Firenze University Press

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Fuel Cells: A Challenging History

Citation: H. D. Wallace, Jr. (2019)
Fuel Cells: A Challenging History. Harold D. Wallace, Jr.
Substantia 3(2) Suppl. 1: 83-97. doi:
10.13128/Substantia-277 National Museum of American History, Room 5128, MRC 631, 12th St. & Constitution
Ave., NW Washington, DC 20013-0631
Copyright: © 2019 H. D. Wallace, Jr. E-mail: [email protected]
This is an open access, peer-reviewed
article published by Firenze University
Press (http://www.fupress.com/substan- Abstract. Professional and popular journals present fuel cells as the salvation of
tia) and distributed under the terms transportation and electric power infrastructures; the ultimate rechargeable battery.
of the Creative Commons Attribution Engineers and investors alike find them attractive as a modern and elegant alter-
License, which permits unrestricted
native to other electrical generators. On three occasions since W. R. Grove’s initial
use, distribution, and reproduction
in any medium, provided the original research around 1840, widespread adoption of fuel cells seemed imminent. Each
author and source are credited. time, technical challenges in materials and systems integration, along with advances
in other electrical technologies frustrated advocates’ hopes. Despite successful devel-
Data Availability Statement: All rel- opment of several different types, commercialization remains limited to niche appli-
evant data are within the paper and its cations. After 180 years fuel cells remain outside the mainstream of power generation
Supporting Information files. technology. This paper presents an overview of that history. The author discusses
Competing Interests: The Author(s) basic challenges that have faced developers, and suggests how present research may
declare(s) no conflict of interest. benefit from past experience.

Keywords. Fuel cells, gas batteries, electrochemical technology.

...we concluded that the economical production of powerful

currents for commercial purposes ... did not seem to be a
problem likely to be readily solved....
—Charles R. Alder Wright and Charles Thompson, 1889.1

INTRODUCTION

Fuel cells have captivated and frustrated researchers and investors since
1839. A device that quietly combines hydrogen and oxygen to produce elec-
tricity and water would solve many problems in a world dependent on elec-
tric power. Scientists spent decades learning how fuel cells generate electric-
ity, and engineers built them into submarines, automobiles, a farm tractor,
and other devices. Humans traveled to the moon with fuel cells. Yet after 180
years of work, Wright and Thompson’s conclusion remains valid. Significant
commercial adoption remains elusive due to high costs, intractable technical
difficulties, and competition from other technologies.
The seeming simplicity and potential benefits of fuel cells nurtures
optimism rarely deterred by persistent obstacles. 2 In the 1890s, the 1960s,
and around 2000, technical journals and the popular press described fuel

Substantia. An International Journal of the History of Chemistry 3(2) Suppl. 1: 83-97, 2019
ISSN 1827-9643 (online) | DOI: 10.13128/Substantia-277
84 Harold D. Wallace, Jr.

cells as nearing commercial viability. 3 On each occa- AN ELEGANT TECHNOLOGY

sion, development faltered and significant diffusion
failed to occur. Encouraging test results and occasion- Engineers often refer to an especially efficient pro-
al high-profile successes obscured vital facts: fuel cells cess or device as elegant. From the beginning, many
come in non-interchangeable types that must function admirers declared fuel cells (originally called gas batter-
within larger technical and economic systems. Today, a ies) elegant.6 Like batteries, they generate direct current
few are in low-rate production for automotive engines electricity through chemical action. Several types exist
and stationary power. Though prototypes proliferate, and their operational details vary in important ways.
fuel cells remain niche products. Perceived technical Figure 1 shows one type and depicts the general com-
elegance does not convey success in the laboratory or ponents and operating principle. Fuel cells contain two
in the marketplace. electrodes, an anode and a cathode respectively, each
Rather than a triumphal march from discovery to treated with a catalyst, often platinum. Hydrogen intro-
market, fuel cell history provides a sobering counter duced at the anode and oxygen supplied to the cathode
to progressive views of technology development. After interact with the catalyst that facilitates the chemical
a technical review, this article discusses four distinct action. An electrolyte separates the electrodes allowing
periods of fuel cell work. Examining the past brings passage of ions through the cell, while electrons routed
perspective to current events by highlighting recurring externally provide electric power. Recombination of gas-
factors that hindered adoption. The situation of fuel es generates waste heat and water.
cells as components in technological systems—requiring The operating process reverses electrolysis, in which
other devices in order to operate, while meshing with an electric current separates water into hydrogen and
existing infrastructures—served as one factor.4 Another oxygen. Pure hydrogen can be pumped into a fuel cell
is the influence of public and professional perceptions directly or extracted from a hydrogen-containing fuel
on expectations, including the persistent myth that fuel by a reformer. Likewise, cells can use pure oxygen or air.
cells are simple devices on the verge of mass produc- Engineers must manage waste water and heat, control
tion. The article also presents important differences in reaction products that can damage catalysts, and pre-
socially- dependent contexts, such as differing econom- vent the internal leakage of gases and electrolytes. Ide-
ic and technical circumstances of each period, so as to ally cells emit no pollutants or greenhouse gases, though
avoid the fallacy of cyclical history. Setting the recur- environmental challenges exist in mitigating the impact
ring factors in their changing contexts helps explain of cell fabrication and disposal, as well as in obtaining
why fuel cells continue to fascinate despite many disap- and delivering hydrogen fuel. Individual cells yield only
pointments.5 a modest amount of electricity. Arranging cells in stacks
boosts total output to as much as five megawatts. A pow-
er inverter changes the direct current to alternating cur-
rent, if desired.
Fuel cells are typically classed by the form of their
electrolyte. The principle types are: alkali, phosphoric
acid, proton exchange membrane (PEM), molten carbon-
ate, and solid oxide. Some types are more appropriate
than others for certain applications, and each presents
specific technical challenges. Molten carbonate and solid
oxide cells operate at relatively high temperatures and
are usually classed together. High temperatures reduce
the need for expensive catalysts and pure fuels. But cells
and auxiliary equipment tend to be large and immobile,
and reuse of waste heat can be critical to overall system
efficiency. Acid, alkali, and PEM cells operate at lower
temperatures and can be more compact and portable.
But fuel purity becomes an issue and the power output
is reduced.7
Far from simple devices, each type’s history grew
Figure 1. Diagram showing basic fuel cell components. Smithso- ever more distinct through time though some common
nian image. features emerge. Specific technical problems as well as
Fuel Cells: A Challenging History 85

