The Ethiopian Journal of Higher Education Vol. 6 No.

1 June 2019 59
Cooperative Training in the Ethiopian TVET Institutions:
Adequacy, Usefulness and Challenges

Teshome Tola1 and Girma Zewdie2

Received: 18 October 2020; Accepted: 24 March 2022

Abstract: This study set out to assess the adequacy, usefulness and
challenges of cooperative training activities run by public TVET institutions in
collaboration with local industries and/or enterprises. A descriptive survey
design was employed to collect quantitative data from randomly selected
trainees and purposively selected trainers (N=238), using a 38-item Likert
Scale type questionnaire. Five TVET institutions were involved from two
regional states and one city administration in Ethiopia. Percentage, mean score
and t-test were used to analyze quantitative data. Results indicated that the
cooperative training was adequate for the needs of trainees, and equally useful
to the three stakeholders of the program. The study concluded that despite the
adequacy and usefulness of the cooperative training program activities, some
challenges of varying levels and types were identified as influencing the smooth
operation of the program activities. Possible recommendations were forwarded
for future practice and further research.

Keywords: Cooperative Training, TVET Institutions, Trainee, Industry,

Adequacy, Usefulness, Challenges

1
Assistant Professor, Department of Curriculum and Instruction College of
Education Behavioral Studies, Addis Ababa University, Email:
[email protected]
2
Associate Professor, Department of Curriculum and Instruction College of
Education Behavioral Studies, Addis Ababa University
60 Teshome Tola and Girma Zewdie

Introduction

Any society establishes TVET programs with the expectation that they
would play triple roles in the economy of the country. They help improve
individual livelihoods and facilitate further education, create employment
opportunities for graduates, and meet the human power needs of the
country’s economy (Educkans Foundation, 2012). Although traditional
TVET training existed for long time in Ethiopia (woodwork, metal work,
tannery, weaving, etc.), modern TVET was introduced by the opening of
Tegbare’id Poly Technique School in Addis Ababa in the 1940s
(Zelalem, 2018) with the understanding of its potential for economic
development. Despite the economic benefits, TVET training received
marginal status in Ethiopia from both parents and students for many
years (Melaku, 2017). Apathy to blue–collar jobs by graduates,
streaming of low achievers into TVET programs, low self-efficacy of
graduates, low awareness and negative attitude of the community
towards manual skills, etc. have for long negatively influenced the growth
and development of education and training in the TVET sub-sector. With
the adoption of the Education and Training Policy by the Transitional
Government of Ethiopia (TGE, 1994), TVET seems to have received
more attention than it did during the preceding decades. The
government’s intent to strengthen TVET is reflected in the policy
statement “Parallel to general education, diversified TVET will be
provided for those who leave school from any level of education” (TGE,
1994, Article 3.2.8). The policy laid fertile ground for the establishment
of public as well as private institutions in the country indicating the
commitment of the government to creating conducive environments for
private investors so that they open and run various educational and
training institutions. The government of Ethiopia continued to show its
commitment to the expansion of TVET by issuing Proclamation No.
391/2004 (FDRE, 2004). This proclamation declared the governance
structure to be shared by the Federal Government as well as the
Regional States. At the national level, the Ministry of Education is
mandated to carry out three main tasks as related to TVET. Accordingly,
the Ministry Issues Occupational Standards, accredits the training
 The Ethiopian Journal of Higher Education Vol. 6 No. 1 June 2019 61
institutions and issues Certificate of Competency after conducting
competency assessment. Likewise, the regional TVET Agencies
supervise the implementation of guidelines and procedures issued by
the Federal Ministry, accredit institutions and issue certificates to
graduates. To help guide efforts at translating the proclamation into
effect, the government had also developed National TVET Strategy in
2008. The strategy aims:

to create a competent, motivated, adaptable and

innovative workforce in Ethiopia contributing to
poverty reduction and social and economic
development through facilitating demand-driven,
high quality technical and vocational education
and training relevant to all sectors of the
economy, at all levels and to all people (MoE,
2008, p. 12).

One of the specific objectives of the national TVET strategy is the

creation of framework for all actors and stakeholders in the TVET system
which has direct implication for cooperative training.

