they are still more heat more readily than is desired, in some cases.
susceptible to corrosion and scuffing than iron or
steel parts. But the main problem with aluminum Phenolic Pistons
as a material for caliper pistons is that it is an ex-
cellent conductor of heat, and therefore very poor Phenolic materials are made from phenol (also
at keeping heat away from the brake fluid. called carbolic acid) combined with other ele-
Aluminum pistons can be used in racing appli- ments under heat and pressure. Common pheno-
cations with high temperature synthetic brake flu- lic parts on today’s vehicles include disc brake
ids, carbon-ceramic rotors, and some type of brake caliper pistons, power assist braking components,
cooling system. Rebuilding the calipers and replac- accessory drive pulleys, water pump housings, so-
ing the fluid every few hours of running is consid- lenoids, ashtrays, and transmission components.
ered normal maintenance for these systems. Brake caliper pistons made of phenolic plastic
were first introduced by Chrysler in the mid 1970s.
Different combinations of ingredients produce
Cast Iron and Steel Pistons
phenolic materials with different properties.
Cast iron and steel have been the primary caliper Modern phenolic caliper pistons may contain up
piston materials for most of the production life of to 80% glass fiber, carbon fiber, or other materials
disc brake calipers. Cast iron pistons were used and 20% phenol formaldehyde.
first, but stronger steel parts are most common to- Phenolic caliper pistons have a number of dis-
day (Figure 155). tinct advantages over metal pistons; they are in-
Both materials are very strong, and they main- expensive, lightweight, strong, and _ highly
tain their size and shape well throughout a wide corrosion resistant (Figure 155). In addition, their
range of temperatures and pressures. Cast iron outer sealing surface is not as slippery as that of a
and steel pistons are precision ground to their fi- cast iron or steel piston. This allows the seal to
nal size and surface finish, and are often chrome grip the piston better and provide greater piston
plated for improved corrosion resistance. The retraction. But most of all, phenolic pistons are
main problem with cast iron and steel pistons is very poor conductors of heat; therefore, they do
an excellent job of insulating the brake fluid in the
caliper from the heat of braking.
Although phenolic caliper pistons are used by
all of the domestic automakers, they have met
with resistance from brake technicians. Some con-
cerns are justified while others are not. For exam-
ple, early Chrysler calipers with phenolic pistons
suffered from piston sticking. Studies showed that
those problems resulted primarily from caliper
bore corrosion caused by poor dust boot sealing
and moisture absorption from contaminated
brake fluid. Newer calipers are designed with im-
proved sealing and improved piston materials
that eliminate these concerns.
When phenolic pistons had problems in the
past, the common practice was to install steel re-
placement pistons. Modern brake systems and
calipers are engineered to take advantage of the
insulating properties of phenolic pistons. Substi-
tuting metal parts can cause a substantial rise in
brake fluid temperature, and an increased possi-
bility of vapor lock. It is not recommended that
steel or phenolic pistons be substituted one for the
other, except as approved by the manufacturer.

Caliper Piston Seals

Figure 155 Plated steel and phenolic caliper pistons are
the most common types today. (Chek-Chart, Like any hydraulic component, brake calipers re-
0-13-048203-X.) quire seals to prevent brake fluid from escaping
82 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION
through the gap between the piston and the bore. to prevent leaks. Most manufacturers specify a
Brake calipers use two types of seals: clearance between 0.004” and 0.010” (0.10 and
0.25 mm). If the clearance exceeds the maximum
Stroking
@ Fixed.
value when checked using a new piston, the
caliper must be replaced.
Stroking seals are used only on early fixed Stroking seals are rarely used today for a num-
brake calipers that bolt solidly to the suspension. ber of reasons. One reason is the manufacturing
Fixed seals are used on virtually all modern brake cost. A stroking seal caliper requires more parts
calipers. Do not confuse fixed calipers with fixed and machine work to function properly when
seals; fixed seals are used on all three types of compared to a fixed seal caliper.
calipers: fixed, sliding, and floating. Since stroking seals exert little force on the caliper
The design difference between the two is in the bore, any amount of brake rotor run-out (common
seal and sealing surface. In the stroking seal, the in the early days of disc brakes) can force the pistons
surface of the caliper bore is the critical surface for back away from the rotor when the brakes are re-
sealing. In the fixed seal, the sealing surface is on leased (Figure 157). The amount of piston knock-
the piston, making the piston surface the most back will vary from one stop to the next, causing
critical part of the sealing system. inconsistent and excessive brake pedal travel.
To prevent the negative effects of too much
Stroking Piston Seals knockback, most calipers with stroking seals have
springs or some type of self-adjuster behind the
The stroking seals in disc brake calipers are ring- pistons to take up any slack between the piston,
type lip seals similar to those on some master brake pad, and rotor. This keeps the brake pedal
cylinder and wheel cylinder pistons (Figure 156). height constant, and provides automatic brake
A stroking seal fits into a machined groove at the adjustment by keeping the pads in light contact
back of the caliper piston, and moves out and back with the rotor at all times. This creates a small
with the piston as the brakes are applied and re- amount of continuous brake drag that reduces
leased. The bore of the caliper body provides the pad life and hurts fuel economy, an additional
sealing surface, and is finely finished to provide the problem with stroking seals.
best possible seal. If the surface of the bore becomes Another drawback is that, when the seal is in-
damaged, the caliper must be honed or replaced to stalled at the back of the piston, the bore sealing
prevent leaks. In some cases, the caliper bore can be surface outside of the seal is always exposed; this
machined oversize and special sleeves can be in- is the area the seal will pass over as the brake
stalled to restore the sealing surface. pads wear. If the protective dust boot becomes
Pistons fitted with stroking seals can be in-
stalled relatively loosely in the caliper bore be-
cause the seal lip flares out against the caliper bore PISTON
~—— KNOCKBACK
(EXAGGERATED)
CALIPER BODY SEALING PISTON
SURFACE

CALIPER PISTON
BODY

CALIPER
BORE

SEAL
ROTOR RUNOUT
(EXAGGERATED)
PISTON
Figure 156 @ An older style stroking seal mounts on the Figure 157 @ Rotor run-out can cause excessive piston
piston and uses the caliper bore as its sealing knockback on calipers fitted with stroking
surface. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.) seals. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

83
BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION
damaged, moisture and grit will attack the bore groove in the caliper bore or a leak will result.
and seal, causing fluid leaks and caliper failure. Metal pistons used in calipers with fixed seals
This can happen very quickly, even on a brand are installed with tighter clearances than similar
new caliper. pistons in calipers with stroking seals; most manu-
facturers recommend between 0.002” and 0.005”
Fixed Piston Seals (0.06 and 0.13 mm). However, phenolic pistons
used in calipers with fixed seals require clearances
Fixed seals are used in modern calipers because similar to those used with stroking seals, approxi-
they are superior to stroking seals in almost every mately 0.005” to 0.010” (0.13 to 0.25 mm). The larger
way. Fixed seals are lathe cut O-rings, also called clearances are needed to compensate for the higher
square-cut O-rings, that fit into grooves machined expansion rate of phenolic pistons. However, once
at the outer edge of the caliper bore (Figure 158). they reach operating temperature, both metal and
The caliper piston slides through the inside of the phenolic pistons have similar clearances.
seal, and the outside of the piston provides the seal- The fixed O-ring seal overcomes the two main
ing surface. Because the sealing occurs between the disadvantages of stroking seals. First, with the
seal and the piston, the surface finish of the caliper seal located at the outer edge of the caliper bore
bore is not as critical as when a stroking seal is used. and the piston bottomed in the bore when the
Many caliper piston seals are square-cut like caliper is new, all of the sealing surfaces that come
the one shown in Figure 158. However, seals do
into play as the brake pads wear are bathed in
come in a variety of cross sections (Figure 159). brake fluid and protected from harm. Although
The shape of the seal must match the shape of the the sealing surface of the piston outside the seal
CALIPER
BODY CALIPER
may be attacked if the dust boot is damaged, this
BORE has little effect on the service life of the caliper. The
only potential cause of premature caliper failure is
damage to the piston inside the caliper as a result
SEAL of brake fluid contamination.
Some vehicle manufacturers recommend that
SEALING when the brake pads are replaced in a caliper with
SURFACE fixed seals, the caliper should be rebuilt and the pis-
tons inspected, especially if the dust boot is dam-
aged or torn. Any scoring, rusting, or pitting of the
piston will cause the O-ring seals to leak. If pads are
installed in a fixed-seal caliper with dirty or dam-
aged pistons, forcing those pistons back through
the seals will likely result in a brake fluid leak.
SEAL
\ GROOVE Seal Flex and Piston Retraction One advantage of
fixed seals is that they positively locate the piston
in the caliper bore. The O-ring seal fits tightly
PISTON against the piston and holds it in position at all
Figure 158 ® A fixed seal mounts in the caliper bore and times. When the brakes are applied (Figure 160A),
uses the piston as its sealing surface. (Chek-Chart, the seal flexes outward until the brake pads con-
0-13-048203-X.) tact the rotor. When the brakes are released
(Figure 160B), the seal returns to its original shape
and retracts the piston from the brake rotor.
CALIPER PISTON
The amount of piston retraction provided by
the flexing action of a fixed seal is small and con-
stant. Because the piston holds the pad next to the
rotor with a small clearance, knockback caused by
rotor run-out is not as much of a problem and
brake pedal height and travel remain constant.
However, excessive rotor run-out (more than
0.004”) can still cause knockback. Fixed seals also
CALIPER BODY eliminate the need for springs behind the pistons,
which improves fuel economy by reducing drag
Figure 159 @ Fixed piston seals are manufactured in a
number of different shapes. (Chek-Chart,
when the brakes are not applied.
0-13-048203-X.)

84 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

 PISTON SEAL PINCHED
RETRACTION INTO GAP

EXCESSIVE
CLEARANCE

APPLIED RELEASED
Figure 160 @ The flexing of a fixed seal retracts the caliper Figure 161 ® Excessive piston-to-bore clearance can cause
piston from the brake rotor. (Halderman & Mitchell, seal nibble and fluid leaks. (Chek-Chart,
0-13-099453-7.)
0-13-045203-X.)

Adjustment for Wear Because the piston seal can A B

only flex so far, it provides automatic adjustment
RETRACTION
of the clearance between the brake pads and rotor.
When the amount of piston movement required to
apply the brake pads becomes greater than the
seal’s ability to flex, the piston slides through the
inside of the seal until the pads are in full contact
with the rotor. When the brakes are released, the
seal again retracts the piston, but only within the
limits of its flexibility; any travel of the piston
through the seal remains.
One of the reasons fixed-seal calipers have
tighter piston-to-caliper bore clearances is that ex-
cessive clearance can allow a lathe-cut seal to flex so
far that its inner edge rolls under and its outer edge
is pinched between the piston and bore (Figure 161).
This overflexing causes rapid wear, called seal
“nibble,” on the face and edges of the seal. Wear in
these locations reduces the wiping action of the
seal and leads to brake fluid leaks.
Excessive piston-to-bore clearance can also affect
APPLIED RELEASE
the self-adjusting process. If there is too much clear-
ance when the piston must move outward to com- Figure 162 @ Low-drag calipers use special seal groove
pensate for pad wear, the seal will simply flex rather shapes to provide greater piston retraction.
than allow the piston to slide through its center. This (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

will cause increased brake pedal travel.

The extra piston retraction of a low-drag caliper
is obtained by modifying the shape of the groove
Low-Drag Caliper Seals
that holds the caliper piston seal. The groove in a
The quick take-up master cylinder is used with low- conventional caliper is cut to match the shape of the
drag brake calipers. Low-drag calipers have less seal, but in a low-drag caliper, the seal is installed in
friction when the brakes are not applied, and this a groove with a beveled outer edge. The bevel al-
means better fuel economy. To reduce friction, low- lows the seal to deflect farther outward when the
drag calipers retract the caliper pistons, and there- brakes are applied (Figure 162A). This in turn al-
fore the brake pads, farther away from the rotor. lows the seal to retract the piston farther inward
BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 85
when the brakes are released (Figure 162B). Com- separate metal ring installed on top of them
pare this to Figure 160. (Figure 163C).

Brake Caliper Operation

Brake Caliper Dust Boots
Brake caliper operation is similar to wheel cylin-
While wheel cylinders are shrouded and _ pro- der operation with the exception that the pistons
tected by the brake drums, brake calipers are fully
are directing their force inward toward the brake
exposed to the elements. Dust boots are used on rotor rather than outward toward the brake drum.
all brake calipers to prevent moisture, dirt, and
When the brakes are applied, hydraulic pressure
other contaminants from entering the caliper
is routed from the master cylinder through the
bore. If allowed in, these substances will cause
brake lines to the brake calipers. At the calipers,
physical damage to the caliper body, pistons, and
the pressure is routed through internal passages
seals; create brake fluid leaks; and contaminate
or external lines to the caliper bores where it acts
the brake fluid. Brake calipers generally use one
on the backsides of the caliper pistons. The pis-
dust boot for each piston. In all cases, the opening
tons then move outward in their bores and force
in the center of the boot fits tightly around the end
the brake pads against both sides of the brake ro-
of the caliper piston. However, the outer edge of
tor to create the friction needed to stop the car.
the boot that seals against the caliper body can be
When the brakes are released, rotor run-out and
designed in several different ways.
piston seal deflection retract the piston from the
Some dust boots have a metal reinforcing ring
pads and rotor.
around their edge (Figure 163A). The ring is com-
With a fixed caliper, the caliper body remains sta-
pressed into a groove cut in the caliper body after
tionary and the pistons act to apply the pads with
the piston is installed in the bore. On other
equal force from both sides of the rotor (Figure 164).
calipers, the edge of the dust boot fits into a ma-
With a sliding or floating caliper that has pis-
chined groove in the caliper bore similar to the
tons on only one side of the rotor, the pistons first
one that holds the piston seal (Figure 163B). When
move the in-board pad into contact with the rotor
the piston is installed in the bore, it locks the boot
(Figure 165). Then, since neither the in-board pad
in place. Other boots fit into a groove in the face of
nor piston can move further, the caliper body
the caliper body, and are then held in place by a
slides or floats on its anchor plate, pulling the pad

A B

LL
i
DUST BOOT DUST BOOT DUST BOOT
REINFORCING LOCKED IN GROOVE RETAINING RING
RING PRESS BY CALIPER PISTON
FIT IN CALIPER
Figure 163 ® Brake caliper dust boots are held in place by a variety of means. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

86 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

 BRAKE PAD ROTOR BRAKE PAD 2. Wheel cylinders and calipers are used to
the wheel friction assem-
blies.
3. Disc brake calipers actuate by
the brake pads against the
rotor surfaces.
4. Most caliper pistons are by
the square cut O-ring action.

Brake Fluid
PISTON
PISTON Hydraulic brake actuating systems are used on
PISTONS virtually all modern automobiles and light trucks.
MOVE INWARD For these systems to work properly, they must be
filled with a liquid that will not damage mechan-
CALIPER POSITION FIXED
ical components or break down under the extreme
Figure 164 Fixed calipers apply the brakes by forcing conditions that often exist within the brake sys-
pistons toward the rotor from both sides. tem. In automotive brake hydraulic systems, this
(Halderman & Mitchell, 0-13-099453-7.)
liquid is commonly called brake fluid.
Brake fluid is the lifeblood of the brake hy-
draulic system (Figure 166).
HYDRAULIC FLUID CALIPER If inferior quality fluid or fluid of the wrong
UNDER PRESSURE BOTOR BODY
MOVES type is used, brake failure can result. To ensure a
INWARD safe level of performance, and compatibility
among different brake fluids, both the Society of
Automotive Engineers (SAE) and the Department
of Transportation (DOT) have set standards for
automotive brake fluids.
The latest SAE standard, J1703 of June 2003,
serves primarily as a guideline for engineers in-
volved with brake system design. Brake fluid
manufacturers, however, are required by law to
meet the specifications set forth in Federal Motor
Vehicle Safety Standard (FMVSS) 116. Fluids clas-
sified according to FMVSS 116 are assigned DOT
PADS PRESSING
AGAINST ROTOR

PISTON MOVES
PISTON OUTWARD
Figure 165 @ Sliding and floating calipers apply the brakes
by forcing the piston in one direction and the
caliper body in the other. (Halderman & Mitchell,
0-13-099453-7.)

on the out-board side of the caliper into contact

with the rotor.

Interim Summary
1. Wheel cylinders and calipers convert nuns

into Figure 166 Brake fluid makes operation of the hydraulic

force. system possible. (Courtesy of
Jeffrey Rehkopf.)

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 87

numbers. There are currently three grades of ap- CALIPER ROTOR BOILING BRAKE
proved fluid and one variant. These are: DOT 3,
DOT 4, DOT 5, and DOT 5.1. The higher the DOT
number, the stricter the specifications the fluid
must meet.
The DOT grades of brake fluid should not nec-
essarily be identified with different types of brake
fluid although there is some correlation. The DOT
grades indicate compliance with certain mini-
mum performance specifications, and it is entirely
possible for different types of fluids to meet the
same specifications. There are also many addi-
tives that can be blended into brake fluid to give
it specific performance capabilities. In addition,
several automakers specify requirements over
and above DOT regulations when they buy brake
fluid for factory fill. When adding or changing
brake fluid, it is important to make sure the fluid
used meets the vehicle manufacturer’s specifica-
tions as well as those of the government. MASTER
CYLINDER
Brake Fluid Specifications
Figure 167 If sufficient heat is transferred to the brake
Both the SAE and DOT standards establish many fluid, it will boil and cause vapor lock. (Chek-
requirements for brake fluid. In general, brake Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)
fluid must not boil or otherwise be affected by the
“highest temperature a brake system is designed to
reach. However, brake fluid must remain free The increased brake pedal travel caused by va-
flowing at all temperatures, and not thicken or por lock should not be confused with the extra
freeze when exposed to very low temperatures. pedal travel that results from mechanical fade of
Brake fluid needs to provide lubrication for the in- a drum brake, although both problems are caused
ternal parts of the hydraulic system, but it must by excessive heat, and may occur at the same time.
not attack any of the metal or rubber parts. Finally, When a wheel friction assembly overheats to the
brake fluid must remain chemically stable point of fade, it may get hot enough to boil the
throughout the time it remains in the system, and brake fluid in the wheel cylinder or brake caliper
fluids from different manufacturers must be com- and cause vapor lock as well.
patible with other fluids of the same type. It is when both problems occur at the same time
that the most dangerous condition occurs: sudden
Boiling Point brake loss. As a result of repeated hard braking, the
calipers and fluid may exceed the boiling tempera-
DOT FMVSS 116 deals with many aspects of a ture of the fluid, but, because the fluid is under
brake fluid’s performance, but boiling point is pressure from the master cylinder, the fluid does
among the most important. As pointed out previ- not boil and the pedal remains functional. As soon
ously, the friction of braking creates a great deal of as the driver releases the pedal, thus releasing the
heat. Most of this heat is absorbed by the brake pressure in the caliper, the fluid boils rapidly and
drums and rotors and then radiated into the sur- the next pedal application will find the pedal going
rounding air, but some of the heat is absorbed by to the floor, with no braking occurring. This sudden
the wheel cylinders and brake calipers and trans- brake loss is difficult to diagnose because as soon as
mitted to the brake fluid inside (Figure 167). the fluid returns to normal temperature the pedal
If the fluid absorbs too much heat, it will boil returns to normal operation and there appears to be
into a compressible gas. This causes an increase in no fault in the brake system.
brake pedal travel because the vapor must be
compressed before the fluid can transmit force. If Dry and Wet Boiling Points
enough fluid boils, the brake pedal will go all the
way to the floor and braking power will be lost. To help prevent vapor lock, FMVSS 116 specifies
This condition is called vapor lock. both a dry and a wet equilibrium reflux boiling
point (ERBP) for each of the three grades of brake

88 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

 these tests make sure the fluid remains stable
throughout the wide range of temperatures in
which a brake system must operate.
Heat is one of the adverse conditions brake
fluid has to endure. The boiling point of the fluid
is tested for high temperature stability—its ability
to maintain a high boiling point after prolonged
exposure to heat. Of course, a fluid that can main-
tain a high boiling point is not very useful if it
evaporates so quickly that fluid must constantly
be added to the system. For this reason, FMVSS
116 also includes a test to ensure that the brake
fluid is not overly prone to evaporation, and that
the residue left when it does evaporate is not
abrasive.
Until now, most of the points discussed deal
with the behavior of brake fluid at high tempera-
fluid. The term “equilibrium reflux” describes the tures, but low temperature performance is impor-
method used to determine the point at which the tant as well. Brake fluid must remain liquid at low
fluid boils. temperatures; if the fluid thickens, it moves very
The dry ERBP is the minimum boiling point of slowly through the system and brake application
new, uncontaminated brake fluid. The boiling is delayed. In the worst possible case, moisture in
point of new brake fluid is of concern to fluid the brake fluid can freeze and braking power will
manufacturers; however, the boiling point of be lost.
brake fluid that has been in service for any length Like motor oil, brake fluid’s resistance to flow is
of time will be substantially lower. This change in called its viscosity. FMVSS 116 requires a viscosity
boiling point occurs because most of the brake test at both high and low temperatures. For brake
fluid used today is hygroscopic—it absorbs wa- fluid in service, the problem of high viscosity at low
ter. Since water boils at only 212°F (100°C), the temperatures is made worse by water absorption.
boiling point of brake fluid contaminated with Because water freezes at only 32°F (0°C), water-
water is greatly reduced. The wet ERBP test re- contaminated brake fluid will thicken or freeze ata
quired by FMVSS 116 determines a fluid’s boiling higher temperature than uncontaminated fluid.
point after it has absorbed a specified amount of
water; this provides a better indication of how the Material Compatibility
fluid will perform in normal service.
Federal law requires that the wet ERBP of all In addition to remaining stable across a wide
brake fluid be printed on the label of the container. range of temperatures, brake fluid must also be
The standards, as listed in FMVSS 571.116, follow: compatible with the metals and rubbers used in
the brake system. To ensure that a fluid will not
@ $5.1.1 Equilibrium reflux boiling point (ERBP). damage brake components, FMVSS 116 specifies
When brake fluid is tested according to 56.1, the tests for pH value, corrosion, oxidation resistance,
ERBP shall not be less than the following value effects on the rubber cups, and lubrication or
for the grade indicated: stroking properties.
e, DOT 3:401°F (205°C) If a brake fluid is too acidic, it will etch the met-
e DOT 4: 446°F (230°C) als in the hydraulic system. The pH test deter-
eHD@ Tiaand WOT ons 5005F (260°) mines the overall acidity of the brake fluid. In
@ S5.1.2 Wet ERBP. When brake fluid is tested ac- general, brake fluid is more alkaline than acidic.
cording to S6.2, the wet ERBP shall not be less To get a better idea of the effect of the fluid on ac-
than the following value for the grade indicated: tual brake system parts, FMVSS 116 requires a cor-
¢ DOT 3: 284°F (140°C) rosion test in which various metals and wheel
oO) ANS Leh (155°) cylinder cups are submerged in the brake fluid for
«DOT Sand DO Iho. B50°R (s0e€) a specified time. Afterward, the metals are visu-
ally inspected and weighed to make sure the fluid
has not eaten them away, and the cups are
Temperature Compatibility
checked for signs of disintegration.
In addition to a high boiling point, brake fluids are Brake system parts are also susceptible to
tested for several other properties. A number of oxidation (Figure 168).