general issues like making and distributing hydrogen each was immersed in a container of sulfuric acid. He
fuel vexed generations of researchers. sealed the other ends separately in containers of oxy-
Meanwhile, other researchers actively refined com- gen and hydrogen, and then measured a constant cur-
peting types of electrical generators.8 In a world of lim- rent flowing between the electrodes. The sealed contain-
ited resources, societies typically made choices based on ers held water as well as the gases, and he noted that
economics rather than technical elegance with the result the water level rose in both tubes as the current flowed.
that fuel cells remain marginalized. Christian Schönbein of Germany (1799-1868) indepen-
dently noted a current in his experiments with platinum
and various gases about the same time.11
DISCOVERY OF A PUZZLE Grove decided to “effect the decomposition of water
by means of its composition” and assembled several sets
In the 1790s, Alessandro Volta of Italy (1745-1827) of electrodes in series, as seen in figure 3. Energy lost as
stacked discs of alternating metals such as zinc and heat eventually stopped the process but Grove’s experi-
silver to create “piles” that produced a steady, continu- ment attracted attention. He named the new device a
ous electric current. His work inspired experimenters gas battery and published several papers on his experi-
worldwide who improved on his discovery.9 Advances ments.12 He noted however, that “I have never thought of
came rapidly and in 1838, Welsh jurist and scientist the gas battery as a practical means of generating voltaic
William Robert Grove (1811-1896, figure 2) devised an power.”13
eponymous wet cell battery. He used a platinum elec- Grove’s discovery challenged a scientific community
trode immersed in nitric acid and a zinc electrode in still defining basic principles of chemistry, electricity,
zinc sulfate. Grove cells proved popular with early teleg- matter, and energy. Gas batteries were, as Wilhelm Ost-
raphers; American Samuel F. B. Morse (1791-1872) used wald (1853-1932) of Germany wrote, “a puzzle” for those
them to power his 1844 “What Hath God Wrought” struggling to understand what caused current to flow
demonstration.10 from some substances but not others.14 And it intensified
While experimenting with his new batteries, Grove a controversy between proponents of two competing the-
arranged two platinum electrodes such that one end of ories. Contact theory, proposed by Volta to explain the
pile and “defended” by Johann Poggendorff (1796-1877)
and Christoph Pfaff, required physical contact between
substances in order for current to flow.15 A rival theory
supported by Grove and Schönbein held that a chemical
reaction generated electricity. Arguments between the
two camps became quite acrimonious.16

Figure 3. Grove’s apparatus for “the decomposition of water...by

Figure 2. Portrait of William Robert Grove. Woodburytype by Lock means of its composition.” W. R. Grove, Trans. Roy. Soc. 1843, 133,
and Whitfield. Smithsonian Institution Libraries. plate V, p. 93.
86 Harold D. Wallace, Jr.