According to the Ethiopian TVET Strategy, apprenticeship is defined as

job training carried out by a trainee in an organization to put to practice
the technical and vocational education and training acquired in a training
institution (FDRE, 2004). Apprenticeship training is also known as
cooperative training. The national TVET Strategy describes cooperative
training as follows:

Cooperative TVET is a mode of TVET provided in partnership

between enterprises and TVET institutions. Usually, the bulk
of practical training takes place in an enterprise, while theory
and initial practical exposure is provided by the TVET
institution (MoE, 2008, P30).
62 Teshome Tola and Girma Zewdie

While the vocational technical education and training curriculum

prescribes theoretical knowledge-based learning comprising of 30% to
be held in the formal training institutions, the rest 70% practical training
must take place in industries/enterprises. The practical skills training
given in the training institutions are neither sufficient nor adequate to
equip the trainees with the skills required in the world of work. The
training equipment as well as supplies needed for skills development are
hard to come by in the training institutions due to lack of financial as well
as other resources such as skilled and competent trainers in the different
fields. The training equipment, where available, does not entertain all
students within a short period of time. To overcome the problem of
scarcity, instructors would resort to using demonstration either
conducted by the trainers themselves or groups of few students while
the rest of the trainees remain mere observers and/or imitators. TVET
based practical training of this type mostly suffers from lack of relevance
to the needs of employers. Partnering with enterprises, therefore,
becomes the only way out of the vicious circle of materials scarcity and
lack of opportunities for practical skills training. Such partnerships are
hoped to narrow the skills gaps of trainees and spending long time on
job shadowing, observation, rehearsal, supervised rudimentary trial and
then to help carrying out tasks with speed and accuracy.

The present study seeks to find answers to the following research

questions as related to adequacy knowledge acquisition, skills
development as well as attitudes and value formation among the
trainees and usefulness of the practical skills development endeavor to
the three parties involved in the cooperative training as well as the
challenges encountered by the CTP activities.

Research Questions

1. How do the trainees and trainers perceive the adequacy of the

cooperative training activities for the needs of the trainees?
2. How useful is the program to the trainees, the training institutions
and the industry?
 The Ethiopian Journal of Higher Education Vol. 6 No. 1 June 2019 63
3. Is there statistically significant difference between trainees’ and
trainers’ responses regarding CTP’s adequacy and usefulness?
4. What were the challenges faced by the cooperative training
scheme?

Review of Related Literature

The Concept of Cooperative Training

For many years in the past, graduates of vocational technical education

programs in Ethiopia experienced unemployment basically for two
reasons. On the one hand, their training programs were theory laden and
in most cases devoid of practical application which ultimately led to the
mushrooming of unskilled graduates in the labor market. Secondly, lack
of relevant and adequate skills in turn prohibited the program graduates
from being employed either in the formal or the informal sector of the
economy. In addition, due to the limited number of employing
organizations (industries) in the country, the supply of TVET graduates
was by far exceeding the demand for skilled human power. This in turn
worsened the unemployment situation.

Cooperative training is the method that combines on-the-job and regular

instructions by relating the practical and theoretical aspect of the job, and
the trainee acquires both technical skills and theoretical knowledge
needed to perform a particular job. In this type of training, the trainee
(also known as apprentice) often makes use of the same materials,
equipment and machines employed in the actual workplace. He/she is
exposed to the same real environmental constraints under which the
activity is operated (Abeguki, et al., 2014). The trainee is couched by a
person performing the job in a particular job position and also assisted
by a designated supervisor who will involve in assessing competence
and capabilities formed by the apprentice during the attachment period.
Similarly, Engeetou (2017) contends that the core idea of such training
is ‘learning by doing’ where the supervisor or the more experienced
employees show the trainee how to carry out a specific task. Following
64 Teshome Tola and Girma Zewdie

the directions of the supervisor, the apprentice takes the role over and
performs out the task while the supervisor observes and coaches.

According to an unpublished paper by Otchia and Yamada (2021) an

interesting point of a cooperative TVET is that its delivery serves as a
means of increasing relevance and facilitating transition of graduates
from school to work. The cooperative training is a practical skills
development scheme offered through the cooperation between
industries/enterprises and training institutions, whereby 70 percent of the
training content is provided in the organizations and 30 percent in the
vocational training institution.

It is an activity that helps the trainee get acquainted with work where
he/she directly interacts with experienced workers and the work
procedures to test theory in practice. It has three-fold advantages - for
the trainee, the training institution and the hosting organization. The
trainee gets practical inputs for theoretical lessons and also sees
relations and/or differences between classroom lessons and workplace
realities. MoE (2008) claims that trainees, when exposed to the
apprenticeship program, would come into direct contact with the world of
work and learns the occupational practice in real life situations. Practical
training, according to Alipou and associates (2009), pervades every level
of a country’s economy from national, to company as well as the
individual whose skills are enhanced and as a result lead to improvement
of their position in the workplace. Secondly, the hosting organization gets
cheap labor for its activities and also grasps the opportunity to know and
recruit better able and qualified workforce that fills vacant positions
(Spaulding and Martin-Caughey, 2015) so as to carry out the tasks
desired by work environment. Thirdly, the training institution receives
feedback on the effectiveness of its training program and modes of
delivery.