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 89

 blend together into a single solution. Only fluids of
the same type mix together completely. Different
types remain separated within the hydraulic sys-
tem, and certain non-DOT fluids will cause severe
damage if mixed. The best practice even with com-
patible brake fluids is to stick with a single high
quality brand of the correct type and DOT grade
fluid recommended for the particular system.

Brake Fluid Types

As hydraulic brake systems evolved, many differ-
ent liquids were used as brake fluid; each was se-
lected to match the design of a particular system.
Castor oil, mineral oil, alcohol, polyglycol, and sil-
icone are just a few of the fluids that have been
Figure 168 ® Moisture in the brake fluid combines with the used. As brake hydraulic systems became more
heat of braking to oxidize hydraulic system similar in design and construction, brake fluids
parts. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)
also came to have more in common until, today,
only three types of brake fluid are used in auto-
Oxidation in the brake system is yet another motive brake hydraulic systems:
problem caused by moisture, and the reaction is @ Polyglycol
made worse by heat. In the FMVSS 116 oxidation Silicone
resistance test, moisture is added to a brake fluid @ Hydraulic system mineral oil (HSMO).
sample, metal strips and rubber brake cups are im-
_mersed in the fluid, and the mixture is heated for a Polyglycol fluid is by far the most common type
specified time. Afterward, the metal strips are now in use, but both silicone fluid and HSMO have
checked for pitting, etching, and weight loss, while advantages in some applications. To help prevent
the rubber cups are checked for disintegration, intermixing of the three types of fluids, federal law
swelling, and any increase or decrease in hardness. requires that each type be a specific color: polygly-
Finally, brake fluid must have the ability to lu- col fluids are clear to amber, silicone fluids are pur-
bricate the hydraulic cylinder pistons as they slide ple, and hydraulic mineral oils are green.
back and forth in their bores during brake opera-
tion. In the FMVSS 116 lubrication (stroking) test, Polyglycol Brake Fluid
a laboratory brake system is filled with the test
fluid and operated under controlled conditions The most common type of brake fluid is a
for a specified number of cycles. Afterward, the polyalkylene glycol ether mixture, called polygly-
hydraulic cylinders are disassembled and col for short. Polyglycol brake fluid has been used
checked for pitting, etching, and wear. since the 1940s, and it works predictably over a
fairly wide range of temperatures. Because of its
widespread use, polyglycol fluid has the advan-
Fluid Compatibility
tages of being inexpensive and readily available. It
While the performance specifications for the three also causes rubber parts of the hydraulic system to
grades of DOT-approved brake fluid are different, swell slightly, which improves sealing and helps
FMVSS 116 requires the three grades to be com- prevent leaks. Early polyglycol fluids had prob-
patible. This means that any DOT-approved lems with mechanical compatibility, but additive
brake fluid can be mixed with any other approved improvements over the years have made the latest
fluid. For example, the DOT 4 fluid of one manu- fluids less corrosive and more chemically stable.
facturer can be poured into a master cylinder that Although it basically performs quite well,
contains DOT 3 fluid made by another manufac- polyglycol brake fluid does have two drawbacks.
turer and no damaging chemical reaction will One is that polyglycol is a strong solvent; if spilled
take place. Keep in mind, however, that if a lower on a car’s finish it will almost immediately dis-
DOT grade of fluid is used in a system that re- solve the paint (Figure 169).
quires a higher grade, the overall boiling point of Polyglycol’s major drawback is its hygroscopic-
the fluid in the system will be reduced. ity, or water-attracting nature. This trait leads to a
While DOT fluids are compatible, they are not reduced boiling point, higher viscosity at low
necessarily homogenous; they do not always temperatures, and increased rust and corrosion
90 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION
 Silicone brake fluid is a relatively new and un-
known product (compared to glycol fluids), and
there have been reports that it can cause a variety
of problems. Some concerns are:
# Silicone fluid does not work well at low temper-
atures. It is true that some early non-DOT ap-
proved silicone fluids did have high viscosity at
lower temperatures; however, the latest formu-
lations meet DOT 5 standards, including the low
temperature standard at —40°F. Silicone brake
fluid does have a higher viscosity at room tem-
perature than polyglycol fluid, but this does not
reflect its cold weather performance.
@ Silicone fluids are poor lubricants of the me-
chanical parts in the brake system. This is only
partially true. Silicone fluid is an excellent lu-
bricant of rubber parts, but it is not quite as
good as polyglycol at lubricating the metal pis-
tons. Testing has shown, however, that piston
wear when using silicone fluid is not a signifi-
Figure 169 @ Polyglycol brake fluid is a strong solvent that cant problem in the real world.
will damage paint in seconds. (Chek-Chart,
® Silicone fluid will compress slightly and cause
0-13-048203-X.)
a spongy brake pedal. This does happen, but is
most noticeable at higher temperatures. These
conditions are likely to occur only in racing or
within the hydraulic system. Polyglycol is the in extreme duty use.
only one of the three fluid types to have this trait. Silicone brake fluid does have certain other dis-
DOT 3, DOT 4, and the recently designated advantages that have all but eliminated its use in
DOT 5.1 are all polyglycol fluids and they all will passenger cars.
blend together into a homogenous mixture. DOT
3 brake fluid is specified by most automakers, but ¢ It is expensive, three to four times the cost of
some manufacturers have begun to require DOT 4 polyglycol fluid.
fluid. DOT 5.1 meets the DOT 5 standards but is a Silicone fluid does not have enough conductiv-
elycol-based fluid rather than silicone based; ity to operate the electrical brake fluid level sen-
some suppliers may also call it “synthetic” brake sors used in some cars.
fluid. The Ford Motor Company uses a special Silicone fluid has a greater affinity for air than
heavy duty DOT 3 fluid that has a dry ERBP that polyglycol fluid, which can make it more diffi-
exceeds the DOT 5 specification by a wide margin, cult to bleed air from the system.
although the fluid conforms to DOT 3 require- Because silicone fluid is inert, it may not pro-
ments in other areas. vide the small amount of rubber swell that
polyglycol does to improve sealing and help
prevent leaks.
Silicone Brake Fluid
If moisture gets into the system, rather than be-
Silicone brake fluid has been on the market since ing dispersed into the fluid as it is with glycol
the late 1970s, and it offers some advantages over fluids, the moisture will fall to the lowest point
polyglycol fluid. Silicone fluid has a high dry and in the system where it can freeze, boil, or cause
wet boiling point and was the only fluid to meet corrosion.
the DOT 5 standards when it was first marketed. ¢ Silicone fluid is compatible with DOT 3 and 4
Glycol-based fluids have since been developed fluids, but it does not blend with them; it re-
that also meet the DOT 5 standards, although at a mains separate in the hydraulic system. This
high cost. Silicone fluid is not hydroscopic; it does can create problems because silicone brake
not attract or absorb moisture. Because silicone fluid has a lower specific gravity than polygly-
fluid lacks an affinity for water, rust and corrosion col fluid; if equal quantities of the two fluids are
problems are almost eliminated when it is used. compared, the silicone fluid will weigh less. If
In addition, silicone fluid is basically inert, not a the two are mixed together, the polyglycol fluid
solvent, and will not harm painted surfaces. will sink to the bottom of the system (i.e., the

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 91

 SILICONE FLUID
[=] POLYGLYCOL FLUID
Figure 170 @ Silicone and polyglycol brake fluids do not
form a homogenous mixture when combined
in a brake system. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

wheel cylinders and brake calipers) where its

hygroscopic properties will cause rust and cor-
rosion problems (Figure 170).
Manufacturers that do use silicone brake fluids
have, in most cases, designed the whole brake % GRRL LO CBE RE POP
system to use silicone fluid, thus minimizing or oR
Fe
ee
ey ia
ee
weae

‘eliminating the previous concerns. In vehicles Pe, ee ee Ce lt all

that may see intermittent use and/or long peri- Figure 171 @ HSMO is a petroleum-based brake fluid that
ods of storage, such as military vehicles and should only be used in systems that are
show cars, silicone fluids greatly reduce required engineered for it. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)
maintenance.

in systems designed to use it must be made of spe-

Hydraulic System Mineral Oil (HSMO)
cial rubber. Polyglycol fluids attack this rubber,
Hydraulic system mineral oil (HSMO) is made and HSMO attacks the seals in brake systems that
up of a mineral oil base and several additives use polyglycol fluid. HSMO and polyglycol fluids
(Figure 171). must only be used in systems designed for them
It is the least common type of brake fluid, but in and must never be mixed in the same system.
many ways it is also the best: it has an extremely
high boiling point, it is not hygroscopic, and it
Interim Summary
does not contribute to rust or corrosion in any
way. In fact, HSMO will guard against such dam- 1. Brake fluid is the
age because it is petroleum based and therefore a of the brake hydraulic
natural rust inhibitor. system.
HSMO has mainly been used by only three au- 2h brake fluid is hygroscopic,
tomakers. Citroen has used HSMO since 1966 in meaning it absorbs water.
some models in a central hydraulic system that
3h is a factor
powers the brakes, steering, and suspension. Rolls
in brake fluid grading.
Royce went to HSMO in mid-1980 to operate the
brakes and leveling system. Audi uses HSMO in 4. The higher the number, the
the hydraulic brake booster of some models, al- higher the boiling point.
though the brake actuating system remains sepa- D: brake fluid will damage
rate and uses DOT 4 polyglycol brake fluid. painted surfaces.
HSMO does not fall under any DOT grade clas-
sification, and its primary drawback is that it is not 6. DOT is silicone brake fluid.
7. Hydraulic system mineral oil is a
compatible with polyglycol and silicone brake flu-
ids. Because HSMO is petroleum based, the seals brake fluid.

92 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

 8. Using the brake fluid in a After passing through the hydraulic control
brake system is important to valves, the brake fluid pressure arrives at the
proper braking wheel friction assemblies that generate the fric-
performance and tion needed to stop the vehicle. There are two ba-
hydraulic system damage. sic designs of friction assemblies on today’s
vehicles: drum brakes and disc brakes. Drum
brakes are used only as rear wheel brakes while
Service Brakes Review disc brakes are used at the front wheels because of
their superior performance. Most luxury vehicles,
When technicians talk about a vehicle’s brake sys- mid to upper end vehicles, and models with high
tem, they are usually referring to the service performance packages use disc brakes at all four
brakes. Manufacturers may also refer to the service wheels for maximum stopping power.
brakes as foundation brakes or base brakes. The
term “service brakes” refers to the primary system Drum Brakes
used to slow and stop the vehicle during everyday
driving and does not include the antilock or trac- In a drum brake friction assembly, the brake sys-
tion control system. Service brakes are applied by tem hydraulic pressure is routed into a slave
pushing on the brake pedal, which pressurizes the cylinder (Figure 172).
brake hydraulic system and applies the friction as- The slave cylinder in an automotive drum
semblies at all four wheels to stop the vehicle. brake is commonly called a wheel cylinder, and it
The time interval between force applied at the operates in reverse of the master cylinder. It con-
brake pedal and braking action at the wheels is verts hydraulic pressure back into mechanical
only a fraction of a second, but these events are force, which is used to actuate the wheel friction
linked by a long chain of mechanical and hy- assembly. The majority of today’s drum brakes
draulic actions that combine to provide the brak- use a single two-piston wheel cylinder at each
ing power needed to stop the vehicle. Each link in wheel. However, some systems use a pair of
this chain is carefully engineered to perform a single-piston cylinders instead (Figure 173).
specific friction in the overall braking process, and In a two-piston wheel cylinder, hydraulic pres-
a weakness or failure at any point can result in sure enters the cylinder between the two pistons.
greatly reduced stopping power or total brake The pressure forces the pistons outward toward the
failure. open ends of the cylinder where they act directly, or

ANCHOR
SECONDARY
SHOE

PRIMARY
SHOE

HOLD-DOWN

HOLD-DOWN

STARWHEEL

Figure 172 A basic drum brake equipped with a manual adjuster. (Courtesy of Wagner Division, Cooper Industries, Inc.)

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 93

 INSPECTION ANCHOR PLATE
BLEEDER VALVE
Ny FLUID INLET HOLE

BRAKE PAD

SPLASH SHIELD
PISTON SPRING CUP SEAL PISTON
Figure 174 ® The disc brake is found on the front wheels of
CUP EXPANDER all modern vehicles. (Halderman & Mitchell,
0-13-099453-7.)

Figure 173 ® A wheel cylinder converts hydraulic pressure

into mechanical force. (Halderman & Mitchell,
0-13-099453-7.)

through short pushrods, on the brake shoes. As the Disc Brakes

brake shoes are pushed outward by the wheel A disc brake friction assembly performs the same
* cylinder pistons, their lining material contacts the job as a drum brake; it creates friction to stop the
brake drum, which is attached to the rotating hub vehicle (Figure 174).
or axle of the vehicle. The friction created between However, it does so in a somewhat different
the brake linings and the drum slows the rotation manner. In place of a wheel cylinder, disc brakes
of the drum, the wheel and tire attached to it, and use a brake caliper to convert hydraulic system
thus the entire vehicle. pressure back into mechanical force. The caliper
The wheel cylinder and brake shoes mount to a assembly is mounted to the vehicle suspension,
backing plate that is attached to the vehicle’s sus- and straddles the brake rotor, which is the disc
pension. The cylinder may bolt solidly to the brake equivalent of a brake drum. The rotor is
backing plate or it may be fixed in such a manner made of cast iron or steel, and is keyed to the ro-
that it can move within certain limits. The brake tating hub or axle.
shoes are held in position on the backing plate by When hydraulic pressure enters the brake
springs, which allow them to move when actu- caliper, it pushes on the back of one or more pistons
ated by the wheel cylinders. When the brake and forces them outward in their bores (Figure 175).
pedal is released, the springs pull the shoes back As the pistons move outward, they push the
away from the drum. brake pads against the brake rotor. Brake pads are
the disc brake equivalent of drum brake shoes,
and they create the friction that slows the rotation
of the brake rotor, the wheel and tire attached to it,
and thus the vehicle. Compared to brake shoes,
disc pads are usually rather simple, consisting of
only a flat metal backing plate with a block of fric-
tion material attached to it.
Brake calipers can contain one, two, three, or
four hydraulic pistons. In a multi-piston caliper,
the pistons are located so they clamp down on the
rotor with equal force from either side. Ina single-
piston caliper, the portion of the caliper contain-
ing the piston extends over and around the rotor,
and is free to slide or “float” on the portion of the
caliper that is solidly mounted to the suspension.
94 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION
 BRAKE PAD ROTOR BRAKE PAD Drum Brake Advantages
The drum brake has been more widely used than
any other automotive brake design (Figure 176).
At one time, its use in the industry was universal;
all vehicles had four wheel drum brakes. Al-
though the disc brake has proven its superiority in
extreme braking conditions, and has replaced the
drum brake on the front axle of new vehicles, the
drum brake continues to have a number of ad-
vantages that contribute to its widespread use on
the rear axle of most vehicles.
PISTON
PISTON
PISTONS Self-Energizing and Servo Action
MOVE INWARD
The primary advantage of drum brakes is that
CALIPER POSITION FIXED they can apply more stopping power for a given
Figure 175 ® The brake caliper assembly forces the brake amount of force applied to the brake pedal than
pads against the rotor. (Halderman & Mitchell, can disc brakes. This is possible because the
0-13-099453-7.) drum brake design offers a self-energizing ac-
tion that helps force the brake linings tightly
against the drum. In addition, some drum brake
designs use an effect called servo action that en-
When the piston is forced toward the rotor by hy- ables one brake shoe to help apply the other for
draulic pressure, the caliper housing moves with increased stopping power. Both self-energizing
equal force in the opposite direction and applies and servo action are explained in detail later in
the brake pad on the far side of the rotor. the module.

HOLD-DOWN PINS

BRAKE SHOE

ADJUSTING
LEVER LINK

RETURN
SPRINGS
BACKING
PLATE
a \
©
\4
la_, A

a
=

ADJUSTER
¢ LEVER
(SySe
ADJUSTING
%
LEVER ee LEVER
HOLD-DOWN PIVOT RETURN
SPRINGS SPRING
Figure 176 ® An exploded view of a typical drum brake assembly. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 95

Parking Brake it can be carried away by the passing airflow. Me-
chanical fade occurs when the brake drum gets so
One significant advantage that results from the hot it expands away from the brake linings. The
superior braking power of drum brakes at low ap- brake shoes then move outward to maintain con-
plication forces is that they make excellent park- tact with the drum, causing the brake pedal to
ing brakes. A simple linkage fitted to the brake drop toward the floor as additional brake fluid
assembly allows relatively low effort on the dri- moves into the hydraulic system.
ver’s part to hold a heavy vehicle in place when The driver can compensate for mechanical fade
parked. Disc brakes, which do not benefit from to a limited degree by pumping the brake pedal to
self-energizing or servo action, require a complex keep the linings in contact with the drum. How-
set of extra parts to provide enough application ever, this also results in greater heat and more
force to work well as parking brakes. fade. At the first sign of mechanical fade, a vehi-
‘ cle’s speed should be reduced and the brakes al-
lowed to cool; otherwise, a total loss of stopping
‘Drum Brake Disadvantages power may result.
Despite the advantages previously described, the
disadvantages of drum brakes (at least for front Lining Fade
axle applications) became significant as vehicles Lining fade occurs when the friction coefficient of
grew heavier and highway speeds increased. the brake lining material drops off sharply be-
These disadvantages fall into four areas: cause intense heat makes it “slippery.” Unlike me-
@ Brake fade chanical fade, brake pedal travel does not increase
@ Brake adjustment when lining fade occurs. Instead, the pedal be-
@ Brake pull comes hard and there is a noticeable loss of brak-
@ Complexity. ing power. Sometimes the driver can apply more
pressure on the brake pedal to regain the lost
Brake Fade braking power. However, this often worsens the
problem by increasing the heat, causing brake
The greatest drawback of drum brakes is that they drum distortion that makes it impossible for the
are susceptible to fade. Brake fade is the loss of linings and drum to stay in complete contact. The
stopping power that occurs when excessive heat portions of the linings that do remain in contact
reduces the friction between the brake shoe lin- with the drum become extremely hot and me-
ings and the drum. Heat-related fade takes three chanical fade of the drum soon results.
forms: mechanical, gas, and lining fade. Drum
brakes can also fade if water enters the friction as-
sembly and reduces the friction between the lin- Gas Fade
ings and drum. Arelatively rare type of brake fade is called gas fade.
Under extended hard braking from high speeds, a
Mechanical Fade thin layer of hot gasses and dust particles can build
up between the brake shoe linings and drum. The
Drum brakes are not very efficient at dissipating gas layer acts as a lubricant and reduces friction. As
heat. The brake drum shrouds the linings, and with the lining fade, the brake pedal becomes hard,
most of the heat produced when braking must and greater application force is required to maintain
pass through the drum, from the inside out, before a constant level of stopping power.
96 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION
 Gas fade becomes more of a problem as the size Complexity
of the brake lining increases; gasses and particles
have a harder time escaping from under a large Finally, when compared to disc brakes, the drum
lining than a small one. Some high performance brake assembly is much more complex, both in
drum brake linings are slotted or grooved to pro- the number of parts and difficulty of assembly. As
vide paths for gas and particles to escape. many technicians know, it is remarkably easy to
make mistakes when installing new shoes, along
with the various springs, links, clips, and retain-
Water Fade ers. It is not uncommon for the drum brake as-
Drum brakes are also affected by a problem called sembly to have 30 or more separate parts, while
water fade. A drum brake friction assembly cannot the disc brake may have as few as 8 parts.
be made waterproof because clearance is neces-
sary between the rotating drum and the fixed back-
ing plate. This clearance allows a small amount of Drum Brake Construction
air circulation that helps combat heat fade, but it
Before looking at the different types of drum
can also allow water to enter the friction assembly.
brake designs, it is important to understand these
Water fade occurs when moisture is trapped be-
components that are common to most drum brake
tween the shoes and drum where it acts as a lubri-
friction assemblies. These parts are described in
cant. This lowers braking efficiency until friction
the following sections. Parts that differ from one
creates enough heat to evaporate the water. design to another will be detailed in the Drum
Technically, water fade is not a true form of fade
Brake Design section.
since the brakes do not start out operating at full
power then fade into ineffectiveness. Instead, the
opposite happens; water fade causes a delay in
Backing Plate
braking action when the brake pedal is first ap- The foundation of every drum brake is the back-
plied, after which the brakes gradually return to ing plate that mounts to the steering knuckle on
full power. Depending on the amount of water the front brakes, or to the suspension or axle hous-
that has entered the brakes, this delay can last up ing on the rear brakes (Figure 177).
to several seconds.