The debate faded as knowledge advanced. Conclud- sity, there would be no particular difficulty in constructing
ing that the gas battery was “of no practical impor- [cells] of this kind, competent to yield currents comparable
tance,” Ostwald recounted the solution of the puz- with those derived from ordinary small laboratory batter-
zle. “The answer is contained in the fact that oxidizing ies; although we concluded that the economical production
of powerful currents for commercial purposes by the direct
agents are always substances that form negative ions
oxidation of combustible gases did not seem to be a prob-
or make positive ions disappear; the reverse is true of lem likely to be readily solved, chiefly on account of the
reducing agents. Oxygen and hydrogen are nothing large appliances that would be requisite.21
more than oxidizing and reducing agents.”17 Ironically
both theories held some truth. Later fuel cell researchers Their concern with “powerful currents for com-
noted that chemical reactions in gas diffusion electrodes mercial purposes” reflected the increasing influence
take place in “the contact zone where reactant, electro- of industrial age goals and organizations on electrical
lyte and catalyst meet.”18 research. Wright and Thompson worked during a period
The controversy’s details are less important here of rapid electrification. They understood that produc-
than the fact of its existence. Ostwald was correct. No ing “currents of moderate magnitude” held little attrac-
practical device emerged from that era, despite several tion for industrialists who wanted to electrify factories
attempts. The primary importance of the gas battery and whole cities.22 After publishing their results, both
in the mid-nineteenth century lay in spurring research turned to other work. Thompson led research at a soap
that refined scientific theory. As scientific understanding manufacturer. Wright, a physician, is remembered as the
improved, researchers shifted to making something use- inventor of heroin.23 Neither returned to fuel cells.
ful. While that focus contributed to basic science—there A few others did take an interest in fuel cells how-
was certainly more to be learned—research turned to ever, even one industrialist. Steam research during the
developing better materials and more efficient designs. 1800s led to higher efficiencies in coal-fired electrical
But by century’s end, Ostwald’s countrymen Ludwig generating plants. A major driver of fuel cell develop-
Mond (1839-1909) and Carl Langer (1859-1935) noted ment since the 1880s has been the desire to escape Car-
that “very little attention has been given by investigators not heat-cycle limits in electrical plants. Some research-
to the [gas battery].”19 ers hoped that fuel cells might enable the direct conver-
sion of coal into electricity. They pursued that goal vig-
orously, leading to a burst of research and publicity.
ENGINEERING AND EXPERIMENTS
American Thomas A. Edison (1847-1931), sought
many ways to cut costs and improve the efficiency of
Public and professional interest in fuel cells briefly
generating electric power for his new lighting system. He
surged in the years around 1900 as several researchers
spent over two years investigating the direct conversion
looked for novel ways to produce electricity. Mond and
of coal and received several patents, but found himself
Langer worked to increase gas batteries’ electrical out-
facing “an insurmountable obstacle.” He could not have
put by means of an earthenware panel soaked with sul-
been encouraged when the experiments resulted in “all
furic acid and fueled with coal-derived “Mond-gas.” But
the windows [being] blown out of his laboratory.”24 Edi-
then they chanced to discover “the carbonyl process for
son rarely wasted time on inventions that showed little
refining and purifying nickel, and [their] attention was
profit potential and soon moved on to other work.
diverted away from fuel cells to the foundation of the
In late 1894, the French team of Louis Paul Caille-
great nickel industry.”20 This would not be the last time
tet (1832-1913) and Louis J. E. Colardeau (?-?) described
that fuel cell researchers turned to other work deemed
a gas battery that used “precious metals” in sponge form
more important or more amenable to success.
to absorb gases, but deemed the process impractical.25
Englishmen Charles R. Alder Wright (1844-1894)
At the same time Wilhelm Borchers (1856-1925) of Ger-
and Charles Thompson (1861- 1892) developed a similar
many described an apparatus for “direct production of
fuel cell about the same time. They made progress but
electricity from coal and combustible gases.”26 American
reported that internal gas leaks interfered with attempts
Charles J. Reed (1858-1943) critiqued Borchers’ work,
to increase voltage output, “even with only infinitesimal
then wrote two papers of his own on this “most promis-
currents.” They concluded,
ing” use of gas batteries.27 Economic questions persisted,
our results were sufficiently good to convince us that if the however. One editorial noted that given the low price
expense of construction were no object, so that large coat- of coal, even if Borchers’ system gave 100% conversion
ed plates could be employed, enabling currents of moder- efficiency consumers would see less than a 10% reduc-
ate magnitude to be obtained with but small current den- tion in electricity prices. “[Assuming] that the [techni-
Fuel Cells: A Challenging History 87

cal] problem were really solved, it does not follow, as is used.31 Though the term gas battery remained in use for
often asserted, that a revolution in the electrical industry a time, newer generations came to call it a fuel cell. And
would result.”28 experimenters in the years around 1900 found fuel cells
That reminder of economic reality soon fell by the to be far more complex than Grove’s gas battery.
wayside. William W. Jacques (1855-1932), an American Despite the flurry of work, fuel cells faded from the
electrical engineer and chemist, “startled the scientific scene for reasons modern developers would recognize:
world and general public,” in 1896, “by his broad asser- costly materials and unfavorable economics.
tion that he had invented a process of making electricity
directly from coal.” Jacques generated current via a “car-
bon battery” in which air injected into an alkali electro- COMPETITION
lyte reacted (or so he believed) with a carbon electrode.
The apparatus, illustrated in a trade journal (figure 4) at Ordinary batteries, for example, provided a less
the time, consisted of 100 cells arranged in series and expensive alternative for important markets that need-
placed on top of a furnace that kept the electrolyte tem- ed low power devices. As with Morse’s use of Grove’s
perature between 400-500 °C. first battery, practical applications supported many bat-
Jacques claimed 82 percent efficiency for his carbon tery producers, creating economies of scale. Aside from
battery, but critics soon pointed out that he had failed to telegraphy, Alexander Graham Bell (1847-1922) and oth-
account for the energy used heating the furnace or driv- ers used batteries to power telephone call stations and
ing the air pump. They calculated an actual efficiency of switchboards. The use of inexpensive materials like lead
only 8 percent. Further research indicated that the cur- and the ease of refilling and refurbishing primary cell
rent generated by his apparatus came not through elec- batteries also drove costs down.
trochemical action, but rather through thermoelectric Aside from single-unit applications such as tel-
action. 29 Even had Jacques’ battery worked as well as ephones, electrical utilities in cities and towns connect-
claimed it left unanswered the economic question raised ed large numbers of batteries into banks to buffer and
by Borchers’ critics. Nonetheless, the desire to convert regulate current on distribution grids. That application
plentiful and inexpensive coal directly into electricity increased demand for batteries, attracted investment,
by way of an electrochemical process continued in the and spurred research. In the larger scope however, most
twentieth century.30 utilities required generators that produced bulk power,
Around this time, the use of fuel stocks like coal and neither batteries nor fuel cells could produce elec-
and manufactured gas gave the fuel cell its modern tricity at that scale.32
name. A follow-on article labeled Borchers’ device a Nor could either efficiently produce the alternating
“fuel battery,” in recognition of the “combustible gas” he current that many utilities wanted for their electric light
and power systems. Though direct current proved use-
ful for heavy motors and industrial applications, utility
executives like Samuel Insull (1859- 1938) of Chicago’s
Commonwealth Edison pushed equipment makers to
improve ac generator technology. In 1904, Insull opened
Fisk Street Station that featured new steam turbine gen-
erators rated at 5 MW each.33 The power industry’s focus
on steam and hydroelectric generators left little interest
in low-power devices like fuel cells, although it did ulti-
mately boost battery development in a roundabout way.
Utilities struggled in the early years to find custom-
ers for electricity generated outside of evening or morn-
ing hours when lighting demand peaked. Insull and
others pushed daytime use of appliances like fans and
irons, and equipment like pumps and elevators in order
to keep generators spinning and improve return on
invested capital. They identified automobiles as a poten-
Figure 4. William Jacques’ carbon battery apparatus showing the tial market for so-called off-peak power. Early internal
furnace at left with carbon cells on top, and air pump at center bot- combustion engines were noisy, dirty, and unreliable,
tom. Electr. Rev. (London) 1898, 42, 128. and many people saw battery-powered electric vehicles
88 Harold D. Wallace, Jr.

as the wave of the future. In the 1900s and 1910s, many aged batteries could reach dangerous concentrations in
utilities supported the idea of recharging electric vehicles the enclosed environment. Bacon set to work at King’s
overnight for urban use during the day. College but after a short time the Royal Navy, battling
Improvements in combustion engines and the crea- German U-boats, reassigned him to a sonar project.
tion of gasoline production and distribution infrastruc- Although promising, fuel cell research again gave way to
tures ultimately pushed electric vehicles aside, but that other priorities.
business model drove investment in battery research.34 No applications emerged during the war, but the
Edison developed his alkali batteries in hopes of enter- research of Bacon and others set the stage for a resur-
ing the market via a route untapped by other inventors. gence of interest in fuel cells afterwards.39 The onset of
Not for the last time, utilities or auto makers determined Cold War competition between the US and the USSR
that component expense and the need for a continuous spurred increased investment in many technologies with
fuel supply made fuel cells an inferior choice compared potential military use, including fuel cells. During the
to batteries. No mass market developed and fuel cells 1950s and 1960s designers tested cells containing differ-
faded from the scene. ent electrolytes in a range of applications. At the same
time, research investment in competing technologies
reduced or eliminated other prospective fuel cell applica-
BACK TO THE LAB tions.

Laboratory work continued during the early decades

of the twentieth century. Karl Siegl (?-?) of Germany MANY POSSIBILITIES
published a paper describing his gas battery work on the
eve of the Great War. After the war, John G. A. Rhodin After the war, Bacon moved to Cambridge and for
(1872-1941) of Britain returned to the idea of direct con- the next twenty years experimented mostly with alka-
version of coal by asking, “Can the heat of combustion li electrolytes, settling on potassium hydroxide. KOH
of coal be turned directly into electric energy?”35 While performed as well as acid and was less corrosive to the
fuel cells generated less interest outside the lab than in porous gas-diffusion electrodes he used.40 Bacon’s work
the 1890s, scientists explored several novel designs, lead- showed good results, but nuclear energy better satisfied
ing to the diversification of fuel cell types. the power requirements for his original application. As
Emil Baur (1873-1944) of Switzerland (with students demonstrated by USS Nautilus in 1954, compact nucle-
at Braunschweig and Zurich) conducted wide-ranging ar reactors allowed submarines to stay submerged for
research into different types of fuel cells during the first extended periods without refueling. The new technology
half of the twentieth century. 36 Baur and Hans Preis provided far more electric power than fuel cells and by
experimented with solid oxide electrolytes using such 1960 the Navy deemed nuclear a superior alternative.
materials as zirconium, yttrium, cerium, lanthanum, At the time, that seemed only an isolated example
and tungsten. Less electrically conductive than they with little impact on fuel cell development. A post-war
hoped, their designs also experienced unwanted chemi- economic boom in the US unleashed a flood of ideas
cal reactions between the electrolytes and various gases, for civilian applications that leveraged Cold War mili-
including carbon monoxide.37 In the 1940s, Oganes K. tary research. The popular press reported many fuel cell
Davtyan (1911-1990) of the Soviet Union added mona- prototypes under development, from DeSoto’s “Cella
zite sand to a mix of sodium carbonate, tungsten tri- 1” concept car (figure 5) and Exide Battery’s “Racer” to
oxide, and soda glass “in order to increase [electrolyte] Electric Boat’s submersible.41 In 1959 Allis- Chalmers
conductivity and mechanical strength.” This design also demonstrated a farm tractor powered by a stack of 1,008
experienced unwanted chemical reactions and short life alkali cells based on Bacon’s work (figure 6). Generating
ratings, but work on high temperature devices by Baur, 15 kW, the tractor could pull about 1400 kg (3000 lb.).
Davtyan and others paved the way for both molten car- Supported by the US Air Force, Allis-Chalmers pursued
bonate and solid oxide fuel cells.38 fuel cell research for some years, also testing a golf cart
Fuel cells in general, however, remained a solution and a fork lift.42
in search of a problem. As Europe plunged toward the Battery maker Union Carbide also experimented
Second World War, a suitable problem suggested itself with alkali cells in this period. Karl Kordesch (1922-
to British scientist Francis T. Bacon (1904-1992). Bacon 2011) and colleagues built on 1930s work by George W.
suggested that fuel cells would be a good substitute for Heise (1888-1972) and Erwin A. Schumacher (1901-1981),
batteries on submarines, where hydrogen gas from dam- to make alkali cells with carbon gas-diffusion electrodes.
Fuel Cells: A Challenging History 89