Adjusting Mechanism ANCHOR CURVED

Another disadvantage of the drum brake design is

its need for an adjusting mechanism. As the brake
shoe lining material wears, the clearance between
\ [
the linings and drum increases, resulting in longer
brake pedal travel. To maintain a high brake pedal,
a mechanism must be included in the friction as-
sembly for periodic adjustment of the clearance be-
tween the shoes and drum. Early vehicles had
manual brake adjustors that required relatively
frequent attention. Most late-model vehicles have
automatic adjusters that maintain the proper
clearance between the brake linings and the drum.

Brake Pull
A further disadvantage of drum brakes is that
they sometimes pull the vehicle to one side or the
other during braking. Certain designs are more
susceptible to this than others, but all drum brakes
suffer from it to one degree or another. Brake pull
occurs when the friction assemblies on opposite SHOW
sides of the vehicle have different amounts of MOUNTING SUPPORT
HOLES PADS
stopping power. These differences can be caused
by brake fade or improper adjustment of the clear- Figure 177 @ The backing plate is the basic building block of
ance between the brake linings and drum. every drum brake. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 97

 The backing plate serves as the mounting sur- BACKING
face for all the other friction assembly parts. The PLATE ECCENTRIC
backing plate also functions as a dust and water POST
shield to keep contaminants out of the brake as-
sembly. The edge of the backing plate curves out-
ward to form a lip that strengthens the backing -64@6 b
plate and fits inside the brake drum to help pre- Co?
vent water entry. In some cases, the lip fits into a
machined groove in the open edge of the brake
drum to provide an even better water barrier. / ANCHOR
In addition to mounting holes for the various
brake parts, the backing plate may also have SLOTTED
openings that are used to inspect the wear of the BACKING HOLE
brake linings, or adjust the lining-to-drum clear- aS Nt. AME
ance. These openings are sometimes sealed with \ a
rubber plugs that are removed to make the in- CO WE By"
spection or adjustment. On brakes using auto- >
matic adjusters, the adjustor slots are often sealed
with metal plugs that must be knocked out in or-
der to access the starwheel adjustor. This is neces- o

sary when the brakes are badly worn, to enable

the removal of the brake drum. Rubber plugs are —_ Figure 178 @ Adjustable anchor pins use either an eccentric
available to seal the slots to prevent water entry or a slotted backing plate. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)
once the metal plugs have been removed. Other
prominent features on backing plates are the shoe
anchors, piston stops, and brake shoe support RETURN
pads. SPRING

Shoe Anchors
Shoe anchors prevent the brake shoes from rotat-
ing with the drum when the brakes are applied.
The majority of drum brakes have a single an-
BRAKE
chor, but some drum brake designs use two or SHOE
more. BACKING) ==
Many anchors are a simple round post that is PLATE
permanently mounted on the backing plate ANCHOR aa
(Figure 177). The brake shoes have semicircular
cutouts where they contact the anchor, and the an- Figure 179 ® A keystone anchor allows the brake shoes to
chor positively locates the shoe on the backing self-center
in the drum. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

plate. Some early brakes used a post-type anchor

that could be moved in a slotted mounting hole or
had an eccentric shape. Both designs provided ad-
justment so new brakes could be centered within
the drum (Figure 178).
Another type of anchor is the self-centering or
keystone anchor (Figure 179).
The ends of the brake shoes that contact this
type of anchor are flat or slightly rounded. When
the brakes are applied, the shoes slide up or down
along the anchor to center themselves for best
contact with the brake drum.

98 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

Piston Stops Shoe Support Pads
Some backing plates incorporate piston stops that The shoe support pads are stamped into the back-
prevent the wheel cylinder pistons from coming ing plate and contact the edges of the brake shoes
out of their bores when the friction assembly is to keep the linings properly aligned with the cen-
disassembled for servicing. The stops may be part ter of the friction surface inside the brake drum
of a reinforcing plate positioned under the anchor, (Figure 177). The support pads are slightly coated
or they can be stamped directly into the shape of with special high-temperature silicone brake
the backing plate itself (Figure 180). When piston grease to minimize wear, prevent rust, and elimi-
stops are used, the wheel cylinder must be re- nate squeaking that can occur when the shoes
moved from the backing plate before it can be move slightly on the pads during a stop.
taken apart for servicing.
Wheel Cylinders
Wheel cylinders convert hydraulic pressure into
SHOE REINFORCING the mechanical force required to apply the brake
ANCHOR PLATE
linings against the brake drum. The vast majority
BACKING of current drum brakes use either a single two-
piston wheel cylinder or two single-piston wheel
cylinders. Wheel cylinder construction and oper-
ation will not be covered here except as they affect
the overall design of the friction assembly.
Wheel cylinders attach to the backing plate in
two ways. Most cylinders are bolted or clipped
solidly in place so the cylinder body is held in a
fixed position (Figure 181).

Brake Shoes
The brake shoes are made from welded steel or
cast aluminum (Figure 176). The outer portion of
PISTON
STOPS WHEEL the shoe, called the shoe table, is curved to match
CYLINDER the contour of the drum; the brake lining friction
Figure 180 ® Piston stops prevent the wheel cylinder from material is riveted and/or bonded to this surface.
coming apart unintentionally. (Chek-Chart, The inner portion of the shoe, called the web, is
0-13-048203-X.) contacted by the wheel cylinder to apply the

2 1. CYLINDER LINK
2. BOLT
3. WHEEL CYLINDER

1. WHEEL CYLINDER RETAINER

2. WHEEL CYLINDER

Figure 181 @ Wheel cylinders can be attached with bolts or clips. (Courtesy of General Motors Corporation, Service and Parts Operations.)

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION te)its)

brakes. The web contains mounting holes for the Shoe hold-downs take many forms (Figure 183).
shoe return springs, hold-down devices, and the The most common design is a steel pin installed
linkages for the parking brake and self-adjusting through a hole in the backing plate and a corre-
mechanisms. sponding hole in the brake shoe web. A spring fits
over the end of the pin against the shoe web, and
Brake Shoe Return Springs a special washer compresses the spring and locks
onto the flattened end of the pin. Some versions of
The brake shoe return springs retract the shoes to this hold-down use an additional washer between
their unapplied positions when the brake pedal is the spring and the shoe web.
released (Figure 176). This helps prevent brake A variation of the pin-type hold-down uses a
drag, and aids the return of brake fluid to the mas- simple spring clip between the brake shoe web
ter cylinder reservoir. Most brakes use closed coil and the end of the pin. A few brakes carry this de-
return springs to retract the brake shoes. The coils sign one step further and have a large spring clip
on these springs are very tightly wound and con- mounted directly to the backing plate. When the
tact one another when the spring is relaxed. Some brake shoe is installed, the web is slipped under
vehicles have a single, large, horseshoe shaped re- the clip, which then holds the shoe against the
turn spring (Figure 182). support pads.
The type, location, and number of return Another type of hold-down is a taper-wound
springs vary from one brake design to the next; coil spring with a hook formed on its end. Because
however, all springs are installed in one of two of its shape, this part is sometimes called a “bee-
ways. Some connect directly from shoe to shoe, hive” hold-down. The hook end of the spring is
while others connect from one shoe to a fixed sup- installed through a hole in the brake shoe web and
port on the backing plate, often the anchor post. attached into a retaining clip that fits into a corre-
sponding hole in the backing plate.
Brake Shoe Hold-Downs
While the return springs retract the brake shoes to Parking Brake Linkage
their unapplied positions, the shoe hold-downs Most rear drum brake friction assemblies include
keep the shoes securely against the support pads a parking brake linkage (Figure 184).
on the backing plate. The hold-downs prevent The linkage commonly consists of a cable, lever,
noise, vibration, and wear, but still allow the shoes and strut system that spreads the brake shoes
to move out and back as the brakes are applied apart to apply the brake mechanically. The park-
and released. The hold-downs also provide ing brake strut plays a large part in many of the
enough freedom of movement to allow adjust- automatic brake adjusters described later.
ments of the shoes outward as the linings wear.

hashes
RETURN SPRING PINS

_<
\ @
‘S

SPRING TAPERED
CLIP WASHERS COIL SPRING
Figure 183 @ Brake shoe hold-downs keep the shoes
properly positioned against the backing plate.
(Halderman & Mitchell, 0-13-099453-7.)

Figure 182 @ A single spring-steel return spring is used on

some drum brakes. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

100 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

 PARKING
BRAKE
LEVER e
ee PARKING
BRAKE
EQUALIZER STRUT

PARKING
BRAKE
A CABLE

SECONDARY
BRAKE SHOE

LEFT
REAR
BRAKE

3. LEVER WORKS AGAINST

LINK AND PIVOT FORCES
SECONDARY SHOE
2. LEVER MOVES LINK AGAINST THE DRUM
AGAINST PRIMARY SHOE
AND SHOE AGAINST DRUM

/
CONDUIT

1. CABLE PULLS LEVER

Figure 184 @ A mechanical parking brake linkage is part of most rear drum brakes. (Halderman & Mitchell, 0-13-099453-7.)

Brake Drum on the hub or axle, and covers the rest of the fric-
tion assembly. Brake drums are made of cast iron,
The last major component in a drum brake friction cast iron and stamped steel, or cast aluminum
assembly is the brake drum (Figure 185). with a cast iron liner. Any of these drum types
Unlike all of the other parts discussed thus far,
may have ribs or fins on its outer edge to help dis-
the brake drum is not connected to the backing sipate heat.
plate, but turns with the wheel. The drum mounts

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 101

 WHEEL CYLINDER ASSEMBLY

PARKING
BRAKE
LEVER
SECONDARY SHOE

RETURN SPRINGS

PARKING BRAKE
STRUT ROD
GUIDE
HOLD-DOWN
PRIMARY SHOE Ces SPRING
ADJUSTER SPRING

AUTOMATIC ee
ADJUSTER oe
CABLE
LOWER
HOLD-DOWN SPRING SS
SPRING AUTOMATIC
AD ysTen RETURN SPRING
Figure 185 @ The brake drum covers the rest of the friction assembly and rotates with the wheel. (Courtesy of Allied Signal Automotive
Aftermarket.)

Drum Brake Design DRUM ROTATION

Not all drum brakes apply the shoes in the same

manner. In fact, drum brake designs are classified
by the way in which the shoes are applied, and LEADING 4 TRAILING
how they react when the linings make contact SHOE SHOE ~
with the drum. All drum brakes fall into two basic
categories:
@ Non-servo brakes
@ Servo brakes.

Early automotive drum brake friction assem-

blies were non-servo designs, and non-servo
brakes are still used today in certain rear wheel ap-
plications. The more powerful servo drum brakes ENERGIZING DE-ENERGIZING
were developed later, and used extensively on both FORCE FORCE
the front and rear axles. Front servo drum brakes
were eventually replaced by disc brakes, but rear Figure 186 Self-energizing action can increase or decrease
servo drum brakes are still used on some vehicles. the stopping power of a brake shoe. (Halderman &
Mitchell, 0-13-099453-7.)

Non-Servo Brakes
The identifying feature of a non-servo brake is use this self-energizing action to improve their
that each brake shoe is applied individually; the braking performance.
action of one shoe has no effect on the action of the
other. This does not mean, however, that each
shoe has an equal effect on the brake’s total stop- Self-Energizing Action
ping power. As mentioned at the beginning of this The simple drum brake assembly in Figure 186
module, drum brakes have the advantage of a shows how the self-energizing process works. As
self-energizing action that can provide increased the forward or leading shoe contacts the drum,
application force. Many non-servo drum brakes the drum attempts to rotate the shoe along with it.
102 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION
 However, the shoe cannot rotate because its far tive they are at stopping the vehicle in both the for-
end (relative to drum rotation) is fixed in place by ward and reverse directions. The following de-
an anchor. As a result, drum rotation energizes the scribes the operation of the leading-trailing design,
shoe by forcing it outward and wedging it tightly a common type of non-servo drum brake design.
against the brake drum.
The drum also attempts to rotate the reverse or Leading-Trailing Brake
trailing shoe as it contacts the drum. However, in
this case, the far end of the shoe (relative to drum The non-servo leading-trailing brake has one
rotation) is not solidly anchored. Asa result, drum leading shoe and one trailing shoe (Figure 187).
rotation de-energizes the shoe by forcing it in- Typically, a single, two-piston wheel cylinder is
ward away from the brake drum. mounted at the top of the backing plate and the
When this type of brake is applied with the ve- two brake shoes are anchored at the bottom of the
hicle backing up, the roles of the forward and re- backing plate.
verse shoes are switched; the reverse shoe The operation of the leading-trailing brake was
becomes the leading shoe, which is self-energized explained earlier in the description of self-
by drum rotation, while the forward shoe becomes energizing action. In essence, the brake design has
the trailing shoe, which is de-energized. A leading
one energized and one de-energized shoe regard-
shoe is always energized by drum rotation; a trail- less of whether it is applied while the vehicle is
ing shoe is always de-energized by drum rotation. traveling forward or in reverse. This allows the
To identify the leading shoe on a non-servo leading-trailing brake to work equally well in ei-
brake with only one wheel cylinder, point to the ther direction.
wheel cylinder, then move your finger in the direc- Leading-trailing brakes are popular on the rear
wheels of many small and FWD vehicles because,
tion of the drum rotation; the first shoe encountered
is the leading shoe, the other shoe is the trailing although they are not as powerful as a double-
shoe. With multiple wheel cylinder non-servo leading or servo brake, they are also less prone to
brakes, shoe identification is slightly more compli- lockup. They have the further benefit of making a
cated. If the piston of a wheel cylinder moves in the good parking brake in both directions.
same direction as drum rotation when the brakes
Dual-Servo Brakes
are applied, the shoe it actuates is a leading shoe. If
the piston moves opposite the direction of drum ro- The servo brake is the most common drum brake
tation, the shoe actuated is the trailing shoe. design. It gets its name from the fact that one shoe
Leading shoes generally wear at a faster rate “serves” the other to increase application force.
than trailing shoes because they are applied with One version of this brake, the uni-servo design, is
greater force. Where a brake uses one leading and used primarily on trucks and supplies additional
one trailing shoe, like the friction assembly previ- stopping power in the forward direction only. All
ously described, the leading shoe will sometimes
have a thicker lining or one with a larger surface
area than that of the trailing shoe. The thicker or DIRECTIONOF WHEEL
FORWARD ROTATION CYLINDER
larger lining balances the wear between the two
shoes so that they will both need replacement at LEADING TRAILING
about the same time. SHOE SHOE

RETURN
SPRINGS
Specific Non-Servo Brakes
PARKING
Some non-servo brake designs take full advan- BRAKE
tage of the self-energizing ability of drum STRUT
brakes, others make only partial use of that abil-
ity, and still others use no self-energization at all. PARKING
There are basically four different non-servo i ea FT
olfe 5 BRAKE
brake designs:
HOLD-DOWN
\ (Caw
\SAS ars.
AY, LEVER
¢ Double-trailing SSeS woe HOLD-DOWN
@ Leading-trailing
@ Double-leading ADJUSTER ANCHOR
LEVER ADJUSTER PLATE
@ Non-directional brake. LATCH

These designs differ in the total amount of brak- Figure 187 @ A leading-trailing
non-servo drum brake. (Chek-
ing power they can provide, and also in how effec- Chart, 0-13-045203-X.)

103
BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION
servo brakes used on automobiles, however, are of
the dual-servo design that works with equal force
in both directions. Dual-servo brakes are also
called Duo-servo® brakes, a registered trademark
of Bendix Corporation.
The primary advantage of the dual-servo brake
is that it is more powerful than any of the non-
servo designs. Before the development of practical
disc brakes, dual-servo brakes were the obvious
choice for front brakes, and dual-servo brakes are
still used on the rear axle of some vehicles. An-
other advantage of a dual-servo brake is that it Adjusting links generally have specific left- or
makes a good parking brake. Dual-servo action right-hand threads, and must be installed on the
not only makes the brake very powerful, it allows correct side of the vehicle. If the wrong part is
the brake to hold equally well in both directions. used, the starwheel will not align with the adjust-
The increased stopping power of the dual- ‘alwAYDS ee 1° SReor
servo brake can be a double-edged sword, how-
WHEEL DIRECTION OF ANCHOR
ever. If there are any problems in a dual-servo CYLINDER FORWARD ROTATION
brake system, the servo action can magnify any
imbalance that results. For example, dual-servo Se

brakes are more susceptible to pull than other PRIMARY SECONDARY

brake designs, and their greater application force BRAKE SHOE BRAKE SHOE
can lead to faster fade under extreme braking RETURN
RETIN SPRING
conditions. If the brakes get too far out of adjust- SPRING
ment, some dual-servo designs will grab and lock
the wheels as the. brakes are first applied. And
‘when dual-servo brakes are used on the rear axle
of a small or FWD vehicle, they must be very
carefully engineered to ensure that their great
stopping power does not contribute to wheel
lockup.

Dual-Servo Brake Construction

The basic dual-servo brake uses one anchor and a WY > COLL,
single two-piston wheel cylinder (Figure 188).
The anchor is usually mounted at the top of the
backing plate with the wheel cylinder directly be- HOLD-DOWN ee fe HOLD-DOWN
neath it. The tops of the brake shoes are held
against the anchor by individual return springs.
STARWHEEL
The bottoms of the shoes are spaced apart by an
adjusting link held in position by a third return ADJUSTING RETURN
spring that connects the two shoes. LINK SPRING
Figure 188 ® A simple dual-servo drum brake. (Chek-Chart,
Adjusting Link 0-13-048203-X.)

The adjusting link consists of a starwheel that is

LUBRICATE WASHERS
part of an adjusting screw, a pivot nut that one end AND SOCKET PIVOT
of the adjusting screw threads into, and a socket
that rotates freely on the opposite end of the ad-
justing screw (Figure 189).
The outer ends of the pivot nut and socket are
notched to fit over the brake shoe webs. Some ad-
= me ue
justing links have a steel thrust washer and/or
spring washer installed between the socket and LUBRICATE THREADS
the starwheel. These washers allow easier rotation Figure 189 @ A dual-servo brake adjusting link. (Halderman &
of the starwheel and help reduce brake squeal. Mitchell, 0-13-099453-7.)

104 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

ing slot on the backing plate, or the automatic ad- ondary shoe to also rotate until the secondary
justor will increase the lining-to-drum clearance shoe seats firmly against the anchor.
rather than reduce it. Although the wheel cylinder attempts to push
the top of the secondary shoe outward, the rota-
Primary and Secondary Brake Shoes tional force developed by friction between the
brake shoes and drum is much greater than the
Although dual-servo brakes make use of self- application force developed by hydraulic pres-
energizing action to help provide servo action, the sure in the wheel cylinder. As a result, the second-
two brake shoes are not called leading and trailing ary shoe is held solidly against the anchor. In
parts as in non-servo brakes. Instead, they are
effect, only one-half of the wheel cylinder is used
identified as the primary shoe and the secondary to apply the brakes.
shoe. To identify the primary shoe on a dual-servo
brake with a single two-piston wheel cylinder,
Servo Action
point to the wheel cylinder, then move your finger
in the direction of drum rotation. The first shoe Once all slack is taken up between the brake shoes,
reached is the primary shoe; the other shoe is the adjusting link, and anchor, both brake shoes be-
secondary shoe. come self-energized like the leading shoes in a non-
The secondary brake shoe provides approxi- servo brake. The anchor pin prevents the
mately 70% of the total braking power in a dual- secondary shoe from rotating, and the adjusting
servo brake. For this reason, the lining is usually link (held in position by the secondary shoe) serves
somewhat larger than that of the primary shoe. In as the anchor for the primary shoe. Servo action
addition, some manufacturers use different types then occurs as a portion of the braking force gener-
of friction materials on the primary and secondary ated by the primary shoe is transferred through the
shoes to help equalize wear. adjusting link to help apply the secondary shoe
(Figure 191). Servo action greatly increases the ap-
plication force on the secondary shoe and improves
Dual-Servo Brake Operation overall stopping power.
When a dual-servo brake is applied, the wheel When a dual-servo brake is applied with the ve-
cylinder attempts to force the tops of both brake hicle moving in reverse, the primary and second-
shoes outward against the drum (Figure 190). ary shoes switch roles. The primary shoe is forced
As the primary shoe makes contact, it rotates against the anchor while the secondary shoe
with the drum because its far end (relative to the moves outward and rotates with the drum to ap-
direction of drum rotation) is not directly an- ply the primary shoe with a greater force. Because
chored to the backing plate. As the primary shoe this occurs only for a short time during relatively
rotates, it forces the adjusting link and the sec-

ANCHOR PIN

FORWARD APPLYING FORCE

PRIMARY
ROTATION SECONDARY
SHOE SHOE

-
, ye
vil = PRIMARY

HEEL
SECONDARY

ADJUSTING
VW = STARWHEEL SCREW

VEHICLE MOVING FORWARD

ee
X Figure 191 Servo action is used in the most powerful
Figure 190 # Dual-servo brake operation. (Halderman & Mitchell, drum brake designs. (Courtesy of DaimlerChrysler
0-13-099453-7.) Corporation.)

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 105

low speed reverse braking, the smaller lining of Servo Brake Starwheel
the primary shoe is able to provide adequate stop- Automatic Adjusters
ping power without overheating or wearing too
rapidly. Servo brakes use three styles of starwheel ad-
While servo action enables a drum brake to pro- justers: cable (Figure 192); lever (Figure 193); and
vide increased stopping power, it can also cause link (Figure 194). The cable type was the earliest
the brakes to grab and lock if they get too far out style, and the lever and link designs were intro-
of adjustment. As clearance between the shoes duced as later refinements. All three variations
and drum increases, the primary brake shoe is al- mount on the secondary brake shoe and adjust
lowed a greater range of movement. The farther only when the brakes are applied while the vehi-
the shoe moves, the more speed it picks up from cle is moving in reverse.
the rotating brake drum. At the moment the slack
is taken up between the brake shoes, adjusting
link, and anchor, the speed of the primary shoe is SECONDARY
converted into application force by servo action. If BRAKE SHOE

the primary shoe is moving too quickly, it will ap-

ply the secondary shoe very hard and fast, caus- ADJUSTING
CABLE
ing the brakes to grab and possibly lock the
wheels.

Brake Adjusters
The job of a brake adjuster is to establish, restore,
and maintain the proper clearance between the
brake shoes and drum as the linings wear. There
~are two basic types of brake adjusters: automatic
and manual. All early adjusters were manual de-
signs. Manual adjusters required the technician to
manually adjust the brakes at regular service in-
tervals. In the mid-1950s, automatic adjusters,
also called self-adjusters, were introduced on do- Figure 192 @ A cable-actuated starwheel automatic adjuster.
(Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)
mestic vehicles, and all current model vehicles
have self-adjusting brakes.
Automatic adjusters use the movement of the
brake shoes to continually adjust lining-to-drum SECONDARY
BRAKE SHOE
clearance as the brakes wear. There are several de-
signs of automatic adjusters, and they operate in a ANCHOR TO
variety of ways. Some adjust the clearance as the LEVER LINK
brakes are applied; others adjust when the brakes
are released. Some work only when the vehicle is
moving forward; others work only when the vehi-
cle is traveling in reverse. Still others work when
the brakes are applied in either direction. Some au-
tomatic adjusters are entirely independent of the
service brakes, and adjust when the parking brake
is applied instead.
There are two basic types of automatic ad-
justers used on late-model vehicles:
# Starwheel ADJUSTING LEVER
@ Ratchet.
PAWL
Starwheel Automatic Adjusters PIVOT
POINT
PAWL RETURN
Starwheel automatic adjusters are found on both SPRING
servo and non-servo brakes. Some of the many de- Figure 193 ® A lever-actuated starwheel automatic adjuster.
signs will be described in the following sections. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

106 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

 SECONDARY
BRAKE SHOE

ADJUSTING
LINK

MAS
|
OY,
OE PAWL ENGAGES NEXT TOOTH

BRAKES APPLIED
ADJUSTING LINK ————>—

PAWL/SPRING PAWL RETURN SPRING

Figure 194 A link-actuated starwheel automatic adjuster.
STARWHEEL
(Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

As the brakes are applied ona vehicle with a ca-

ble or link automatic adjuster, the wheel cylinder
and drum rotation combine to move the second-
ary shoe away from the anchor. Movement of the
shoe causes the cable or linkage to pull up on the
adjuster pawl (Figure 195).
If the brake lining has worn far enough, the PAWL ROTATES STARWHEEL
pawl engages the next tooth on the starwheel.
When the brakes are released, the pawl return BRAKES RELEASED
spring pulls the pawl down, rotating the star- Figure 195 ® The basic operation of a starwheel automatic
wheel and moving the brake shoes apart to reduce adjuster. (Halderman & Mitchell, 0-13-099453-7.)
the lining-to-drum clearance.
Many servo brakes with cable-actuated starwheel
automatic adjusters have an over-travel spring as-
sembly on the end of the cable (Figure 196). moves away from the anchor, the solid link be-
In this design, the adjuster pawl is mounted tween the anchor and the top of the adjuster lever
under the starwheel, and adjustment is made as forces the lever to rotate around the pivot point
the brakes are applied rather than released. The where it attaches to the brake shoe. This moves the
over-travel spring damps the movements of the bottom half of the lever downward, which causes
adjuster mechanism, and prevents overadjust- the pawl to rotate the starwheel and make the ad-
ment if the brakes are applied very hard and fast. justment. The separate pawl piece is free to pivot
It also prevents damage to the adjusting mecha- on the lever to prevent damage if the starwheel
nism if the starwheel seizes or is otherwise unable will not rotate. When the brakes are released, the
to rotate. return springs lift the lever. If the brakes have
The lever starwheel adjuster (see Figure 193) worn enough, the end of the lever engages the next
also makes the adjustment as the brakes are ap- tooth on the starwheel and additional adjustment
plied rather than released. As the secondary shoe will be made the next time the brakes are applied.

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 107

 SECONDARY LEADING BRAKE SHOE
BRAKE SHOE
PAWL PIVOTPOINT
nnBSal es x
CUili=- I F*

OVER-TRAVEL
SPRING ASSEMBLY

oe
ca
ADJUSTING
CABLE
1p j
(ey i ¢

fool.

— PAWL SPRING

PAWL
PIVOT PIN
Figure 197 @ A leading-trailing brake with a lever-actuated
starwheel automatic adjuster on the leading
PAWL
RETURN SPRING shoe. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

PAWL
Figure 196 ® A cable-actuated starwheel automatic adjuster PAWL PIVOT
equipped with an over-travel spring. (Halderman POINT
TRAILING
& Mitchell, 0-13-099453-7.)
BRAKE SHOE

galGATE
=_— P| \\

Non-Servo Starwheel PAWL

Automatic Adjusters I o t

The starwheel automatic adjusters used on non- SPRING

SEAT
servo brakes may be mounted on either the lead- Ce =e y
ing or trailing shoe. These types of adjusters work
whenever the brakes are applied—in either the
forward or reverse direction. A leading-shoe de-
sign is shown in Figure 197.
he" ie
When the brakes are not applied, the adjuster ae

pawl is held in position by the parking brake strut.

WEB
When the brakes are applied and the primary shoe NOTCH « PAWL
moves out toward the brake drum (away from the [pea NOTCH
parking brake strut), the pawl spring pivots the
pawl downward where it mounts on the brake
shoe; this rotates the starwheel to adjust the brake. RETURN
ADJUSTER
SPRING PAR KING BRAKE
When the brakes are released, the return springs re-
STRUT
tract the shoes and the pawl is levered back into its
resting position by the parking brake strut. If the Figure 198 @ A leading-trailing brake with a lever-actuated
linings have worn far enough, the lever engages starwheel automatic adjuster on the trailing
shoe. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)
the next tooth on the starwheel. Further adjustment
will occur the next time the brakes are applied.
The trailing-shoe non-servo starwheel adjuster The upper shoe return spring in this design ac-
shown in Figure 198 works somewhat like the tually serves two purposes: it returns the brake
leading-shoe design just described; however, it shoes and operates the automatic adjuster. When
makes the adjustment as the brakes are released the brakes are not applied, spring tension holds
rather than applied. the trailing shoe and the adjuster pawl tightly
108 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION
against the parking brake strut—each in its own
respective notch. When the brakes are applied,
the trailing shoe moves out toward the drum and
away from the parking brake strut. This allows
the adjuster pawl, which is restrained by the re-
turn spring, to pivot where it attaches to the
brake shoe, causing the adjuster arm to move up-
ward. If the brakes have worn far enough, the
arm will engage the next tooth of the starwheel.
When the brakes are released, the return spring
pulls the brake shoes back together and the park-
ing brake strut levers the adjuster pawl down-
ward to rotate the starwheel and adjust the
brakes.

Parking Brake Automatic Adjusters

Parking brake automatic adjusters operate when
the parking brake is applied (Figure 199).
The adjusting lever is attached, together with
the parking brake lever, to the shoe. The lower end
of the adjusting lever is held to the brake shoe
with a spring, and the other end of the lever en-
gages the starwheel, pulling it downward. least one ratchet adjuster uses the parking brake
When the parking brake cable pulls the parking mechanism to effect the adjustment. While there
brake lever, it also lifts the adjusting lever. If an are different types of ratchet adjusters, they all
adjustment is needed, the adjusting lever drops share one feature in common: the adjustment is
into the next notch on the starwheel. When the carried out by two parts that have small interlock-
parking brake is released, the adjusting lever ing teeth. As the adjustment is made, the two
turns the starwheel to make the adjustment. toothed elements ratchet across one another. Once
adjustment is complete, the teeth lock together to
Ratchet Automatic Adjusters hold the brake shoes in their new positions.
Some basic variations of the ratchet automatic
Like the starwheel design, most ratchet automatic
adjuster are the lever latch adjuster and the strut
adjusters use movement of the brake shoes to ad-
quadrant adjuster.
just the lining-to-drum clearance. However, at
Lever Latch Automatic Adjuster
ADJUSTING The lever latch automatic adjuster installs on the
SCREW STARWHEEL
leading shoe of a non-servo brake and operates
a ADJUSTING whenever the brakes are applied (Figure 200).
LEVER This design consists of a large lever and a
smaller latch with interlocking teeth. A spring on
the latch piece keeps it in contact with the lever to
maintain the adjustment. One end of the parking
brake strut hooks into an opening in the lever; the
other end is held against the trailing brake shoe by
a strong spring.
As the brakes are applied and the shoes move
outward toward the drum, the parking brake strut
pulls on the adjuster lever and forces it to pivot in-
PARKING
ward from where it attaches to the top of the lead-
BRAKE ARM ing shoe. If the brakes are sufficiently worn, the
bottom of the lever will ratchet one or more teeth
on the latch. When the brakes are released, the
Figure 199 ® A starwheel automatic adjuster that is actuated parking brake strut, which bottoms against the
by the action of the parking brake lever. (Courtesy lever, will hold the shoes farther apart to reduce
of Toyota Motor Sales, USA., Inc.) the lining-to-drum clearance.

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 109

 LEADING The strut quadrant adjuster consists of three ba-
BRAKE SHOE sic parts: the parking brake strut, an adjusting

j 6b _h quadrant, and a quadrant spring. The strut has a

CN

toothed post solidly mounted on its underside.

ADJUSTING ee
SST enemies
The adjuster quadrant pivots on a pin that slips
LEVER L2 NIM into a notch in the end of the strut, and the back-
side of the quadrant has a toothed, cam-shaped
surface that interlocks with the toothed post on
the strut. The quadrant also has an arm that ex-
ear tends through an opening in the web of the lead-
ing brake shoe. The outer side of this arm serves as
the brake shoe stop when the brakes are released;
the inner side operates the adjuster as described
later. The quadrant spring holds the quadrant in
STRUT contact with the post to maintain the adjustment.
PARKING SPRING
QQ BRAKE STRUT When the brakes are applied, the leading shoe
moves out toward the brake drum. If there is suf-
LATCH ficient wear of the brake lining, the edge of the
slot in the shoe web contacts the inner side of the
Ss LATCH SPRING adjuster quadrant arm and pulls it outward.
Figure 200 @ A lever latch ratchet automatic adjuster. (Chek- When this happens, the toothed section of the
Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)
quadrant is lifted away from the post on the park-
ing brake strut. The quadrant spring then rotates
LEADING
the quadrant until its pivot pin is bottomed in the
BRAKE SHOE TOOTHED slot in the parking brake strut. When the brakes
STRUT POST are released, the quadrant returns inward with
the leading shoe. The toothed section of the quad-
rant then engages the teeth on the strut post, caus-
ing the quadrant arm to remain in its new
extended position that holds the shoes farther
apart and reduces the lining-to-drum clearance.
ADJUSTING
QUADRANT
Interim Summary
1. One advantage of drum brakes is
|
SEY ASa le Ta
2. A big disadvantage of drum brakes is

3. Drum brakes mitt be nearly continuously

4. The pro-
vides a mounting point for the wheel cylin-
ders, brake shoes, and brake springs.
5. The backing plate does not
\ QUADRANT 6. Drum brakes can be designed as a
D } QUADRANT SPRING or -
SLOT
brake.
Figure 201 @ A strut quadrant ratchet automatic adjuster.
7shedrum with the wheel
(Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)
and hub.
8. The brake drum goes the
Strut Quadrant Automatic Adjuster brake’s shoes.
The strut quadrant automatic adjuster is a design 9. Starwheel allow for shoe
used on some non-servo brakes (Figure 201). Like lining-to-drum clearance adjustment.
the strut-rod described previously, the strut quad-
10. Most drum brakes use an automatic
rant adjuster is part of the parking brake strut;
however, it operates when the service brakes, not Ale threads can be right- or left-
the parking brakes, are applied. hand thread.
110 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION
Rear Drum Parking Brakes Most parking brakes are applied manually, and
most are released in this manner as well. However,
The parking brake is applied by a mechanical the exact application and release procedure varies
linkage actuated by a pedal, lever, or handle in- with the design of the parking brake control.
side the vehicle. Foot pedals and floor-mounted
levers are the most common means of applying Parking Brake Pedals
parking brakes (Figures 202 and 203). All parking A parking brake pedal (see Figure 202) is applied
brake controls incorporate a ratchet mechanism to by depressing it with the foot. The ratchet engages
lock the brake in the applied position (Figure 204). automatically and the pedal remains in the de-
pressed position. Releasing the parking brake is
accomplished in one of several ways.
@ On many vehicles, the release lever is integrated
into the underside of the dash (Figure 205) and
RATCHET
connects to the release mechanism through a rod
MECHANISM or cable.
@ Late-model vehicles may not have a release
lever. Instead, the parking brake pedal is
pushed a second time to release it.

RELEASE
HANDLE

» CABLE
RELEASE ~
BUTTON

WARNING ADJUSTING
LIGHT NUT
SWITCH
Figure 204 @ A ratchet mechanism is used to lock parking
brakes in the applied position. (Courtesy of
DaimlerChrysler Corporation.)
PEDAL
Figure 202 @ A typical parking brake pedal. (Chek-Chart,
0-13-048203-X.)

Figure 203 @ A typical parking brake lever. (Courtesy of Jeffrey Figure 205 @ A remote-mounted parking brake release lever.
Rehkopf.) (Courtesy of Jeffrey Rehkopf.)

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 111

 Automatic Parking Brake Release Automatic parking brake release systems sup-
plement the mechanical T handle or release lever;
Some vehicles with pedal-operated parking brakes they do not replace it. A manual release lever is fit-
have an automatic release mechanism that disen- ted to all parking brake pedal assemblies with an
gages the parking brake when the shifter is taken automatic release mechanism, although the lever
out of the park position. Some systems use a vac- may not be visible from the driver’s seat because
uum servo controlled by an electrical solenoid, it is seldom used. Automatic parking brake re-
while on other systems a solenoid or pair of sole-
lease mechanisms were developed mainly as a
noids operates the release directly (Figure 206). luxury convenience; however, they do help pre-
On vacuum-operated systems, a metal rod con-
vent the brake damage that can occur when the
nects the vacuum servo to the upper end of the
parking brake is not released before the vehicle is
parking brake release lever. When the engine is
driven away.
running (to provide vacuum) and the shifter is
placed in gear, an electrical contact closes to ener-
gize the solenoid and route vacuum to the servo. Parking Brake Levers
The servo diaphragm then retracts the rod, which Parking brake levers operate in several different
releases the parking brake. Some automatic re- ways. In the most common design, shown in
lease mechanisms utilize a vacuum switch instead Figure 203, the ratchet mechanism automatically
of an electrical switch. engages as the lever is pulled upward; once the
The solenoid-controlled parking brake release brake is set, the lever remains in the up position.
system uses a pair of solenoids located on the This design is released by pushing a spring-loaded
parking brake apply assembly (Figure 207). button on the end of the lever, and holding it in
These solenoids are usually controlled by the while the lever is lowered to the unapplied position.
vehicle’s electronic body control module. When
the body control module (BCM) receives data Warning Lights and Switches
that indicates that the brake pedal is applied and
.the shifter has moved from the park position, it All modern cars and trucks have a warning light
will ground the solenoids and release the park- on the instrument panel to alert the driver when
ing brake. the parking brake is applied. In most cases, the
parking brake warning light is the same one used
to indicate a loss of pressure in the brake hy-
VACUUM SERVO

RELEASE
LEVER
RELEASE
SOLENOID
A\\ cote

SS “ PEDAL
ARM
,
a tJ

Figure 206 ® Automatic parking brake release mechanisms Figure 207 @ The release solenoid is controlled by the body
may use a vacuum servo to operate the release control module. (Courtesy of General Motors Corporation,
lever. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.) Service and Parts Operations.)