potential of phosphoric acid cells that ran common fuels

like diesel as well as unusual fuels like hydrazine (fig-
ure 8). An industrial partnership known as the Team
to Advance Research for Gas Energy Transformation,
Inc. supported research in phosphoric acid cells for the
electric power industry, and developed a series of pow-
er plants ranging from about 15 kW in 1969 to nearly 5
MW in 1983.46 Unfortunately phosphoric acid proved a
poor conductor of electricity. That among other issues
slowed the pace of development.
Interest in high temperature fuel cells resurged after
WWII due to their greater tolerance for fuel impurities.
Dutch scientists Gerard H. J. Broers (1920-2003)
and Jan A. A. Ketelaar (1908-2001) began building on
Figure 5. DeSoto “Cella 1” concept model, ca. 1959. From the Sci- the prewar research of Baur and Preis, and Davtyan.
ence Service Historical Images Collection, courtesy De Soto.
They decided that limits on solid oxide conductivity
and life expectancy made short-term progress unlikely
They demonstrated a mobile radar set for the US Army so focused instead on electrolytes of molten carbon-
and designed fuel cells to run an undersea base. Kord- ate salts. By 1960, they demonstrated a cell that ran for
esch turned heads in Cleveland, Ohio by driving around six months using an electrolyte “mixture of lithium-,
in a converted Austin A40 automobile powered by bat- sodium- and/or potassium carbonate, impregnated in
teries and an alkali fuel cell.43 Union Carbide also pro- a porous sintered disk of magnesium oxide.” However,
vided cells for General Motors’ experimental “Electro- they found that the molten electrolyte was slowly lost,
van” (figure 7).44 partly through reactions with gasket materials.47
Amid the work on alkali cells researchers did not Francis Bacon also began working with a molten
abandon acid electrolytes, and many turned to phos- cell, using two-layer electrodes on either side of a “free
phoric acid. In 1961, Glenn V. Elmore (1916-2009) and molten” electrolyte.48 Other groups tested semisolid or
Howard A. Tanner tested an electrolyte of 35 percent “paste” electrolytes, and investigated diffusion electrodes
phosphoric acid and 65 percent silica powder pasted rather than solid ones. Texas Instruments made molten
into a Teflon gasket. “Unlike sulfuric [acid],” they noted, carbonate cells for the Army that ranged in output from
“phosphoric acid is not reduced electrochemically under 100 W to 1 kW (figure 9). The promise of a cell with a
cell operating conditions.”45 The US Army explored the stable solid electrolyte that could tolerate a variety of
fuels sustained modest interest in solid oxides. Research-

Figure 6. Allis-Chalmers fuel cell tractor, 1959. From the Science Figure 7. Sample Union Carbide KOH fuel cell for General Motors
Service Historical Images Collection, courtesy Allis-Chalmers “Electrovan.” NMAH catalog no. 2007.3061.01. Smithsonian Image.
90 Harold D. Wallace, Jr.

Figure 9. Texas Instruments 1 kW molten carbonate fuel cell.

NMAH catalog no. 330031. Smithsonian image.

from General Electric (GE), and a derivative of Bacon’s

cell made by Pratt & Whitney.
W. Thomas Grubb (1923-1994) and Leonard Niedrach
(1921-1995) at GE developed a polymer electrolyte in the
form of a thin, permeable sheet. In 1962, the company
introduced the proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel
cell, proposing small units for the military. The unit ran
on hydrogen made by mixing water and lithium hydride
Figure 8. A soldier refuels a 300 W hydrazine fuel cell, ca. 1964. contained in disposable canisters. Though compact and
Courtesy of the US Army Mobility Equipment R&D Center. portable, the cells’ platinum catalysts were expensive.50
The expense did not deter NASA officials who liked the
compact size and chose PEM cells for Project Gemini.
ers at Westinghouse experimented with a cell using zir- Missions lasting up to fourteen days would test in earth
conium oxide and calcium oxide in 1962.49 orbit equipment and procedures needed for lunar flights.
Unfortunately for GE, their model PB2 unit experienced
problems including internal cell contamination and oxy-
WHEN PRICE IS NO OBJECT gen leakage through the membrane. The first four short
duration Gemini flights used batteries while GE hurriedly
The post-WWII work produced prototypes and con- fixed the problems. Their new model P3 performed poorly
ference papers, but little in the way of practical devices. in Gemini 5 but served adequately on six later flights.51
Fabrication costs continued to run high and substitute The PEM cells’ problems boded ill for NASA’s very
power sources existed for most potential applications. fast schedule to reach the moon. Rather than risk addi-
Only in the mid-1960s did an application emerge that tional delays, the agency chose Pratt & Whitney’s alkali
took advantage of fuel cells: the US space program. Bat- cells for Project Apollo’s service module. The company
teries sufficed for the first piloted spacecraft, the Soviet had licensed Francis Bacon’s patents in the early 1960s
Union’s Vostok and US’ Mercury. But National Aero- and moved into production (figure 10). The alkali cells
nautics and Space Administration (NASA) planners performed well for Apollo, and a decade later space
knew that batteries would be too heavy for lunar expe- shuttle designers chose an updated version. Ultimately
ditions, and fuel cells gave the added advantage of pro- five shuttles made 135 flights between 1981 and 2011
ducing potable water. When reaching the moon became with electrical power provided by alkali cells.
a political priority, concerns about costs receded. NASA Powering spacecraft allowed researchers to gain
ultimately used two types of fuel cells, a novel design operational experience with fuel cells. They could accept
Fuel Cells: A Challenging History 91