112 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

draulic system, or a low brake fluid level in the The housing is fixed in position at both ends,
master cylinder reservoir. and is routed under the vehicle through mounting
For parking brake purposes, the warning light brackets that hold the cable in position, yet still al-
is triggered by a switch on the parking brake con- low asmall amount of movement. The cable slides
trol mechanism (Figure 202). The switch is held in back and forth inside the housing to transmit ap-
the open position when the parking brake is re- plication force. Depending on the linkage design,
leased. When the brake is applied, the pedal, the outer housing may play a part in parking
lever, or handle allows the switch to close, com- brake application as well.
pleting the warning light circuit. Parking brake The ends of parking brake cables are fitted with
warning lights work only when the ignition is on. a wide variety of connectors that attach to actuat-
ing devices, other linkage parts, or the wheel fric-
Parking Brake Cables tion assemblies. The cable in Figure 208 has a
threaded rod on one end and a clevis on the other.
The typical parking brake cable is made of woven Another common type of cable end is a round or
steel wire encased in a reinforced rubber or plastic cylindrical metal bead designed to fit into a spe-
housing (Figure 208). cial holder or cable connector (Figure 209).
Parking brake linkages use control cables,
transfer cables, and application cables. Control ca-
bles, much like the rods described earlier, attach to
the parking brake pedal, lever, or handle inside
the vehicle, and transmit force to an intermediate
lever or equalizer under the vehicle (Figure 210).
one Transfer cables pass the force from the interme-
oars CLEVIS diate lever or equalizer to the application cables.
Finally, the application cables use the force passed
through the linkage to apply the friction assem-
blies. Not every parking brake linkage uses all
WOVEN
INNER
CABLE ve ene

MOUNTING
ae NUTS

OUTER
Pre
HOUSING

BEAD CONNECTOR

Figure 209 @ Beaded cable ends are common in parking

Figure 208 @ A parking brake cable. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.) brake linkages. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 113

 CONNECTOR/
ADJUSTER

Sf
| l
CABLE ADJUSTIN Dea

Pa
CONNECTOR

TRANSFER
-- CABLE
ASSEMBLY
CONTROL
CABLE
Figure 210 ® Typical parking brake cable system showing the foot-operated parking brake lever and cable routing. (Halderman &
Mitchell, 0-13-099453-7.)

three types of cables; in many systems, the jobs of APPLICATION (RIGHT AND LEFT)
two or more cables are combined into a single part. CABLES
Parking brake cables must transmit hundreds
of pounds of application force without jamming
or breaking, and with minimal stretch. One of the
reasons separate control and application cables
are used is that they operate at the points in the
linkage where stress is greatest and the cable is
most likely to break. The use of separate cables in
these areas makes replacement simpler and less
expensive (Figure 211).
Parking brake cables are also subject to damage EQUALIZER
from water, dirt, and other debris thrown up un-
k CONNECTOR
der the vehicle by the tires. Modern cables do not
require lubrication because they are lined with ny-
CONTROL (FRONT)
lon or Teflon, and any cable housing ends located CABLE
under the vehicle are protected by rubber or nylon
Figure 211 The cable from the activating lever to the
seals. A few manufacturers do recommend that equalizer is commonly called the control cable.
exposed sections of inner cable be lightly greased. From the equalizer, the individual cables are
often called application cables. These
Types of Drum Parking Brakes individual cables can be purchased separately.
(Halderman & Mitchell, 0-13-099453-7.)
Drum parking brakes are the most common type
on cars and light trucks. Drum brakes make ex-
cellent parking brakes because they have a high Auxiliary parking brakes will be discussed in
static coefficient of friction combined with self- the disc brake section of this module.
energizing action and, in the case of dual-servo
brakes, servo action that increase their applica-
tion force. Integral Drum Parking Brakes
There are two basic types of drum parking Integral drum parking brakes mechanically apply
brakes: the rear drum service brakes to serve as the park-
Integral ing brakes (Figure 212). Integral drum parking
@ Auxiliary. brakes are the most common type not only be-

114 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

 PARKING PIVOT
PARKING
BRAKE
LEVER

PARKING
BRAKE PARKING
CABLE BRAKE
CABLE
Figure 213 @ Application of an integral drum parking brake.
(Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

Interim Summary
PARKING
BRAKE 1. Drum brakes can easily be used for a
LEVER
2. Most parking brakes are
operated.
3. Parking brakes may use a
or release.
Figure 212 @ An integral drum parking brake. (Chek-Chart,
0-13-045203-X.)
Brake Friction Materials
Brake linings and pads are the items most often
cause of their natural superiority in this applica- replaced during a brake repair or service.
tion, but because it is simple and inexpensive to
design a parking brake linkage into a drum brake. Drum Brake Shoe Construction
The typical integral drum parking brake has a
pivoting lever mounted on one brake shoe, and a The linings of drum brakes are attached to curved
strut placed between the lever and the other shoe. metal assemblies called brake shoes. Most shoes
The strut may be fitted with a spring that takes up are made of two pieces of sheet steel welded to-
slack to prevent noise when the parking brake is gether in a T-shaped cross section (Figure 214).
not applied. The end of the lever opposite the While aluminum shoes are lighter than their
pivot is moved by the parking brake cable, which steel counterparts, they are more expensive to
enters through an opening in the backing plate. make and not as durable at high temperatures.
All integral drum parking brakes operate in es- The outer edge is lined with a friction material
sentially the same manner (Figure 213). that contacts the brake drum to generate the ac-
When the parking brake control is operated, the tual stopping power. The ends of the linings on
cable pulls the end of the lever away from the shoe most brake shoes are tapered to prevent vibration
it is attached to. The lever pivots at the attaching and brake noise (Figure 215).
point and moves the strut to apply the forward The curved metal piece on the outer portion of
shoe. Once the forward brake shoe lining contacts the shoe is called the lining table, the shoe rim, or
the drum, the strut can travel no farther. The lever platform. The lining table supports the block of
then pivots on the strut and forces the lining of the friction material that makes up the brake lining.
reverse shoe against the drum. On some shoes, the edge of the lining table con-
tains small V- or U-shaped notches called nibs.

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 115

The nibs rest against the shoe support pads on the Brake shoes are sturdy parts that can be relined
backing plate when the shoe is installed. and reused many times if the web and lining table
The metal piece of the shoe positioned under are not damaged. Brake shoes for any given ap-
the lining table and welded to it is called the shoe plication are usually available in both “new” and
web. All of the application force that actuates the “relined” versions from suppliers. Relined brake
shoe is transferred through the web to the lining shoes are usually sold on an exchange basis. At
table. The web usually contains a number of holes the time of purchase, a core charge is added to the
in various shapes and sizes for the shoe return cost of the relined parts. This charge is refunded
springs, hold-down hardware, parking brake when the old shoes are returned in rebuildable
linkage, and self-adjusting mechanism. condition.
One end of the web usually has a notch or pro-
trusion where the wheel cylinder touches the shoe,
Primary and Secondary Brake Shoes
while the other end commonly has a flat or curved
surface where the shoe meets an anchor or adjust- In many drum brake friction assemblies, the two
ing link. The upper ends of the webs on dual-servo shoes are interchangeable; one is a mirror image of
brake shoes have semicircular anchor eyes. the other. However, the shoes in a dual-servo brake
perform very different jobs. The primary shoe (for-
ward facing shoe) is self-energized by drum rota-
LINING tion to create a servo action that forces the
TABLE secondary shoe more firmly against the drum.
While the primary shoe increases application force,
the secondary shoe provides most of the braking
power. Because of this, the two shoes have definite
physical differences and cannot be interchanged.
To help deal with the added friction, heat, and
wear it undergoes, the lining of the secondary
shoe extends nearly the full length of the shoe lin-
ing table (Figure 216).
The secondary shoe lining material also has a
high coefficient of friction to provide good stop-
ping power. The primary shoe undergoes far less
stress than the secondary shoe, and its lining is of-
ten shorter—sometimes less than half the length
ADJUSTER END

NIB
Figure 214 @ Steel brake shoes are made from two
stampings welded together. (Chek-Chart,
0-13-048203-X.)
LINING
TABLES

SHOE

SHORTER
PRIMARY LONGER
LINING SECONDARY
LINING
LINING Figure 216 ® The primary (front) shoe often has a shorter
Figure 215 ® Tapered ends on brake shoes reduce noise. lining than the secondary shoe (rear). (Chek-Chart,
(Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.) 0-13-048203-X.)

116 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

 HIGH CENTERED LOW
POSITION POSITION POSITION

BACKING PLATE

Figure 217 @ Primary shoe lining position may vary in

different applications. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

Figure 218 ® Typical brake pads. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

of the lining table. In addition, the lining material
usually has a lower coefficient of friction. This BENT TABS
prevents the shoe from engaging the drum too
quickly or harshly, which could cause the brakes
to grab or lock.
On most dual-servo brake primary shoes, the
lining is positioned near the center of the lining
table. However, in some cases, the lining may be OUTBOARD
PAD
positioned above or below the lining table center-
line. Higher or lower lining positions provide bet-
ter braking action, or prevent noise, in certain
applications (Figure 217).

Disc Brake Pad Construction

The lining of a disc brake is part of an assembly
called the brake pad (Figure 218). VIBRATION
Compared to a brake shoe, a brake pad is a rel- INSULATOR
atively simple part that consists of a block of fric-
tion material attached to a stamped steel backing Figure 219 @ To prevent noise, bent tabs on the backing
plate. Some pad backing plates have tabs that plate clip some brake pads firmly to the
bend over the caliper to hold the pad tightly in caliper. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)
place and help prevent brake noise (Figure 219).
Other pad backing plates have tabs with holes in
Pad Wear Indicators
them (Figure 220). A pin slips through the holes and
fastens to the caliper body to hold the pads in posi- Although not required by law, a growing number
tion. Still other pad backing plates have a retainer of vehicle manufacturers are fitting pad wear in-
spring attached that locates the pad in the caliper dicators to their brakes for safety reasons. Pad
by locking it to the caliper piston (Figure 221). wear indicators are either mechanical or electri-
As with brake shoes, the lining material of a cal, and signal the driver when the lining material
disc pad can be any one of a number of products has worn to the point where pad replacement is
that can be fastened to the backing plate in several necessary.
ways. The edges of the lining material on a brake A mechanical wear indicator is a small spring
pad are usually perpendicular to the rotor surface, steel tab riveted to the pad backing plate. When
although a few larger pads do have tapered edges the friction material wears to a predetermined
to help combat vibration and noise (Figure 222). thickness, the tab contacts the rotor and makes a

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 117

 RETAINING RETAINER
PIN SPRING

BRAKE PADS

WEAR
INDICATOR
Figure 221 @ Retainer springs lock the pad to the caliper
RETAINING piston to prevent brake noise. (Chek-Chart,
PINS aN 0-13-048203-X.)

FRICTION
MATERIAL

TAPERED ENDS

RETAINING BACKING
PINS PLATE
Figure 222 @ The lining edges of some brake pads are
tapered to help prevent vibration. (Chek-Chart,
0-13-048203-X.)

Figure 220 @ Holes in the backing plate are a common Pad and Lining Assembly Methods
method of locating a pad in the caliper. (Chek-
Chart, 0-13-048203-X.) Before any type of brake lining can do its job, it
must be firmly attached to the lining table of a
drum brake shoe or the backing plate of a disc
squealing or chirping noise (when the brakes are brake pad. Several methods are used to mount
not applied) that alerts the driver to the need for brake linings; the most common are the following:
service (Figure 223). ® Riveting
Electrical wear indicators, such as_ those @ Bonding
shown in Figure 224, use a coated electrode @ Mold bonding.
imbedded in the lining material to generate the
warning signal.
The electrode is wired to a warning light in the Riveting
instrument panel. When the lining wears suffi- Riveted linings take advantage of the oldest
ciently, the electrode grounds against the rotor to method of lining attachment still in use. In this
complete the circuit and turn on the warning light. system, the brake block is attached to the lining

118 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

 ROTOR LINING
WEAR TABLE
INDICATOR eos.
Lbs
isi
L
ue LINING

El <=
Sis
eat Gra)mt
P
ne,

}L
2 See=eh,
eal
ve er

-@ f
at
eS,

(e5)
3 LINING
Figure 225 @ Riveted brake linings are quiet and reliable at
high temperatures. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

BRAKE PAD table or backing plate with copper or aluminum

NEW WORN rivets (Figure 225).
Figure 223 @ Mechanical wear indicators rub against the
The major advantage of riveting is that it allows
brake rotor when the pads need replacement. a small amount of flex between the brake block
(Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.) and lining table or backing plate. This play en-
ables the assembly to absorb vibration, and the re-
sult is that riveted linings operate more quietly
than bonded linings. Rivets are also very reliable
and will not loosen at high temperatures.
ELECTRODE Despite the benefit of quiet operation, riveted
MOUNTING linings present a number of problems. In order to
HOLE ELECTRODE
leave sufficient friction material for the rivets to
BRAKE PAD clamp the brake block securely against the lining
table or backing plate, the rivet holes are counter-
sunk only about two thirds to three quarters of
the way through the lining. This reduces the ser-
vice life of the assembly because the shoes must
be replaced before the rivet heads contact and
score the drum or rotor.
The rivet holes themselves also present some
unique problems. First, they trap abrasive brake
dust and other grit that can score the drum or ro-
tor. Some rivets are hollow to allow these materi-
als to escape.
Rivet holes also create stress points in the lining
where cracks are likely to develop. Some riveted
semi-metallic brake pads have a thin layer of as-
bestos bonded to the back of the brake block to
provide a more crack-resistant mounting surface.
Figure 224 @ Electrical wear indicators ground a warning
In a process similar to riveting, heavy duty
lamp circuit when the pads need replacement.
(Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)
truck and trailer brake linings are often bolted in
place (Figure 226). The lining is countersunk as in

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 119

riveting, but the rivet is replaced by a brass bolt, life. If the linings wear too far, bonding adhesive
nut, and washer. is not as destructive to drums or rotors as rivets.
Bonded linings also have fewer problems with
cracking because they have no rivet holes to
Bonding
weaken the brake block.
Bonded linings use high-temperature adhesive to The primary disadvantage of bonded linings is
glue the brake block directly to the shoe lining a limited ability to withstand high temperatures. If
table or pad backing plate (Figure 227). Heat and a bonded lining gets too hot, the bonding adhesive
pressure are then applied to cure the assembly. will fail and allow the brake block to separate from
Bonding is a common form of shoe and pad as- the lining table or backing plate. Bonded linings
sembly, and is most often used to mount organic are also more prone to be noisy because they do
friction materials. not allow any vibration-absorbing flex between
Bonding offers several advantages. Without the brake block and lining table or backing plate.
rivets, bonded linings can wear closer to the lining
table or backing plate and provide a longer service
Mold Bonding
Mold bonded linings are found on some disc
brake pads. Mold bonding is a manufacturing
BRAKE BLOCK
process that combines the advantages of bond-
ing with some of the mechanical strength of riv-
eting. Instead of riveting and/or bonding a
cured brake block to a separate backing plate, the
friction material in a mold bonded pad is cured
on the backing plate during manufacture. This
process is also called integrally molded. Most
high performance disc brake pads are made in
this way.
To make a mold bonded pad, one or more holes
are punched in the pad backing plate, and a high-
temperature adhesive is applied to it. The backing
plate is then installed in a molding machine where
LINING TABLE ae
uncured friction material is formed onto the plate
Figure 226 @ Bolted brake linings are found on many large and forced into the holes (Figure 228). Once the
trucks. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)
pad is cured under heat and pressure, the bonding
adhesive combines with the portions of the lining
LINING that extend into the backing plate holes to solidly
TABLE EXCESS lock the brake block in place.
BONDING
LINING 2 ADHESIVE
Brake Lining Composition
Shoes and pads operate under the most extreme
conditions in the entire brake system and are sub-
LINING

ADHESIVE

Figure 228 Mold bonded linings are used in many

Figure 227 ® Many brake linings are bonded. (Chek-Chart, applications. (Halderman & Mitchell, 0-13-099453-7.)
0-13-048203-X.)

120 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

ject to a great deal of wear. The replacement of Semi-Metallic Friction Material
worn brake shoes and pads is a common part of
brake service. The term “semi-metallic” refers to brake lining
material that uses metal rather than asbestos in its
Although they appear to be simple parts,
formulation. It still uses resins and binders and is,
brake shoes and pads are the result of years of
therefore, not 100% metal, but rather, semi-
engineering development. Often, two shoes or
metallic. The metal in most metallic linings is
pads that look identical will not perform the
made from metal particles that have been fused
same because different friction materials are
together without melting. This process is called
used for their linings. When a brake system is de-
sintering and the result is called sintered metal
signed, engineers test the performance charac-
linings.
teristics of many friction materials and then
specify those that will work best in the particular
application. INGREDIENT FORMULA RANGE
Friction materials such as disc brake pads or Phenolic resin (binder) 15%-40%
drum brake shoes contain a mixture of ingredi- Graphite or carbon particles 15%—-40%
ents. These materials include a binder such as a Steel fibers 0%—-25%
thermosetting resin, fibers for reinforcement, and Ceramic powders 2%—-10%
friction modifiers to obtain a desired coefficient of Steel, copper, brass
friction (abbreviated u—Greek letter mu). metal powders 15%—-40%
The various ingredients in brake lining are Other modifiers
mixed and molded into the shape of the finished (rubber scrap) 0%—-20%
product. The fibers in the material are the only
thing holding this mixture together. A large press Most semi-metallic linings do not contain as-
is used to force the ingredients together to form a bestos. Semi-metallic linings require a very
brake block, which eventually becomes the brake smooth finish on the rotor because the metal in the
lining does not conform to the surface of the rotor,
lining.
as does asbestos lining.
TYPICAL COMPOSITIONS FOR ASBESTOS
(ORGANIC) LINING Non-Asbestos Friction Material

TYPICAL FORMULA Brake pads and linings that use synthetic material
INGREDIENT RANGE
such as aramid fibers instead of steel are usually
referred to as non-asbestos, non-asbestos organic
Phenolic resin (binder) 9%-15%70 (NAO), or non-asbestos synthetic (NAS). Linings
Asbestos fiber 30%-50% are called synthetic because synthetic (man-
Organic friction modifiers made) fibers are used. These linings use aramid
(rubber scrap) 8%-19% fiber instead of metal as the base material.
Inorganic friction modifiers Aramid is the generic name for aromatic
(barites, polyamide fibers. Kevlar is the DuPont brand
talc, whiting) 12%-26% name of aramid and a registered trademark of E.I.
Abrasive particles DuPont de Nemours and Company. Non-
(alumina) 4A%—-20% asbestos linings are often quieter than semi-
Carbon 4%-20% metallic and do not cause as much wear to brake
rotors as do semi-metallic pads.

Carbon Fiber Friction Material

Carbon fiber brake lining is the newest and most
expensive of the lining materials. Carbon fiber
material is often called CFRC (carbon fiber rein-
forced carbon). It is composed of a carbon mix into
which reinforcing carbon fibers are embedded.
CFRC is commonly used in the brakes of jet air-
craft and racing cars. CFRC brakes provide con-
stant friction coefficient whether cold or hot, low
wear rates, and low noise development.

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 121

Ceramic Friction Material does help assure the service technician that the re-
placement brakes will give “as new” performance.
Some vehicle manufacturers use friction materials
that contain ceramic fibers. These ceramic fibers are
usually potassium titanite. Some vehicle manufac- Interim Summary
turers do not recommend the use of ceramic fric-
1. Brake shoe friction material is attached to the
tion material because they tend to wear the rotors
brake shoe table by or
more than NAO or semi-metallic friction materials.
2. the shoe is located at the
Replacement Lining Recipe front of the backing plate.
The actual amount of each ingredient in a typical omihe shoe is located on the
brake lining is varied for each application. Each rear of the backing plate.
vehicle has its own “recipe” based on vehicle 4. The primary lining is than
weight and options. For example, a Chevrolet with the secondary shoe lining.
a light 4-cylinder engine and no air conditioning 5. The secondary lining is typically
may use a different brake lining recipe than the and than
same vehicle, but with the heavier V6 engine, air the primary lining.
conditioning, and other options that increase the 6. Brake pad wear can be an
vehicle weight. Both of these brake linings (shoes auditable sensor or an electric sensor.
or pads) may physically fit other similar vehicles, 7. Brake friction materials may contain
yet their brake lining recipe is different.
Replacement linings are usually a compromise
“generic” recipe that will give acceptable service.
The brake lining recipe is just one of many factors Disc Brakes
that results in the fact that new brakes always seem
to last longer than any replacement lining. Replace- Disc brakes are used on the front wheels of late-
ment lining should have the same friction code as model vehicles, and on the rear wheels of an in-
the original. Although this will not guarantee the creasing number of vehicles. Disc brakes were
same braking performance, this edge code rating adopted primarily because they can supply greater
stopping power than drum brakes with less likeli-
hood of fade. This makes disc brakes especially well
suited for use as front brakes, which must provide
60%-80% of the vehicle’s total stopping power. In
fact, the higher levels of braking performance spec-
ified in the 1976 revision of Federal Motor Vehicle
Safety Standard 105 virtually guaranteed that man-
ufacturers would only use disc brakes on the front
axles of new vehicles.
The first part of this section discusses the ad-
vantages and disadvantages of disc brakes com-
pared to drum brakes. The second part describes
the construction and operation of the three major
disc brake designs. The final section looks at the
special features and problems of four-wheel disc
brake systems.

Disc Brake Advantages

Although increased federal brake performance
standards hastened the switch to disc brakes, the
front drum brakes would eventually have been
eliminated anyway because disc brakes are supe-
rior in almost every respect. The disc brake fric-
tion assembly has several significant strong
points, and only a few relatively minor weak
points (Figure 229).

122 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

 CALIPER
Roe Nae

CALIPER
LOCATING AND
MOUNTING PINS

WASHER pystT
CAP
SPINDLE
ASSEMBLY GasKET &

ff
SPLASH
SHIELD

BEARING
NUT
RETAINER
Figure 229 ® A typical disc brake friction assembly. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

The main advantages of the disc brake are: for better cooling. A disc brake has swept area on
both sides of the rotor; a drum brake has swept
@ Fade resistance
Self-adjustment area only on the inside of the drum. Although a
@ Freedom from pull. drum’s swept area is around its outer edge and
therefore relatively large, a rotor of the same di-
ameter still has substantially more swept area.
Fade Resistance Figure 230 shows the approximate swept areas
One of the biggest limitations on brake design is for a rotor and a drum with a 10-inch outside di-
size; the friction assembly must fit within the ameter, both with a 2-inch wide contact area be-
wheel. By the mid-1960s, many drum brakes had tween the lining and the friction surface. In this
grown to fill all of the space available, but still example, the rotor has over 50% more swept area
could not provide sufficient braking power with than the drum.
adequate resistance to fade. When a disc brake is On a vehicle that allows a maximum drum or
compared to a drum brake of similar diameter, its rotor diameter of 10 inches, the difference in
biggest advantage is a much greater ability to re- swept area is even greater because the thickness of
sist fade. In fact, disc brakes are more resistant to the drum casting reduces the inside diameter of
all kinds of fade: mechanical, lining, gas, or water. the drum by at least half an inch.
The main design feature that helps disc brakes
avoid heat-induced fade is their cooling ability.
Mechanical Fade
All of the major parts of a disc brake are exposed
to the air flowing over the friction assembly. Many Mechanical fade is not a problem with disc brakes
brake rotors also have cooling passages cast into because, unlike a brake drum, the disc brake rotor
them to further reduce operating temperatures. expands toward the brake linings as it heats up
rather than away from them. This fundamental
design difference makes it physically impossible
Swept Area
for heat to cause the rotor to expand out of contact
Another reason disc brakes have greater fade re- with the brake linings. Because of this, there is
sistance than drum brakes is that they have never the need to move the brake linings out to
greater swept area. Swept area is the amount of keep them in contact with the rotor, so brake pedal
brake drum or rotor friction surface that moves travel does not increase. If the brake pedal ona ve-
past the brake linings every time the drum or ro- hicle with disc brakes drops toward the floor, it is
tor completes a rotation. A larger swept area al- almost always a sign of vapor lock, a fluid leak,
lows the heat generated in braking to be fluid bypassing the seals in the master cylinder, or
transferred more rapidly into the drum or rotor mechanical fade of the rear drum brakes.