Figure 11. Diagram of fuel cell system. Courtesy of US Army Engi-

neer Research & Development Laboratories.

compatibility issues arose. All power sources face these

systems issues, but they add another disincentive to the
high costs of adopting fuel cells.
In the 1960s, specialty markets proved too small
to generate the economies of scale necessary to reduce
fuel cell production costs. Potential mass markets took
advantage of less expensive alternatives. Internal com-
Figure 10. Apollo fuel cell assembly at Pratt & Whitney. From
the Science Service Historical Images Collection, courtesy Pratt & bustion engines could power cars, tractors, and motor-
Whitney. bikes more economically than fuel cells. Gas turbine
engines for aircraft were adapted for electric power sta-
tions; one was even displayed next to a fuel cell at the
1964 World’s Fair (figure 12).53 Propane engines could
high costs since few practical alternatives existed. Driv- power fork lifts, batteries could run small submersibles
en by politics, scientists and engineers spent the money and golf carts. Military users liked the idea of fuel cells
needed to improve cell performance. But space applica- but not well enough to add hydrogen fuels to their logis-
tions proved too limited a market to support that level of tic supply chains.54 They also grew wary of unfulfilled
research. promises when technical and operational difficulties
Technical hurdles remained intractable and research- persisted.55 Some companies (Allis-Chalmers, DeSoto),
ers struggled to find a replacement for expensive plati- failed while others (Texas Instruments, Philco) ceased
num catalysts. Fuel cells still could not compete with fuel cell research. Public and corporate interest waned
other power sources in markets where costs mattered. and fuel cells’ prospects again faded.
Another factor became clear during the post-WWII
period: fuel cells were just one component in holistic
power systems. Figure 11 shows a representative exam- ENERGY & ENVIRONMENT
ple. As Eisler points out, though Bacon and others chose
to ignore this issue, fuel cells required ancillary equip- After the 1973 oil embargo, interest in new power
ment like reformers, hydrogen storage tanks, and invert- sources rebounded and kept money flowing into fuel
ers.52 All those pieces, themselves complex, had to func- cell research. Two potential markets attracted significant
tion compatibly when interconnected. investment: stationary electric power and automobiles.
Modifications to one affected the others, increasing Utilities and auto makers faced the challenge of satisfying
costs and complicating integration into the host device. customers who demanded lower costs and less pollution.
If the application required the fuel cell assembly to func- Attempts to meet those demands led to another
tion within a greater system, such as an electric power round of fuel cell prototypes and demonstrations during
or transportation infrastructure, an external layer of the 1990s and early 2000s. Press releases promised near
92 Harold D. Wallace, Jr.

term availability of commercial products, and indeed a it the impact of malfunctions. 58 That idea came to be
few did emerge for backup and auxiliary power. How- known as distributed generation.
ever, as before, investment in competing technologies Fuel cells held promise for distributed generation in
resulted in advances to alternatives that made fuel cells two ways: as additions to localized power grids, and as
less attractive, hindering widespread adoption.56 stand-alone generators. Manufactured in relatively small,
Electric power utilities faced many difficulties begin- modular units, fuel cells’ cleanliness made them espe-
ning in the 1960s, including blackouts and soaring cially attractive to pollution conscious urban planners.
construction expenses.57 High oil prices led utilities to Nearly 200 fuel cells had been installed in Japan by 2001,
abandon that fuel where possible but replacements often including phosphoric acid units of up to 200 kW capaci-
seemed no better. Nuclear technology faltered in the ty, similar to the unit in figure 13.59 In the late 1990s, the
aftermath of the Three Mile Island meltdown and the US Department of Energy worked with industry groups
Chernobyl disaster. Coal plants needed to install expen- on several demonstration projects. One cogeneration
sive equipment to control emissions that created acid unit coupled a solid oxide fuel cell with a microturbine,
rain and smog, offsetting the low cost of fuel. Renewable while a demonstration plant in Santa Clara, California,
sources like solar and wind power were intermittent and tested a molten carbonate stack.60
expensive, while few acceptable sites remained for new One urban plant demonstrated how non-technical
hydroelectric plants. problems could disrupt fuel cell adoption. Using mostly
Also, a backlash against large scale technical infra- public and some private funding, Consolidated Edison
structures led many people to question the basic con- built a 4.8 MW molten carbonate power plant in New
cept of centralized power systems. Plans to expand high York’s Bedford–Stuyvesant neighborhood (figure 14). An
voltage transmission grids became politically conten- extended period of inspections and reviews, spurred by
tious, especially near scenic or historically sensitive local residents’ fears about the underground storage of
areas. Advocates of decentralized systems argued that naphtha fuel, delayed the plant’s opening date beyond the
small generating plants situated near users would reduce life of the fuel cells. Faced with the need to replace the
transmission losses, be less expensive to build, and lim- expensive cells, Con Ed instead demolished the plant.61
Increased adoption of computer information systems
led users to demand more electricity and better system
reliability. Power fluctuations and outages created expen-
sive service interruptions in commercial and industrial
operations. Generating power onsite, fuel cells reduced
demand on electric grids and provided backup power
during blackouts. Police in New York City’s Central Park
were at first unaware of a 2003 blackout when their sta-

Figure 12. Fuel cell and gas turbine at the 1964 World’s Fair. From
the Science Service Historical Images Collection, courtesy Ameri- Figure 13. UTC 40 kW model PC-18 phosphoric acid fuel cell,
can Gas Association. 1979. Courtesy of the US Department of Energy.
Fuel Cells: A Challenging History 93

Figure 15. Plug Power house with PEM fuel cell in attached enclo-
sure, 2001. Smithsonian image.