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 123

 EQUAL BRAKING FORCE

100 SQ. IN.

FRICTION

SWEPT AREA
(ONE SIDE)

63 SQ. IN. ROTOR

ROTATION

Figure 231 @ Braking force is applied equally to both sides

of a brake rotor. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

SWEPT AREA
(BOTH SIDES) problem occurs much later than in a drum brake.
This is one of the reasons a disc brake can supply
Figure 230 @ One reason a disc brake resists fade better than full stopping power for longer periods than a
a drum brake of similar size is because it has drum brake. A disc brake’s cooling ability also al-
more swept area. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.) lows it to recover from lining fade much faster.
However, if the pads are overheated to the point
where the lining material is physically damaged,
Lining Fade
the brakes will not recover their full stopping
While mechanical fade is impossible with a disc power until the pads are replaced.
brake, lining fade can and does occur if the brakes
become overheated. A little bit of heat brings the
Gas Fade
brake pads to their operating temperature and ac-
tually increases the friction coefficient of the lining Gas fade is a problem only under severe braking
material; a warm brake performs better than a cold conditions when hot gasses and dust particles
brake. However, when too much heat is generated from the linings are trapped between the brake
by braking, the lining material overheats, its fric- linings and rotor where they act as lubricants. The
tion coefficient drops, and lining fade occurs. symptoms of gas fade are the same as those for
The primary symptom of lining fade is a hard lining fade: the pedal becomes hard and increased
brake pedal that requires the driver to apply force is required to maintain stopping power.
greater force to maintain stopping power. Unlike Even though disc brakes operate at higher tem-
the similar situation in a drum brake, however, in- peratures than drum brakes, they have fewer
creased application force will not distort the brake problems with gas fade for a number of reasons.
rotor because the caliper applies equal force to First, disc brakes do not have a drum to contain
both sides (Figure 231). gasses and particles in the area around the brake
Increased pressure will, however, create even linings. Second, the constant flow of air over the
more heat, and if brake lining temperatures con- brake carries away contaminants that might oth-
tinue to increase, gas fade and vapor lock of the erwise build up. And finally, the surface area of
hydraulic system can occur. the brake lining material in a disc brake is smaller
Because of the disc brake’s superior cooling than that of a comparable drum brake; this allows
ability, the point at which lining fade becomes a gasses and particles to escape more readily.
124 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION
 Although far more resistant to water fade than
drum brakes, disc brakes are not entirely free from
its effects. Manufacturers take a number of steps
to ensure any delay in brake application is kept to
a minimum. Splash shields and the vehicle’s
wheels help keep water off of the rotor, and the
brake lining materials specified for most vehicles
minimize the effects of water fade. As previously
mentioned, slotted brake linings, and holes or
slots in the rotors, provide additional paths for
water to escape on some vehicles.

Self-Adjusting Ability
In addition to superior fade resistance, disc brakes
also have the advantage of being self-adjusting.
Unlike drum brakes, disc brakes do not require
cables, links, levers, ratchets, or struts to provide
either manual or automatic brake adjustment. The
brake pads are always right next to the spinning
rotor, and any wear of the linings is automatically
compensated for by the action of the brake caliper.
When the brakes are applied, the caliper pis-
tons move out as far as needed to force the brake
pads into contact with the rotor. When the brakes
are released, the piston retracts only the small dis-
tance dictated by rotor run-out and piston seal
flex. Because an automatic adjusting system is not
Figure 232 @ Slots and holes in the brake linings help needed, the typical disc brake friction assembly is
prevent gas and water fade. (Chek-Chart, much simpler than a drum brake.
0-13-048203-X.)
Freedom from Pull
The last advantage of the disc brake is its freedom
To help prevent gas and water fade, many from pull. A disc brake will stop straighter under
brake pads have slots cut in the lining material. a wider range of conditions than will a drum
These slots allow gasses and dust particles to es- brake. Two things make this possible. Foremost is
cape (Figure 232). The holes required in riveted the disc brake’s self-cleaning ability. If one wheel
linings also perform this function. of a vehicle with drum brakes passes through a
For even greater protection against gas fade, puddle, water and other contaminants that enter
high performance vehicles and motorcycles the drum can seriously reduce the braking power
sometimes have holes or slots cut into the rotor. at that wheel and cause a pull toward the opposite
These openings allow gasses and water to escape. side of the vehicle. A disc brake in the same situa-
tion will throw off most of the water and perform
with little or no problem.
Water Fade
The second reason disc brakes suffer less from
Because the disc brake is essentially self-cleaning, it pulling problems is that they have no self-
is also excellent at counteracting water fade. Two energizing or servo action. These actions increase
factors help keep water from between the linings the power of drum brakes, but depend on friction
and rotor: centrifugal force created by the spinning between the linings and drum for their effect. This
rotor throws off most moisture, and the brake pads means that even a small loss of lining to drum fric-
positioned only a few thousandths of an inch away tion causes a large loss of braking power and a sig-
from the rotor continuously wipe it clean. When the nificant side-to-side variation in the amount of
brakes are applied, the leading edge of the brake braking force. Since disc brakes do not use friction
pad lining material wipes the last bit of water from between the linings and rotor to increase their
the disc. Once good lining-to-rotor contact is estab- braking power, the effects of a loss of friction on
lished, water is unable to enter the space between one side of the vehicle are far less pronounced
the linings and rotor until the brakes are released. than with drum brakes.

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 1 Ih OI

Disc Brake Disadvantages
The most notable fact about the disadvantages of
disc brakes is that there are so few. The weak-
nesses of disc brakes include:

No self-energizing or servo action

# Brake noise
¢@ Poor parking brake performance.

No Self-Energizing or Servo Action

The disc brake’s lack of self-energizing or servo
action is a disadvantage for two reasons: It con-
tributes to poor parking brake performance and
requires the driver to push harder on the brake
pedal for a given stop. Early manual disc brakes
often required very high pedal pressure to make a
fast stop. However, the problem of high pedal
pressures has been virtually eliminated through
the use of brake power boosters. Today, all but the
lightest disc-brake-equipped vehicles have a
power booster as standard equipment.
Since the widespread adoption of the power
booster, the disc brake’s lack of self-energizing or
servo action is actually more of a help than a hin-
drance. As previously mentioned, the lack con- Figure 233 @ Anti-rattle spring clips reduce brake pad
tributes to straighter stopping. And without the vibration. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)
added application force of self-energizing or
servo action, a disc brake responds more directly
ROTOR
to pressure on the brake pedal. This makes it eas- SHIMS
ier to modulate the brakes for the exact amount of
stopping power desired.

Brake Noise
Probably the biggest complaint about disc brakes
is that they sometimes make a great deal of noise—
usually various squeaks and squeals. These noises
can occur both when the brakes are applied, and
when the brakes are released. So long as the brake
linings are not worn down to the backing plate,
these noises are usually caused by high frequency
rattling or vibration of the brake pads.
Noise is created by vibration that moves air ex- Figure 234 ® Anti-vibration shims are used behind the pads
pelling some of the kinetic energy of the moving on some brake calipers. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)
vehicle. The sound many times is normal. Re-
member that you cannot destroy energy.
Several methods are used to quiet noisy disc made of metal, fiber, asbestos, or a plastic like
brakes. Manufacturers use specific lining materi- nylon.
als that damp vibrations, and most calipers have In addition to the mechanical parts used to con-
anti-rattle clips or springs that hold the pads in the trol vibration, anti-noise sprays and brush-on liq-
caliper under tension to help prevent vibration uids are available from aftermarket suppliers.
(Figure 233). These products are applied to the back of the
Some calipers use special shims between the brake pads where they set up to form a tacky
brake pad backing plate and the caliper piston to cushion layer. When the pad is installed, the cush-
damp vibrations (Figure 234). These shims may be ion layer creates a flexible bond between the pad

126 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

and the caliper piston. The bond lowers the SPINDLE ALIPER
natural frequency of the pad, and the cushion AND ANCHOR 4 CALIPER
PLATE \ LOCATING AND
layer damps any vibration that may still occur. ASSEMBLY MOUNTING BOLTS

Poor Parking Brake Performance

While noise is the biggest complaint about disc
brakes, their only real function weakness is poor
parking brake performance. As already men-
tioned, the lack of self-energizing and servo action
plays a large part in poor disc brake parking brake
performance. In addition, the lining-to-rotor con-
tact area of a disc brake is somewhat smaller than
the lining-to-drum contact area of a drum brake.
This causes the disc brake to have a lower static
coefficient of friction, and therefore less holding
power when the vehicle is stopped.
Actually, poor parking brake performance is
only a problem on vehicles with four-wheel disc GASKET
brakes; most vehicles with rear drum brakes use
SPLASH SHIELD
the rear brakes as the parking brake. The prob-
lems associated with disc parking brakes are cov- SPLASH SHIELD
ered in greater detail in the Four-Wheel Disc MOUNTING BOLTS
Brakes section later. Figure 235 ® This brake caliper attaches to the front spindle.
(Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

Disc Brake Construction ROTOR

A disc brake is relatively simple compared to a ANCHOR PLATE/

drum brake. The major disc brake friction assem- MOUNTING BRACKET
bly components are the:

@ Caliper
@ Splash shield
@ Brake pads
@ Rotor.
CALIPER
Caliper
With the exception of the rotor, the caliper is the
largest part of a disc brake friction assembly. The
brake caliper uses hydraulic pressure to create PARKING BRAKE CABLE parsed
the mechanical force required to move the brake
pads into contact with the brake rotor. At the
Figure 236 @ This brake caliper attaches to a mounting
front axle, the caliper mounts to the spindle or
bracket on the rear axle housing. (Chek-Chart,
steering knuckle (Figure 235).
0-13-048203-X.)
Rear disc brake calipers mount to a support
bracket on the axle flange or suspension
(Figure 236). by the wheel. Most splash shields are made of
stamped steel, although some newer vehicles use
Splash Shield splash shields made of plastic to save weight.
The splash shield (see Figure 235) bolts to the Brake Pads
front spindle or steering knuckle or, in rear disc
brake applications, to the axle flange or a suspen- The brake pads in a disc brake do essentially the
sion adapter plate. Its job is to protect the inner same job as the brake shoes in a drum brake. The
side of the brake rotor from water and other con- pads contact the spinning rotor to create the fric-
taminants; the outer side of the rotor is protected tion that converts kinetic energy into heat to stop

R27
BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION
 VENTED ROTOR

Figure 237 @ This brake rotor is made from a carbon

fiber /ceramic composite material. (Courtesy of
Mov'It, GmbH.)

the vehicle. Two pads are used in each brake

caliper, one on each side of the rotor.
Brake pads are manufactured in various shapes
and sized to fit specific applications (see Figure 232)
but all pads consist of a metal backing plate to
which lining material is bonded and/or riveted.
Some pads have: mechanical or electrical wear
indicators built into them to signal the driver
when the linings have worn to the point where
they need replacement.
SOLID ROTOR

Brake Rotor
Figure 238 @ Disc brake rotors can be solid but are usually
The brake rotor (see Figure 229) also called the vented. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)
brake disc, provides the friction surfaces for the
brake pads to rub against. The rotor is the largest
and heaviest part of a disc brake; this is usually
made of cast iron because that metal has excellent Disc Brake Design
friction and wear properties. Some rotors are
made with a stamped steel center and a cast fric- While the hydraulic operation of all brake
tion surface in order to reduce weight. Where cost calipers is similar, calipers differ in two impor-
is not a factor, rotors made of ceramic/carbon tant areas: how they attach to the vehicle, and
fiber composites afford the greatest weight sav- how they apply the brake pads to the rotor. The
ings (Figure 237). manners in which these tasks are performed de-
There are two basic types of rotors: solid and termine the design of a disc brake friction as-
vented (Figure 238). sembly. There are basically three types of
Solid rotors were the first type fitted on auto- calipers:
mobiles, and they are still used on some vehicles,
@ Fixed
usually on the rear brakes. Vented rotors have ra-
Floating
dial cooling passages cast between the friction
@ Sliding.
surfaces that allow the rotor to dissipate heat from
both the inside and outside of the rotor, aided by These three caliper types can be further divided
airflow over the cooling fins. into two groups, fixed calipers and all others. Fixed

128 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

calipers have several unique features, but sliding Fixed Caliper Advantages
and floating calipers share many traits. Each
caliper design has advantages and disadvantages
Fixed calipers are relatively large and heavy, which
enables them to absorb and dissipate great amounts
that makes it best suited to certain applications.
of heat. This allows the brake rotor and pads to run
Fixed Caliper Design cooler, and reduce the amount of heat transferred to
the brake fluid. Compared to other caliper designs,
The fixed brake caliper is the earliest design, and a fixed caliper is able to withstand a greater number
was once used in all disc brake applications of repeated hard stops without heat-induced fade
(Figure 239). or vapor lock of the hydraulic system.
The fixed caliper has a body manufactured in The size and rigid mounting of a fixed caliper
two halves, and uses two, three, four, or six pis- also means it does not flex as much as other
tons to apply the brake pads. The fixed caliper designs. A flexing caliper is usually felt by the
gets its name from the fact that the caliper is driver as a spongy brake pedal. Fixed calipers
rigidly mounted to the suspension. When the are very strong and provide a firm and linear
brakes are applied, the pistons extend from the brake pedal feel.
caliper bores and apply the brake pads with The strength and heat-dissipating abilities of
equal force from both sides of the rotor. No part fixed calipers make them ideally suited to heavy
of the caliper body moves when the brakes are duty use. Most race cars use fixed calipers, as do
applied. many high performance and European vehicles
that are designed to be driven at high speeds.

Fixed Caliper Disadvantages

CALIPER MOUNTING
Although the size and weight of fixed calipers are
BOLT advantages in heavy duty use, they make fixed
calipers undesirable for most vehicles sold in North
CALIPER BODY
America. To obtain better fuel economy, manufac-
turers want to eliminate as much weight as possi-
ble from new vehicles. In most cases, the added cost
and complexity of multi-piston fixed calipers can-
not be justified at the lower speeds and more mod-
erate braking experienced by U.S. drivers.
Another disadvantage of fixed calipers is their
basic construction; multiple pistons and split bod-
ies make service more difficult and allow greater
opportunity for leaks. The drilled passages that
route fluid through the inside of the caliper body
may also contribute to cracking as miles accumu-
late and the caliper goes through hundreds of
thousands of heating and cooling cycles. Where
maximum caliper strength and durability are re-
quired, fluid is routed to the separate caliper
halves through external steel brake lines.

Fixed Caliper Alignment

Because the caliper body is locked in position, a
fixed caliper must be centered over the rotor and
aligned so the pistons contact the brake pad back-
Figure 239 @ A fixed brake caliper bolts solidly to the ing plates parallel to the friction surface of the ro-
vehicle suspension. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.) tor (Figure 240).

129
BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION
 CALIPER

ROTOR
CENTERING

PARALLEL SHIM
LOCATION

NOT PARALLEL MOUNTING

BRACKET
Figure 241 @ Shims are used to align some fixed calipers.
CALIPER —~> (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

BLEEDER GUIDE PIN BUSHING

SCREW
AND COVER ANTI-RATTLE
H<> ROTOR ——_> i
CALIPER

PARALLELISM
Figure 240 Fixed brake calipers must be centered over the
rotor with their pistons parallel to the rotor
friction surfaces. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

ANCHOR MOUNTING
If the caliper is not properly aligned, the pistons PLATE BOLTS
will contact the pads at an angle and cause tapered
wear of the brake linings. If the misalignment is Figure 242 This floating caliper mounts on a separate
anchor plate that bolts to the vehicle
bad enough, the pistons will cock into their bores,
suspension. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)
suffer increased wear, and possibly crack.
Misalignment is generally not a problem with
modern fixed calipers; manufacturing toler-
ances are controlled to ensure that any caliper
Floating and Sliding Caliper Design
will align properly when bolted to the vehicle The front brakes of most modern vehicles are fit-
suspension. However, some fixed calipers are in- ted with either floating or sliding calipers. These
dividually aligned with shims on the mounting calipers share a number of traits, but what sets
bolts between the caliper body and the suspen- them apart from fixed calipers is that the caliper
sion (Figure 241). body is not rigidly mounted. Instead, it is free to
Whenever a fixed caliper is unbolted from its move within a limited range on an anchor plate
mounts, care should be taken to note the location that is solidly mounted to the vehicle suspension.
and quantity of any shims so they can be replaced The anchor plate may be cast into a suspension
in the same positions during reassembly. If a dif- member (often the front spindle) as in Figure 235,
ferent caliper is installed, its alignment must be or it can be a separate piece that bolts to the sus-
checked and adjusted as necessary. pension (Figure 242).

130 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

 The movement of a floating or sliding caliper DIRECTION OF
body plays an important role in brake operation. ROTATION
When the brakes are applied, the caliper piston
moves out of its bore and applies the inner brake
—<——. ROTOR
pad. At the same time, the caliper body moves in
the opposite direction on the anchor plate and ap-
plies the outer brake pad. With a floating or slid-
ing caliper, the caliper body moves every time the CALIPER
brakes are applied. PISTON

Floating and Sliding Caliper Advantages

The biggest advantages of floating and sliding
calipers are lower cost, simple construction, and
compact size. Except for a few two-piston, light 1/8"
ie
eek
rae
eueeoa

truck calipers, all floating and sliding calipers are MAXIMUM

single-piston designs. Because they have fewer TAPER
pieces, floating and sliding calipers are cheaper to
build and service, and have fewer places where
leaks can develop.
The smaller size of floating and sliding calipers tog
Ms
PRE
re
ESOS
an
CONE
3Pre
RES
Xsees
Ptea
REAP
TEN
A

also allows better packaging of the caliper on the Lis

Cerys
tew
sy
rs
io
CY
re
Ss
en?
ee
tee
>
MSP
‘2

vehicle. A single-piston caliper with the piston lo-

cated on the in-board side of the brake rotor fits eas-

ye
ily within the diameter of a small wheel. The
in-board position of the caliper piston also con-
tributes to better cooling because the bulk of the
caliper body is exposed to the passing airflow. OUTER PAD INNER PAD
Like any disc brake, floating and _ sliding
calipers have poor parking brake performance, al-
Figure 243 Caliper flex can cause tapered wear of the
though they are somewhat better suited for the job
brake linings. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)
than fixed brake calipers. The main reason is that
the floating or sliding action automatically dis-
tributes application force equally between the body to the anchor plate and other suspension
brake pads on both sides of the rotor. Unlike a components that aid in the cooling process.
fixed caliper, a floating or sliding caliper can be
mechanically actuated by applying the single pis- Floating Calipers
ton with a cable and lever mechanism.
While movement of the caliper body is a feature
floating and sliding calipers have in common, the
Floating and Sliding Caliper Disadvantages manner in which the caliper body mounts to the
anchor plate determines the exact kind of caliper.
Floating and sliding calipers are not without their The body of a floating caliper does not make di-
weak points. The movable caliper body allows a rect metal-to-metal contact with the anchor plate
certain degree of flex, which can contribute to a (Figure 244).
spongy brake pedal. Caliper flex also allows the Instead, the caliper body is supported by bush-
caliper body to twist slightly when the brakes are ings and/or O-rings that allow it to “float” or slide
applied, causing tapered wear of the brake pad on metal guide pins or locating sleeves attached to
lining material (Figure 243). the anchor plate. For this reason, some automakers
Although the in-board piston location of float- call the floating caliper a pin slider caliper.
ing and sliding calipers provides good cooling, The bushings that support floating calipers are
these designs can never absorb as much heat (and made from a number of materials including rubber,
therefore have the fade resistance) as a fixed Teflon, and nylon; O-rings are generally made from
caliper with similar stopping power. Floating and high-temperature synthetic rubber (Figure 245).
sliding calipers simply do not have the mass of The guide pins and sleeves are made of steel
fixed calipers, and their flexible mounting sys- and come in a variety of shapes and sizes for dif-
tems slow the transfer of heat from the caliper ferent caliper designs (Figure 246).

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 131

 BOLT
BOOTS

BUSHING
Se,

PISTON
SEAL

PISTON
DUST
BOOT
MOUNTING
BOLTS OUTBOARD
SLEEVES BRAKE
PAD
BLEEDER
SCREW
CALIPER
BODY

Bennet aa
BRAKE PAD
WEAR aa
SENSOR
Figure 244 @ A typical floating brake caliper. (Halderman & Mitchell, 0-13-099453-7.)

(Ce
aecemerzeperen
0)
ae ae
i
a
GUIDE PINS SLEEVES
Figure 246 ® Metal guide pins and sleeves are also used to
ia locate floating calipers. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

Figure 245 @ Floating calipers are supported by rubber

O-rings and bushings. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

132 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

 CALIPER HOUSING ‘ 5) BLEEDER
te VALVE
MACHINED WAYS
, of IS LL

yi
f
ae
> SUPPORT
Sei
PISTON _~ SI ff Le (SPRING
PISTON é } /
SEAL \ LN - nia
at 5 SY" LO)
BOOT \ Lr
INBOARD SHOE ifa NX, \} % we A os)
{y
AND LINING (CS \ ) si OR onEW
OUTBOARD Aaa | ‘ \ SIV MACHINED
SHOE AND i Si ) GUIDEMNenpronn
LINING a (MO =] KEY
G AQ INBOARD
ey: vo
‘+
WYf; SHOE CLIP

\») Ns aZ,
SSO Se)
"SF
SZ

Figure 247 ® A typical sliding caliper. (Courtesy of General Motors

Corporation, Service and Parts Operations.)
CALIPER BODY

ANCHOR PLATE
Floating calipers depend on proper lubrication
of their pins, sleeves, bushings, and O-rings for
smooth operation. If these parts become rusted or
corroded, the caliper will bind and stick, causing
loss of braking power that is usually accompanied
by rapid and unusual wear of brake pads. Special
high-temperature brake grease such as silicone,
synthetic, or molybdenum disulfide-based greases
must be used to lubricate these parts any time the
caliper is disassembled. Many manufacturers rec-
ommend that floating caliper pins, sleeves, bush-
ings, and O-rings be replaced whenever the
caliper is serviced. These parts come in a “small
parts kit” available from brake part suppliers.

Sliding Calipers
MACHINED WAYS
Unlike a floating caliper, the body of a sliding
caliper mounts in direct metal-to-metal contact
with the anchor plate (Figure 247). Figure 248 ® Sliding calipers move on machined ways. (Chek-
Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)
Instead of pins and bushings, sliding calipers
move on ways cast and machined into the caliper
body and anchor plate (Figure 248).
Retaining clips and the design of the caliper
prevent the body from coming out of the ways Four-Wheel Disc Brakes
once the caliper is assembled. On some calipers,
the ways may have to be filed for proper clearance In recent years, four-wheel disc brake systems
between the caliper body and anchor plate if the have become more common. In theory, rear disc
caliper is replaced. brakes offer the same advantages as front discs:
Like floating calipers, sliding calipers depend on improved resistance to fade, automatic adjust-
good lubrication of their ways for proper operation. ment, and freedom from pull. However, in the
If not properly coated with high-temperature brake real world, the benefits of rear disc brakes must
grease, the ways can rust or corrode, causing the be weighted against their increased cost and
caliper to drag or seize. complexity.

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 133

 In most rear wheel applications, drum brakes
are adequate to provide the relatively small por-
tion of a vehicle’s total braking power required of
them. Because rear drum brakes are lightly DRUM
loaded, fade is a problem only in extreme condi-
tions when the front brakes fade and force the rear
brakes to take on a larger part of the braking load. PARKING
The automatic adjusting ability of disc brakes is BRAKE
also less of an advantage in slow wearing rear SHOES
brakes, and because the rear wheels are not
steered, drum brake’s susceptibility to pull is not
a significant problem on the rear axle.
In practical terms, the main advantage to rear
disc brakes is superior stopping power and fade
resistance under repeated heavy braking. For
this reason, four-wheel disc brakes are usually ADJUSTING
HOLE
found on heavyweight luxury vehicles, trucks,
and on performance models capable of high
speeds.

Four-Wheel Disc Hydraulic Systems

Figure 249 ® Some rear brake rotors incorporate a brake
While four-wheel disc brakes make the parking drum for parking brake use. (Chek-Chart,
brake system more complex, they allow the brake 0-13-048203-X.)
hydraulic system to be simpler than that of a
disc/drum brake system. When rear drum brakes
are replaced by disc brakes, the metering valve small dual-servo drum brake friction assembly
becomes unnecessary because there is no need to that serves as the parking brake (Figure 250).
delay front brake application until the rear brake This type of parking brake may also be called a
shoes have moved into contact with the drums; drum in hat parking brake (Figure 251).
the disc brakes at all four wheels can be applied The rotor splash shield, or a special mounting
simultaneously. bracket, provides the backing plate for the friction
The elimination of rear drum brakes also allows assembly. Rear-disc auxiliary drum parking brakes
the residual pressure check valve to be deleted. use the dual-servo friction assembly design be-
Since there are no longer any wheel cylinders with cause it provides the most holding power, and does
cup seals that can allow air to enter the hydraulic so equally in both forward and reverse directions.
system, there is no need to maintain positive pres- Dual-servo parking brake friction assemblies
sure in the system. operate in essentially the same manner as their
service brake counterparts. The main difference is
that the wheel cylinder is eliminated and the fric-
Rear Disc Parking Brakes tion assembly is actuated mechanically. Chrysler
rear-disc auxiliary drum parking brakes used in
As already mentioned, the most significant draw- the mid-1970s employed a lever and cam to apply
back to rear disc brakes is their poor parking the shoes. Other designs use a lever and strut. In
brake performance. There are two methods of both of these designs, the lever is actuated by a
providing parking brakes when rear discs are in- parking brake linkage cable; the cam or strut then
stalled on a vehicle; both increase the complexity forces the shoes apart against the drum.
of the brake caliper. Most rear-disc auxiliary drum parking brakes
are adjusted manually. Most designs have a star-
Rear-Disc Auxiliary Drum wheel adjuster that is reached through an opening
Parking Brakes in the outside of the drum. Some import vehicles
with wheel lug bolts use a lug bolt hole to access
Rear disc brakes with floating or fixed calipers may the adjuster. The rear-disc auxiliary drum parking
have a parking brake drum formed into the hub of brake on a few imported vehicles is adjusted by
the brake rotor (Figure 249). Inside the drum is a changing the length of the parking brake cable.

134 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

 ROTOR AND DRUM

MOUNTING

ACTUATING
LEVER AND
STRUT

Figure 250 @ A rear-disc auxiliary parking brake friction assembly. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

parking brake cable attached to a lever that pro-

trudes from the in-board side of the caliper.
Three different systems are used to mechani-
ROTOR
cally actuate calipers for parking brake service:
@ Ball and ramp
ROTOR HAT @ Screw, nut, and cone
SECTION
@ Eccentric shaft and rod.

BRAKE-SHOE Ball and Ramp Actuation

ASSEMBLY
The ball and ramp actuating system found in
Ford rear brake calipers has three steel balls lo-
cated in ramp-shaped detents between two plates
(Figure 252).
One plate has a thrust screw attached that is
Figure 251 @ A drum in hat rear disc parking brake threaded into an adjuster mechanism in the
assembly as used by General Motors. (Courtesy of caliper piston. The other plate is part of the oper-
General Motors Corporation, Service and Parts Operations.) ating shaft that extends out of the caliper; the ac-
tuating lever is mounted to the end of this shaft.
As the parking brake cable moves the lever
Caliper-Actuated Disc Parking Brakes and rotates the operating shaft, the balls ride up
the ramps and force the two plates apart. The op-
Caliper-actuated disc parking brakes are used on
erating shaft plate cannot move because it butts
vehicles whose rear disc brakes are equipped with
against the caliper body. Therefore, the thrust
floating or sliding brake calipers. The single-
screw plate, which is pinned to the caliper body
piston construction of these calipers makes them
to prevent it from rotating, is driven away from
easier to mechanically actuate than multiple-
the operating shaft and toward the rotor where
piston fixed calipers. With this design, a special
the thrust screw moves the caliper piston to ap-
mechanism in the caliper applies the caliper pis- ply the brake (Figure 253).
ton mechanically. The mechanism is operated by a

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 135

 THRUST
OPERATING @PISTON MOVEMENT
SCREW RAMP @ ADJUSTMENT
SHAFT
ACTUATING
LEVER
NUT ROTATES

"OG

PISTON AND
ADJUSTER
ASSEMBLY
@THRUST
Figure 252 @ A rear brake caliper with ball and ramp
parking brake actuation. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.) DRIVE Sea
FIXED IN
Dot RING POSITION
Figure 254 @ Automatic adjustment of a rear disc caliper.
(Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)
THRUST SCREW

Screw, Nut, and Cone Actuation

CALIPER
General Motors’ rear disc parking brake uses a
screw, nut, and cone mechanism to apply the
caliper piston (Figure 255).
In this design, the actuator screw with the park-
ing brake lever attached to it extends through the
caliper body. The caliper piston contains a spe-
cially shaped nut that threads onto the actuator
screw when the piston is installed in the bore. The
nut butts against the backside of the cone, and is
splined to it so that it cannot rotate unless the cone
does so as well. The cone is a slip fit in the piston,
and is free to rotate unless it is held tightly against
a clutch surface located near the outer end of the
piston bore.
PARKING
PARKING BRAKE When the parking brake is applied, the cable
BRAKE ADJUSTER moves the lever and rotates the actuator screw
LEVER (Figure 256).
Figure 253 Parking brake application in a rear brake The nut then unthreads along the screw, and
caliper. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.) jams the cone against the clutch surface of the
caliper piston; this prevents the cone from rotating
because the caliper piston is keyed to the brake
Adjustment of the ball and ramp linkage within pad, which is fixed in the caliper. Because the cone
the caliper is automatic, and takes place during cannot rotate, movement of the nut along the ac-
service brake application. When the caliper piston tuator thread forces the cone and piston outward
moves away from the thrust screw, an adjuster nut against the in-board pad to apply the brake.
inside the piston rotates on the thrust screw to Adjustment of the screw, nut, and cone mech-
take up any slack created by wear (Figure 254). A anism occurs automatically during normal oper-
drive ring on the nut prevents it from rotating in ation as the service brakes are released. This
the opposite direction when the parking brake is rather complex process takes place as shown in
applied. PivureZzo7-

136 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

 OUTBOARD INBOARD ADJUSTER RETAINER
BRAKE BRAKE SPRING
THRUST BALANCE
PAD PAD BEARING SPRING

CLUTCH ACTUATOR
suRFACE NUT SCREW
Figure 255 @ A GM rear disc brake caliper with screw, nut, and cone parking brake actuation. (Halderman & Mitchell, 0-13-099453-7.)

@) CONTINUED NUT MOVEMENT @) CONE NOT HELD @) ADJUSTER SPRING

FORCES PISTON OUTWARD AGAINST CLUTCH UNTHREADS NUT,
TO APPLY PADS SURFACE SO FREE AND CONE SPLINED
TO ROTATE TO IT, UNTIL NUT
AGAIN CONTACTS

\!
N QZ
S , :.|
aA 5 oe
a

YY
xX

PAZ ———
———
——ee

N
Ne é Cl
SILT,

@) CONE HELD @) LEVER ROTATES

TIGHTLY AGAINST SCREW TO @) WITH BRAKES
CLUTCH SURFACE UNTHREAD NUT RELEASED,
AND UNABLETO (@)NUT MOVES LINING WEAR LEAVES @) GAP CREATED
ROTATE CONE PISTON AND CONE BETWEEN NUT
AGAINST FARTHER OUT OF AND CONE
CLUTCH CALIPER BORE
SURFACE
Figure 257 @ Automatic adjustment of a GM rear disc brake
Figure 256 ® Parking brake application of a GM rear brake caliper. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)
caliper. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 137

 When the service brakes are applied, the cone LEVER —_—> ig
and piston move outward in the bore under hy-
draulic pressure. The nut, however, remains fixed
because the actuator screw does not rotate. As
long as there is brake application pressure, the
cone is held tightly against the clutch surface of ECCENTRIC
SHAFT
the piston, which prevents the cone and the nut
splined to it from rotating.
The result of the previous actions is that a gap
develops between the outer end of the nut and the CONNECTING |
backside of the cone when the brakes are applied. LINK i
If sufficient brake lining wear has occurred, a gap ACTUATOR &>
remains after seal deflection retracts the piston and ROD
cone when the brakes are released. Once the brakes
are released, the cone is no longer held against the CONE LA
clutch surface, and becomes free to rotate in the ae
piston. At this point, the adjuster spring, which ex-
erts strong axial pressure on the nut, causes the nut
and cone to unthread along the actuator screw and
take up any clearance between the cone and piston.
The balance spring between the piston and the
caliper bore is there for two reasons. First, it pre-
vents excessive piston retraction when the brakes
are released. However, more importantly, it coun-
terbalances the pressure of the adjuster spring.
Keep in mind that the outer end of the nut is in
constant contact with the cone whenever the ser-
vice brakes are not applied. If the automatic ad-
justing system fails, the tension of the adjustor
spring against the thrust bearing at the back of the
piston will retract the cone and piston from the ro-
tor until the cone does contact the nut, resulting in
PISTON AND
a low brake pedal. The balance spring is intended ADJUSTER
to prevent excessive retraction from taking place. ASSEMBLY
It is extremely important with this caliper design Figure 258 @ A brake caliper with eccentric shaft and rod
that the parking brake be used regularly to keep the parking brake actuation. (Chek-Chart, 0-13-048203-X.)
actuator screw threads clean, and the thrust bear-
ing rotating freely. If either of these parts should
stick or freeze up, the automatic adjusting mecha-
nism will not work properly, and the balance actuator rod when the parking brake is released;
spring may be unable to compensate. This will other calipers use a conventional coil spring for
cause the parking brake to become inoperative, this purpose.
and the vehicle will suffer from a low brake pedal. Like other designs, this type of disc parking
brake mechanism adjusts automatically during
service brake operation. As the brake linings wear
Eccentric Shaft and Rod Actuation
and the piston moves farther out in the caliper bore,
Some disc brake calipers use an eccentric shaft act- a nut inside the piston unscrews along the threaded
ing on an actuator rod to apply the caliper piston actuator rod to take up the slack. This holds the pis-
for parking brake service (Figure 258). ton out farther in its bore and keeps the clearance
When this type of parking brake is applied, the between the pads and rotor to a minimum.
cable moves a lever and rotates a shaft that is off-
set in the end of the caliper bore. A connecting
Other Rear Disc Parking Brake Adjusters
link, installed between a notch in the eccentric
shaft and a similar notch in the end of the actuator Many import vehicles use a screw type adjuster to
rod, then forces the rod outward against spring set the initial pad to disc clearance on caliper-
tension to apply the piston. In the caliper shown actuated parking brakes. As previously noted, the
in Figure 258, a stack of cone springs returns the proper operation of the adjuster depends on hav-
138 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION
 Interim Summary
1. Disc brakes are less prone to
and
2. Disc brakes are inherently

3. Calipers can be of a or
type.
4. Disc brakes tend to be :
5. Some four wheel disc parking brakes use an
auxiliary
parking brake.

Summary
Figure 259 @ On this rear caliper with integral parking Brake systems work in accordance with unchang-
brake, the adjuster is located under this plug. ing physical “laws” or principles. The principles
(Courtesy of Jeffrey Rehkopf.) involved with vehicle brake systems involve en-
ergy, mechanics, hydraulics, friction, and heat.
Moving automobiles possess kinetic energy.
The amount of that energy is affected by a vehi-
cle’s weight and speed, but speed has a much
greater effect. The job of the brake system is to
convert a vehicle’s kinetic energy into heat energy.
Front brakes are generally much more powerful
than rear brakes. A great deal of force is required
to convert kinetic energy into heat energy at the
wheel friction assemblies. This force is provided
by the actuating system which uses mechanical
and hydraulic means to increase the force applied
at the brake pedal.
The lever is the primary mechanical device
used. The brake pedal assembly is a good example
of a lever that provides a mechanical advantage as
high as 5 to 1 to increase application force. The hy-
draulic system uses liquids to transmit the pedal
Figure 260 @ The adjusting screw is turned with a hex assembly force to the wheels. Since liquids cannot
wrench. After the initial adjustment, the be compressed, they are able to transmit move-
parking brake is self-adjusting. (Courtesy of Jeffrey ment and force within a closed system. Hydraulic
Rehkopf.)
system pressure is created by a combination of the
mechanical force at the brake pedal pushrod and
the size of the master cylinder piston.
To obtain changes in application force, different
sized pistons are used in the wheel cylinders and
ing the proper clearance. If the pads do not firmly brake calipers. A piston larger than that in the
contact the rotor surface, the adjusters will not master cylinder will increase application force,
function. To set the initial adjustment of this type while a smaller piston will decrease it.
of caliper: Wheel friction assemblies perform the actual
After installing the new pads, locate the ad- work of converting kinetic energy into heat en-
juster screw or bolt. It may be located under a ergy. They do this by rubbing two materials to-
plug or cover (Figure 259). gether to create friction. The amount of resistance
Turn the adjuster bolt until the pads lightly the materials have when rubbed together is called
touch the rotor. their coefficient of friction, and is determined by
Back off the adjuster one third to one half of a the types of materials, their surface finishes, and
turn (Figure 260). temperature. When two materials are forced to-
Replace the adjuster concealment plug. gether at rest, their resistance to movement is

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 139

called the static coefficient of friction. When the charged by an electric pressure pump rely on the
materials are forced together in motion, their re- accumulator for all boost pressure.
sistance to movement is called the kinetic coeffi- Master cylinders convert mechanical force into
cient of friction. The static friction coefficient is al- hydraulic pressure. The typical master cylinder is
ways higher than the kinetic coefficient. made up of several parts: a fluid reservoir, a vented
The wheel friction assemblies are often re- reservoir cover, a rubber diaphragm that isolates
quired to absorb more heat than they can imme- the fluid from moisture, a cylinder body made of ei-
diately dissipate into the surrounding air. If too ther cast iron or aluminum, and one or two pistons
much heat is forced on them in too short a time, fitted with return springs and rubber cup seals.
brake fade will result. Before 1967, most cars used a single-piston
Power brakes are brake systems fitted with a master cylinder to supply pressurized fluid to a
power booster that reduces the amount of pedal single hydraulic circuit that operated the brakes at
pressure needed to apply brakes and stop the ve- all four wheels. All cars built since 1966 are
hicle. Power brakes were developed because the equipped with a dual master cylinder that divides
weight and speed of cars increased and disc the brake system into two separate hydraulic cir-
brakes were introduced. Power boosters are not cuits. The two circuits operate independently, and
the only method used to reduce pedal pressures or ensure that partial stopping power will still be
increase braking force. In addition to simply push- available if a leak occurs in one of the circuits.
ing harder on the brake pedal, greater mechanical Dual-circuit braking systems are normally
or hydraulic advantage can also achieve these split front to rear on RWD cars, but most FWD
ends. A power booster actually increases pedal re- cars use a diagonally split system that serves one
serve as it decreases the required pedal force. front wheel and the opposite rear wheel with
There are two kinds of power boosters: vacuum each circuit.
boosters and hydraulic boosters. Vacuum boost- Quick take-up dual master cylinders are a vari-
ers create brake application force with a power ation of the standard dual-piston design. Quick
chamber that is divided in half by a flexible di- take-up cylinders provide a large volume of fluid
aphragm. With vacuum on one side of the di- when the brakes are first applied. This fluid is re-
aphragm and atmospheric pressure on the other quired to take up the extra clearance designed into
side, a pressure differential is created that moves special low-drag brake calipers.
the diaphragm to the low pressure vacuum side. Center port (port-less) master cylinders have
Vacuum booster power chambers come in two been developed for use on some vehicles with
types. The atmospheric-suspended design has at- ABS and traction control. These systems require a
mospheric pressure on both sides of the diaphragm larger volume of fluid flow to and from the mas-
when the brakes are not applied. The vacuum- ter cylinder reservoir during ABS and/or traction
suspended design has vacuum on both sides under control events. The small compensating port is re-
the same conditions. All modern booster power placed with a special valve in the center of the
chambers are the vacuum-suspended variety. master cylinder piston that allows this increased
Vacuum can be supplied to the power chamber fluid flow to occur.
from the engine intake manifold, or a separate me- Brake systems use a number of different valves
chanical or electrical pump. A check valve contains to control pressures within the hydraulic system.
the vacuum in the booster, and a filter may be used Proportioning, metering, and combination valves
in the vacuum supply line to trap fuel vapors. are the most common, with some older vehicles
Integral vacuum boosters are actuated by the having residual check valves.
brake pedal. A tandem vacuum booster uses two The proportioning valve limits pressure to the
diaphragms for a more compact package and in- rear brakes during hard stops to improve brake
creased power assist. balance and prevent rear wheel locking. Once
Hydraulic boosters replace vacuum boosters in brake hydraulic system pressure reaches a preset
applications that have limited space or an inade- split point, only a fixed percentage of any further
quate vacuum supply. Hydraulic boosters can increase in pressure is allowed to the rear brakes.
produce much higher assist levels than vacuum Some cars and light trucks use a height-sensing
boosters. Hydraulic boosters operate off power proportioning valve that changes brake balance as
steering pump pressure or a separate electrically the vehicle is loaded. In this design, springs or
powered hydraulic pump. All hydraulic boosters levers rotate a cam to alter the proportioning
store pressure in an accumulator. Those boosters valve split point.
served by the power steering pump use the accu- A metering valve holds off pressure to the front
mulator for reserve braking only. Boosters disc brakes until the clearance in the rear drum