Figure 14. Artist’s rendering of the 4.8 MW Bedford–Stuyvesant quickly adopt alternative fuels, they designed lighter
fuel cell power plant. NMAH catalog no. 2008.0006.03. Smithsonian cars with smaller engines, while pushing national gov-
image. ernments to maintain oil supplies.63 They also began to
experiment, often under duress, with possible replace-
ments for internal combustion engines. A compact fuel
tion’s fuel cell kept lights and computers on. Seeking to cell that emitted only water vapor held obvious attrac-
tap the residential market, a company called Plug Pow- tion. Though high temperature and alkali cells would be
er in 1998 demonstrated a stationary PEM unit in the ill-suited for cars, PEM cells looked promising. By 2002,
Albany, New York house seen in figure 15. Promoted as major manufacturers were testing prototype fuel cell
the “first permanent home installation,” the 5 kW power cars—and making grandiose promises, as Hultman and
plant powered the home for about two years. The com- Nordlund noted.64
pany partnered with GE and Detroit Edison with the Transporting some form of hydrogen fuel consti-
goal of marketing a residential fuel cell by 2002.62 tuted a major challenge. Few people would tolerate cars
It seemed in the early 2000s that fuel cells might with exposed hydrogen tanks like Kordesch’s Austin. One
finally be finding a practical niche in stationary power, either needed a reformer to extract hydrogen from a fuel
as several companies began selling commercial units. that existing stations could sell or to create a hydrogen
Advances in other technologies upset those plans, how- distribution infrastructure. Either option would be dif-
ever. A substantial boost in natural gas supplies due to ficult and expensive. Making, compressing, and storing
fracking led utilities to install more gas turbine power hydrogen entailed high energy costs, cutting overall sys-
plants. Cost competitive wind turbines gave them yet tem efficiency.65 Reforming fuel onboard the vehicle, as
another option to replace coal and nuclear plants. Break- with a methanol fuel cell, provided one way to address
throughs in photovoltaics coupled with mass production the issue. However, byproducts of the reforming process
dramatically cut the cost of solar cells. Utilities began poisoned cell catalysts, a familiar problem, and corro-
installing solar farms for local use or to feed the grid. sion problems required use of an acid electrolyte.66 The
Many people installed solar panels to generate electricity byproducts also belied claims of a non- polluting engine.67
for use or sale to local utilities during the day, while tak- Centralized refueling stations for urban trucks and
ing grid power in sunless times. buses, like the battery recharging stations of the early
Manufacturers integrated small solar panels on 1900s, seemed a reasonable first step. H-Power, George-
equipment like road signs, replacing combustion gen- town University, and the Energy Department adapted a
erators and eliminating the need for either petroleum or 50 kW Fuji Electric phosphoric acid cell for transit bus-
hydrogen fuel. es and began test runs in 1994 (figure 16). Phosphoric
acid cells require an extended warm-up period, making
them better suited for commercial vehicles than for per-
AUTOMOTIVE CELLS sonal cars. Four years later, Georgetown, Nova BUS, and
the US Transportation Department began tests of a bus
Like electric companies, car makers also needed powered by a 100 kW cell from a joint venture of Toshi-
to cut pollution and improve fuel efficiency. Unable to ba and United Technologies.68
94 Harold D. Wallace, Jr.

Figure 16. H Power phosphoric acid fuel cell bus, 1996. Courtesy of Figure 17. Micro-fuel cell by Fraunise ISE for mobile phone. Cour-
the US Department of Energy. tesy of Fuel Cells 2000.

During this time an unexpected cost hurdle commercial products could be introduced though, new
emerged. One of the most expensive materials in many nickel-metal hydride and then lithium-ion batteries
fuel cells, platinum, also proved critical for the catalyt- changed the market. Despite the latter’s thermal prob-
ic converters that car makers needed to control engine lems, batteries were easier to integrate into electronic
emissions. Increased demand for platinum raised the devices than micro fuel cells.
price of the already expensive metal. Replacing an inter- One 2013 study found 109 firms in nine countries
nal combustion engine with a fuel cell might eventually engaged in fuel cell research partnerships.71 Despite all
remove the need for catalytic converters and substitute that effort and publicity, by the early 2010s fuel cells
one platinum containing product for another. But such again fell out of favor. Plug Power demolished their test
a shift might take decades, and that pushed cost reduc- house in 2002 and shelved plans for residential PEM
tions too far out for most investors, reducing the attrac- fuel cells. The Tennessee Valley Authority reactivated a
tion of automotive fuel cells. closed nuclear facility instead of installing a regenerative
Another option was to find a bridge technology that fuel cell system. Auto makers, who promised affordable
could work with the existing petroleum infrastructure. fuel cell vehicles in showrooms by 2004, quietly pulled
In 1997, major auto makers began to promote gas-elec- back from all but a few high-priced models. US govern-
tric hybrid vehicles that used a small gasoline motor in ment funding for fuel cells was cut in 2008, with one
combination with an electrical generator to recharge official citing “four miracles” needed to bring the tech-
batteries or power electric motors. They also invested nology to market.72 Even in spacecraft like the Interna-
at least as much in battery research as in fuel cells. The tional Space Station, high efficiency solar panels rather
Tesla electric automobile in 2003 along with the com- than fuel cells provided power.
pany’s massive battery factory in Nevada shows how
sustained research and investment in both product and
power source might lead to economies of scale. LESSONS OF NON-CYCLICAL HISTORY
Commercially available hybrids and battery powered
cars began moving a market that might have supported Nearly two centuries after Grove’s discovery, fuel
mass production of fuel cells in a different direction. cell researchers have made significant advances even
Advances in battery technology also disrupted while the basic concept remains unchanged. Thrice dur-
another potential market: portable electronics. Sev- ing that period fuel cells seemed on the verge of wide-
eral companies experimented with micro fuel cells spread adoption only to fade from view. History never
they hoped could replace rechargeable batteries in cell repeats, despite the tired old adage. So how are we to
phones, laptop computers, and portable audio players take lessons from an account that seems to do just that?
(figure 17). Millions of small electronic devices created One key is to look for changes in the larger societal con-
environmental concerns about the disposal of used bat- texts within which technologies exist, especially eco-
teries containing toxic materials like cadmium and mer- nomic and political changes, while remembering that
cury.69 A Motorola engineer at a 2001 conference report- human nature tends to persist. Understanding context
ed problems with water transport in cells for phones, but helps explain historical differences. Understanding peo-
claimed progress on a cell for laptop computers.70 Before ple helps explain historical similarities.
Fuel Cells: A Challenging History 95