140 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

brakes has been taken up. This improves brake The wheel cylinders and brake calipers convert
balance and wear, and helps keep the front discs hydraulic pressure into mechanical force that is
from locking when they are first applied on slip- used to apply the wheel friction assemblies.
pery pavement. A wheel cylinder actuates a drum brake by fore-
The combination valve was introduced to sim- ing the brake shoe linings against the brake drum.
plify the brake hydraulic system and lower man- There are three types of wheel cylinders now in
ufacturing costs. A combination valve combines a use: single-piston, dual-piston with a straight
pressure differential switch with a metering valve, bore, and dual-piston with a stepped bore. Dual-
a proportioning valve, or both a metering and a piston cylinders with a straight bore are the most
proportioning valve. common. Wheel cylinder pistons are fitted with
A residual check valve holds a static pressure of cup-type seals that prevent fluid leakage. To keep
6 to 25 psi in a brake line leading to a drum brake. air from bypassing the seals and entering the hy-
This pressure keeps the sealing lips of the cup draulic system when the brakes are released,
seals in the wheel cylinder tight against the cylin- residual pressure check valves or mechanical cup
der walls to prevent air from entering the hy- expanders are fitted to the brake system.
draulic system when the brakes are released. A disc brake caliper actuates a disc brake by
Brake systems use switches to operate warning forcing the brake pads against the brake rotor.
lights and the vehicle brake lights. The most com- Brake caliper bodies are usually made of cast iron
mon of these are the pressure differential, brake in one or two pieces and contain from one to four
fluid level, and stoplight switches. pistons. Depending on how the caliper is
The pressure differential switch compares the mounted, it may be a fixed, sliding, or floating de-
pressure in the two hydraulic circuits of a dual sign. The body of a fixed caliper locates pistons on
braking system and turns on a warning light if the both sides of the rotor and does not move when the
pressure becomes significantly lower in one cir- brakes are applied. Sliding and floating calipers
cuit than the other. When a pressure difference oc- usually have a single piston on the in-board side of
curs, a piston in the switch is moved to one side the caliper, and the caliper body is free to move on
grounding an electrical contact that completes the an anchor plate to actuate the out-board brake pad.
warning light electrical circuit. Brake caliper pistons are made of four materi-
A fluid level switch detects leaks in a dual- als: aluminum, cast iron, steel, and phenolic plas-
circuit brake system by monitoring the level of tic. Steel pistons have been the most common type
brake fluid in the master cylinder reservoir. When for a long time, but phenolic pistons are used on
a leak occurs, the fluid level drops, and a set of many newer applications because they insulate
contacts controlled by a float in the reservoir is fluid in the calipers from the heat of braking to
closed to turn on the warning light. help prevent vapor lock.
Most vehicles use a mechanical stoplight Caliper pistons can be sealed to the bore with
switch operated by the brake pedal arm. This type two different kinds of seals. Many older caliper
of switch can be adjusted to turn on the brake designs use stroking seals, a form of lip seal that
lights as soon as the pedal begins to move; this al- mounts on the piston and moves with it. Stroking
lows the drivers in following cars more time to re- seals expose the caliper sealing surfaces to the el-
act. The stoplight switch may include functions ements if the dust boot becomes damaged, and do
for the cruise control and antilock brakes. not help to locate the piston in the bore. Most
Brake lines transmit hydraulic pressure between calipers use fixed, lathe-cut, O-ring seals that fit in
components in the brake system. They contain ex- a groove near the outer edge of the caliper bore.
treme pressure and work in a harsh environment. This design protects the piston sealing surfaces,
Only proper double-walled steel brake tubing or and the deflection of the seal helps retract the pis-
reinforced, synthetic rubber brake hose should be ton from the pads and rotors when the brakes are
used. Brake tubing is often fabricated in the field, released.
but brake hose cannot be easily made up because Brake fluids must meet performance standards
special equipment is required to attach the fittings. established by the federal government. These
Brake line fittings are of either the compression specifications deal with a fluid’s boiling point,
or flare design. Straight compression and banjo fit- how it deals with temperature variations, its effect
tings seal with separate copper washers. Flare fit- on mechanical parts in the brake system, and its
tings have tapered seats and commonly use a flared compatibility with other brake fluids. Fluids that
portion of brake tubing to form the sealing surface. meet the requirements are classified as DOT 3,
Both SAE and ISO flared fittings are used on newer DOT 4, DOT 5, or DOT 5.1.
cars, but the two types are not interchangeable.

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 141

 There are three types of brake fluids in use to- take advantage of self-energizing action which uses
day. Polyglycol fluid is by far the most common, the rotation of the brake drum to wedge the lining
but its extreme hygroscopicity creates a number of of the shoe tighter against the drum. A shoe that is
problems in the brake system. Silicone brake fluid energized in this manner is called a leading shoe. A
is a type that does not attract water, but it is not shoe that is de-energized is called a trailing shoe.
currently used by any major vehicle manufac- Ranked from least to most powerful, the four
turer. Hydraulic system mineral oil (HSMO) is the types of non-servo brakes are the: double-trailing,
rarest type of brake fluid, and it is used in only a leading-trailing, double-leading, and non-
few specialized systems. Polyglycol and silicone directional. The double-trailing brake does not use
brake fluids are compatible, although they do not self-energization, while the leading-trailing brake
blend together; HSMO is not compatible with ei- has one energized and one de-energized shoe. Both
ther of the other brake fluid types. the double-leading and non-directional brakes make
All brake fluids must be stored and handled use of self-energization on both brake shoes.
with care to keep them clean and moisture free. Servo drum brakes are more powerful than
Polyglycol fluid should not be stored for extended non-servo brakes of similar size because they take
periods because once the container has been advantage of both self-energizing and servo ac-
opened the fluid absorbs water that lowers its tion. Servo action uses the stopping power of one
boiling point and raises its freezing point. Silicone shoe to increase the application force of the other.
brake fluid and HSMO are relatively unaffected The shoe that helps increase application force is
by moisture and can be stored indefinitely. called the primary shoe and often has a smaller
The primary advantage of drum brakes is that lining. The shoe that receives the extra application
they can provide hard stops with relatively low force and does most of the braking is called the
pedal application force. This is possible because secondary shoe. The secondary shoe often has a
drum brake designs can use both self-energizing larger lining than the primary shoe, and the lining
and servo actions to increase application force. may be made of a different friction material that is
For this reason, drum brakes work very well as more resistant to heat.
parking brakes. Dual-servo brakes are the most common type
Drum brakes do have a number of disadvan- of servo brake; they provide servo action in both
tages. They are susceptible to mechanical, lining, the forward and reverse directions. Most dual-
gas, and water fade; they require frequent manual servo brakes use a fixed wheel cylinder—braking
adjustment or an automatic adjusting system; and force is transferred from the primary shoe to the
they are susceptible to pull during braking. For secondary shoe through an adjusting link.
these reasons, drum brakes are now used only on Brake adjusters are used to set and maintain the
rear axles of cars and light trucks. proper clearance between the brake lining and
Certain parts are common to many drum drum. Automatic adjusters use movement of the
brakes: the backing plate, shoe anchors, piston brake shoes or parking brake linkage to make the
stops, shoe support pads, wheel cylinders, park- brake adjustment. The two types of automatic ad-
ing brake linkage, and brake drum. The backing justers are the starwheel and ratchet designs.
plate supports most of the other brake parts and Drum brake shoes include the lining table and
incorporates the anchor that prevents the shoes shoe web, plus holes for the springs to attach and
from rotating with the drum. The support pads semicircular anchor eyes. Brake pads and linings
contact the edges of the brake shoes to align the can be attached using rivets, bonding, or can be
shoes with the drum, and the hold-downs keep the integrally molded.
shoes against the support pads to reduce noise. Typical semi-metallic brake linings contain
Piston stops prevent accidental disassembly of the phenolic resin, graphite or carbon particles, steel
wheel cylinder that provides the application force fibers, ceramic and metal powders, plus other
to move the brake linings into contact with the modifiers such as rubber scraps. Other types of
drum. The shoes consist of a lining table and web, friction material include non-asbestos organic
and are faced with a special friction material where (NAO), non-asbestos synthetic (NAS), and carbon
they contact the brake drum. Return springs move fiber-reinforced carbon (CFRC).
the brake shoes back to their resting position when All brake lining material should be handled as
the brakes are released. The drum rotates around if it contains asbestos and the necessary precau-
all the parts on the backing plate, and provides the tions to avoid brake dust from being airborne
friction surface for the linings to rub against. should be taken.
There are two basic types of drum brakes: non- Disc brakes are used on the front wheels of all
servo and servo. Non-servo brakes apply each
brake shoe individually. Each shoe may or may not
late-model vehicles, and on the rear wheels of
some vehicles. Compared to drum brakes, disc
(
142 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION
brakes provide greater stopping power with in- spongy brake pedal and tapered wear of the
creased resistance to fade. Disc brakes are less sus- brake linings. Floating and sliding calipers also
ceptible to fade because they have greater swept have poor parking brake performance, but are
area, their open construction exposes their com- better suited to the job than fixed calipers be-
ponents to the passing airflow, and the spinning cause they can be mechanically actuated more
rotor makes the brake self-cleaning. easily.
Mechanical fade is not a problem with disc Rear disc brakes offer superior stopping power
brakes because the rotor expands toward the and fade resistance under repeated heavy braking.
brake linings as it heats up rather than away from However, the benefits may not outweigh the in-
them. Lining fade occurs later in a disc brake be- creased cost and complexity in most applications.
cause of its superior cooling ability. And disc Four-wheel disc brakes do allow the metering and
brakes have little trouble with gas fade, because residual pressure relief valves to be eliminated
they have no drum to contain gasses, the flow of from the brake hydraulic system.
air over the brake carries away particles, and the Parking brakes may be applied by a pedal,
small surface area of the linings allows both lever, or handle. Each of these controls has a
gasses and particles to escape easily. Disc brakes ratchet system to lock the brake in the applied po-
counteract water fade well because the centrifugal sition. Pedals are released with a T-handle or
force of the spinning rotor, and the position of the lever, and may also be fitted with an automatic re-
brake pads next to the friction surface, help keep lease mechanism powered by a vacuum servo or
water from between the pads and rotor. computer-controlled solenoids. Parking brake
Disc brakes automatically compensate for lin- levers are released by pushing a button on the end
ing wear, and do not require cables, links, levers, of the lever. Handles are released by twisting the
ratchets, or struts to provide brake adjustment. A grip or pulling a trigger lever next to the grip. A
disc brake can stop straighter under a wider range warning light in the instrument panel alerts the
of conditions than a drum brake because it has no driver when the parking brake is applied.
self-energizing or servo action that affects the Parking brake linkages are made up of rods, ca-
side-to-side balance of braking power. bles, intermediate levers, and equalizers. Rods
Noise caused by vibration of the brake pads is a and cables transmit force directly; intermediate
common complaint about disc brakes; however, levers increase application force, and an equalizer
their only functional weakness is poor parking balances the pulling force from the actuating de-
brake performance. Disc brakes make less effective vice so the same amount is transmitted to each
parking brakes because they lack self-energizing parking brake friction assembly.
and servo action, and their small lining-to-rotor Parking brake linkages come in a wide variety
contact area results in a low static coefficient of of configurations that use one or more cables.
friction. The lack of self-energizing or servo action Linkages are generally adjusted in one of three
also means disc brakes usually require a power ways: jam nuts at the equalizer, individual adjust-
booster to keep pedal pressures reasonable. ing nuts at the ends of the cables, or an inter-cable
There are three basic types of calipers: fixed, adjuster built into a cable.
floating, and sliding. Fixed calipers are relatively There are two types of drum parking brakes: in-
large and heavy, and mount solidly to the suspen- tegral and rear-disc auxiliary (drum in hat).
sion. They can dissipate large amounts of heat, Integral drum parking brakes mechanically oper-
and are quite rigid, which provides a firm and lin- ate the rear drum service brakes. Rear disc auxil-
ear brake pedal feel. However, the multiple pis- iary (drum in hat) designs are used with rear disc
tons, split bodies, and drilled fluid passages of brakes, and consist of separate drum brake fric-
fixed calipers make them more difficult to service tion assemblies that fit inside small drums formed
and present greater opportunity for leaks and into the rear brake rotors.
cracks to develop. Two types of parking brakes are used with rear
Most modern vehicles have floating or sliding disc brakes. Single-piston floating or sliding
calipers. These designs have a caliper body free calipers are mechanically actuated to function as
to move on an anchor plate mounted to the sus- the parking brake. Vehicles with fixed caliper rear
pension. The advantages of floating and sliding disc brakes have small, mechanically actuated
calipers are simple construction, light weight, drum brakes inside the rear rotors. Drum in hat
and compact size. Floating and sliding calipers parking brakes are used with many single- and
do flex somewhat. This allows the caliper to double-piston rear disc brakes.
twist when the brakes are applied, causing a

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 143

 . Liquids are used in hydraulic systems
Review Questions because:
ile Work is the transfer of from A. They cannot be compressed.
one physical system to another. B. They absorb heat.
A. Force C. Their volume can be varied.
B. Energy D. None of the above.
C. Mechanics . The amount of heat generated when
D. All of the above stopping a vehicle from 60 mph will be:
. Which of the following does NOT have an A. Greater at the front brakes
effect on kinetic energy? B. Greater at the rear brakes
A. Weight C. The same at the front and rear brakes
B. Speed D. Less on the driver’s side
C. Temperature 10. If the brake system hydraulic pressure is
D. Motion 100 psi at the master cylinder, the hydraulic
. If the weight of a vehicle is reduced by one- pressure in a brake caliper with a four-
half, its kinetic energy becomes square-inch piston area will be:
as great. IN Payers
A. 1/16 B. 50 psi
BIaLLS C. 100 psi
C. 1/4 D. 400 psi
aly 2 li When the wheel cylinder piston travel is less
. If the speed of a vehicle is doubled, its than that of the master cylinder piston, which
kinetic energy becomes of the pistons is smaller?
times as great. A. The master cylinder piston
ee B. The wheel cylinder piston
B. 4 C. They are the same size
CONS D. Any of the above depending on pressure
D338 12 A large brake master cylinder piston:
. Inertia causes a body to A. Is often used with disc brakes
remain so unless acted upon by an outside B. Moves large fluid volumes
force. C. Reduces pedal travel
A. In motion D. All of the above
B. At rest 13: The first law of thermodynamics states that
C. Both A and B energy:
D. Neither A nor B
A. Cannot be created or destroyed
. Inertia requires the front brakes to provide B. Is always converted from one form into an-
most of the stopping power because of other when work is performed
weight: C. Both A and B
A. Bias D. Neither A nor B
B. Force 14. The is the lower measure of
C. Effect friction between two materials.
D. Transfer
A. Static coefficient of friction
A lever provides a B. Kinetic coefficient of friction
mechanical advantage that increases force. C. Minimum drag coefficient
A. First class D. Coefficient of grip
B. Second class
C. Both A and B
D. Neither A nor B

144 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION

LB: Engineers alter brake friction by changing the Re. An can always be found
of the wheel friction somewhere in the vacuum supply line
assemblies. between the intake manifold and the power
A. Brake line diameter booster.
B. Friction materials A. Vacuum reservoir
C. Fluid temperature B. Activated charcoal filter
D. Component temperature C. One-way check valve
16. One method that engineers use to obtain the D. All of the above
proper front to rear brake balance is to: 2 Hydraulic power brake boosters:
A. Vary the size of the caliper and wheel cylin- A. Can provide greater brake application
der pistons force than a vacuum booster
B. Vary the pedal ratio B. Are larger than vacuum boosters
C. Vary the size of the master cylinder piston C. Are not suited to use with diesel engines
D. Vary the size of the brake hoses and tubing D. Are never used with four-wheel disc brakes
Ve, Which of the following is NOT a way to 24. Which of the following is NOT one of the
reduce brake pedal pressure or increase three fluid lines attached to a mechanical-
brake application force? hydraulic booster?
A. Increase the pedal leverage. A. High-pressure line from steering pump
B. Use wheel cylinders with a larger bore. B. High-pressure line to steering gear
C. Install larger brake shoes. C. Low-pressure line to steering gear
D. Use a master cylinder with a smaller bore. D. Low-pressure line to fluid reservoir
18. A power booster in a brake system will DS Hydraulic pressure in a Hydro-Boost booster
generally lead to: is controlled by the:
A. Increased brake pedal pressure A. Reaction rod
B. An immediate increase in pedal pressure if B. Pivoting lever
power to the booster is interrupted C. Power piston
C. Both A and B D. All of the above
D. Neither A nor B
26: During reserve braking, a Hydro-Boost
ie) A value of 14.7 psi is most closely related to: booster:
A. Apressure differential A. Obtains accumulator pressure through the
B. Vacuum hollow center of the spool valve
C. Atmospheric pressure B. Accumulator is charged by power steering
D. Manifold pressure pump pressure
C. Both A and B
20. A diesel engine is likely to have: D. Neither A nor B
A. An auxiliary vacuum pump Dae Electro-hydraulic power boosters:
B. Less than 5 inches of vacuum at idle
C. Both A and B A. Provide excellent pedal reserve
D. Neither A nor B B. Use the accumulator for all power assist
C. Are lighter than mechanical-hydraulic
. Avacuum booster uses a to
boosters
create brake application force. D. All of the above
A. Pressure differential Dash Brake fluid reservoirs may be:
B. Power chamber
C. Diaphragm A. Made of metal or plastic
D. All of the above B. Mounted away from the master cylinder
C. Clamped to the master cylinder body
D. All of the above

BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION 145

29: Brake fluid reservoir covers are: OYA Brake system hydraulic pressure is
determined in part by the:
A. Vented to allow air pressure to enter the
reservoir A. Master cylinder piston area
B. Sometimes sealed with a nylon diaphragm B. Force applied to the master cylinder piston
C. Both A and B C. Both A and B
D. Neither A nor B D. Neither A nor B
30. Which of the following is NOT part of a Sem A quick take-up master cylinder:
master cylinder?
A. Increases pedal travel
A. Cylinder bore B. Enables the use of low-drag calipers
B. Secondary piston C. Reduces fluid flow
C. Replenishing port D. Requires additional pushrod clearance
D. Caliper piston
oe Both wheel cylinders and brake calipers
oul The interior of an aluminum master cylinder convert:
is for long life.
A. Hydraulic force into mechanical pressure
A. Bearingized B. Mechanical pressure into kinetic force
B. Anodized C. Caliper force into hydraulic pressure
C. Chrome plated D. Hydraulic pressure into mechanical force
D. All of the above
40. Single-piston calipers are used on most late-
O2: Master cylinder pistons: model cars because they:
A. Fit loosely in the cylinder bore A. Can absorb a great deal of heat
B. Return under their own power when the B. Are the strongest design
brakes are released C. Are simpler to build and repair
C. Are usually made of soft aluminum D. Can apply greater application force
D. Always contact the pedal pushrod
41. DOT numbers refer specifically to
Oo: Master cylinder piston seals: of brake fluid.
A. Can contain pressure from either side A. Types
B. Sometimes have holes around their edges B. Grades
to allow brake fluid to pass C. Both A and B
C. Prevent fluid flow between the low- and D. Neither A nor B
high-pressure chambers
42. Drum brakes must be periodically adjusted
D. None of the above
to compensate for:
34. The compensating port provides a passage
A. Loose wheel bearings
between the:
B. Brake fluid evaporation
A. Low- and high-pressure chambers C. Poor design
B. Reservoir and low-pressure chamber D. Lining wear
C. Reservoir and high-pressure chamber
43. The backing plate serves as:
D. Low-pressure chamber and bypass seal
OD: The small fountain of fluid that appears in A. Amounting surface for other brake parts
the fluid reservoir on brake application is
B. A backup in case of brake failure
caused by fluid passing through the:
C. A barrier against excess heat
D. All of the above
A. Compensating port
44. Holes in the backing plate are often used to:
B. Replenishing port
C. Both A and B A. Mount the brake components
D. Neither A nor B B. Inspect the linings for wear
36. When the brakes are released, a pressure C. Adjust lining-to-drum clearance
drop occurs in the master cylinder because of: D. All of the above

A. Primary cup seal collapse

B. Brake pedal freeplay
C. Piston return
D. Reservoir inertia
146 BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION
45. Which of the following is a type of brake 48. The term “self-energizing” refers to the
shoe hold-down? action of:
A rin-type A. One brake shoe on another
B. Spring clip B. Drum rotation on a brake shoe
C. Coil spring C. Both A and B
D. All of the above D. Neither A nor B
46. Which part of the brake assembly turns with 49, The effect of servo action and self-energizing
the vehicle’s wheels? action is to:
A. Brake shoes A. Reduce brake fade
B. Wheel cylinder B. Increase the life of friction materials
C. Splash shield C. Increase stopping ability
D. Drum D. Reduce the cost of manufacture
47. The term “servo” refers to the action of: a0: Which of the following is NOT true of dual-
servo brakes?
A. One brake shoe on another
B. Drum rotation on a brake shoe A. They use a single-wheel cylinder.
C. Both A and B B. Both linings are the same size.
D. Neither A nor B C. They use an adjusting link.
D. Both shoes have individual return springs.

147
BRAKE SYSTEM PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND OPERATION
Notes
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