One lesson is to look beyond functional elegance to aided design and fabrication tools. The ability to model
mundane economics. Since 1839 people have been capti- physical and chemical interactions before making exper-
vated by the idea of combining hydrogen and oxygen to imental devices speeds research. Additive manufacturing
generate electricity and water. There simply must be a way may permit economical production of complex compo-
to use that idea, so fuel cells have always been a solution nent designs. Researchers today also have the internet, a
in search of a problem. Yet technical elegance is neither high-speed global communications system that permits
necessary nor sufficient to produce a return on invest- far-flung collaborations. Access to searchable digital
ment. Every time engineers found a seemingly realistic archives makes the results of ongoing and past research
use for fuel cells, a competitor better met users’ needs. readily available. Changes in information technol-
Internal combustion engines, steam turbines, photovolta- ogy shift the basic nature of scientific and engineering
ics, and batteries all set technical and economic challeng- research in ways that should not be underestimated.
es for developers. But each of those power sources attract- One of the most enduring human features of fuel
ed additional investment that advanced their capabilities cells is the feeling among advocates that solutions are
when a compatible application proved commercially suc- close. In 1884, Edison gave himself five years to find an
cessful. Advocates should pay close attention to alternate answer, and expected some “lucky” person would suc-
technologies and business models because there are no ceed.76 In 1960, two GE engineers felt that use in “special
uncompetitive applications for fuel cells. applications...within the next five years” was “likely.”77 In
Nineteenth century researchers would recognize 2010, a Penn State engineer commented on the “fickle”
many difficulties their descendants struggle with. The nature of US government support, giving another five-
need for expensive rare earths, especially platinum, is year estimate “to make hydrogen technologies consum-
one; the need for readily available pure gases is another. er- ready.” 78 In 2013, a policy analyst recognized that
Yet the technical environs within which those difficulties companies, “always believed things could be fixed with
exist have changed. Inexpensive solar cells may enable a little more time and a little more money;” and then
efficient production of pure hydrogen. Recent experiments proposed a major national research program “to uncover
with aqueous fuels based on recyclable boron hydride may the secrets of the fuel cell.”79
offer a sustainable fuel distribution infrastructure without In part those feelings stem from technical naive-
the energy loss of compressing hydrogen.73 Still, the basic té conflating fuel cells that run on pure hydrogen with
material costs must be dramatically reduced for fuel cells those that run on other fuels, a definitional difference
to become commercially competitive. that Eisler noted.80 The economic and energy problems
Today’s researchers do face hurdles many of their that made pure hydrogen a poor fuel choice have not
predecessors did not. For one, the need to design equip- been solved by research on reforming coal, gas, or petro-
ment that meets established standards. Whether those leum fuels.
are electrical, manufacturing, or safety standards, once Technical advances provided a dose of positive rein-
in place new devices must operate within those set forcement but failed to meet users’ immediate needs as
parameters. Standards can advance quality and pro- well as other technologies. A cold accounting for recur-
mote efficiency. Setting standards is an act of control ring optimism may indeed be “disheartening for young
that can eliminate some competitors and raise costs for [engineers],” but it is also essential to avoid another
others.74 Standards internal to fuel cell technology have round of wasted money and dashed hopes.81 Practical
been crafted, but engineers must also account for exter- fuel cells will not emerge from the lab unless they can be
nal standards like building codes that affect other power produced and operated sustainably in both environmen-
sources as well.75 tal and economic terms.
A related difference is the need for economic com- Other similarities and differences exist, and we
patibility with associated system components. Fuel cells cannot predict how this story will unfold. Perhaps fuel
must work with power inverters and control equipment; cells are doomed to perpetual impracticality. Perhaps
ideally those should already exist in manufacturers’ persistence will finally lead to mass adoption. Few peo-
product catalogs. Special versions of those components ple doubt the unsustainability of fossil fuels, only the
can be made, but that introduces additional design, test- timing of when they will run out or be abandoned to
ing, fabrication, and certification costs that are coun- mitigate climate change. So demand for clean, low-cost
terproductive. Incompatible variations between fuel cell power sources seems assured. Perhaps batteries and
types exacerbates the problem. renewables will meet that demand. Perhaps a political-
Fuel cell researchers today enjoy advantages their ly-driven shift away from combustion engines coupled
predecessors could only dream of, such as computer- with low-cost hydrogen generated using cheap solar
96 Harold D. Wallace, Jr.

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