Proclamation No. 391/04 in its “Part Three” determines roles and

responsibilities of the three parties involved in cooperative training.
Article 21 (8) of the proclamation stipulates that the organization selected
 The Ethiopian Journal of Higher Education Vol. 6 No. 1 June 2019 65
for providing apprenticeship training would be responsible to give
feedback “by inspecting the skill that the trainee acquired and forward
opinion to the concerned organ as to the competency of the institution”
(FDRE, 2004). On top of this, the hosting organization also takes part in
evaluating the trainees’ performance through completing evaluation
forms specifically prepared for this purpose. Providers of apprenticeship
programs also contribute to the further development of the TVET
institutions and lessen their financial burden (MoE, 2008) as the
institutions fail to invest in expensive machineries, equipment, materials
and supplies needed for practical training.

According to Shaorshadze and Krishnan (2012), TVET institutions are

charged with the responsibility of identifying potential employers so that
they could provide apprenticeship experience for the TVET trainees.
Despite the provision of Article 21 (9) in the TVET Proclamation that
underlines the importance of cooperation with the institution, more often
than not, the effort was successful with employers in the government
sectors while others stood against this practice and even considered the
trainees as burden to their operations.

Engaging employers in cooperative training is an important strategy for

pre-service and in-service workforce development programs. It can help
align programs with employer needs so participants can secure jobs
after completion of their training (Barnow and Spaulding 2015; Maguire
et al. 2010). Cooperative Training programs are means of building and
strengthening relationships between employers and training institutions.
Furthermore, such programs are also channels for promoting relevance
of the training curricula to the needs of the industry.

Cooperative training is critical for promoting quality and relevance of the

training programs of the institutions. Omitting such program activities
from the curriculum of TVET institutions often leads to training that is
ineffective, inefficient, or unnecessary (Foshay & Tinkey, 2007).
66 Teshome Tola and Girma Zewdie

The overall purpose of cooperative training is assisting the individual

trainee to get opportunity for testing theoretical knowledge gained from
the training institution in the actual workplace. While participating in such
programs, the trainee makes relationship and/or identifies differences
between the two thereby constructing new knowledge and ways of doing
things. It is also a strategy which brings the training institution and the
employer together so that each party shares its expectations that could
be met through joint planning.

Operational Definitions of Terms

Cooperative Training: A practical training carried out in the hosting

enterprises/industry. Terms such as “apprenticeship” and “on-the job
training” are also used interchangeably.

TVET Institutions: Post-secondary learning institutions that provide

theoretical and practical skills training to trainees.

Industry: Any public and/or private company that hosts trainees from
TVET institutions and provides practical skills training to them. Terms
such as employing organization, company, and enterprise are
interchangeably used for industry.

Historical Development of Vocational Education and Training in Ethiopia

Although modern education in Ethiopia had its roots beginning 1908 with
the official opening of Menelik II School, it was after three decades that
formal vocational schools appeared on the educational scene of the
country. According to Berhanu Dibaba et al. (1988), the 1935 Italian
invasion massacred the young Ethiopians who had been trained earlier,
and imported Italian artisans and technicians to develop its colonial
economic and social infrastructures. The defeat of the Italian force and
the departure of the technicians, however, created the gap for skilled
human power in the modern economic sector (Berhanu, et al. 1988:45).
 The Ethiopian Journal of Higher Education Vol. 6 No. 1 June 2019 67
The restoration of the Imperial power was a characteristic turning point
in the birth of technical vocational education in Ethiopia towards the
beginning of the 1940s. To meet the demand for skilled technicians in
the industrial sector, as Teshome (1979) points out, the Addis Ababa
Technical School was established in 1943. The school underwent
several re-organizations from time to time in terms of educational
structure, curriculum and language of instruction.

Established in 1945, and offering a four year course in modern concepts

of business practice, the Commercial School of Addis Ababa came into
being as a second vocational school in the country. One year later in
1946, Ambo Agricultural School was opened and remained at secondary
level until 1951.

Besides these, there were also other vocational schools operated by

other ministries. Such schools include the Telecommunications Training
School, the EELPA Training Institute, the Ethiopian Airlines and Air
Force Training Schools, Nursing Schools, etc. (Teshome 1979:59-61).
Moreover, there were also other vocational schools run by private
organizations and missionaries.

After the 1974 Ethiopian Revolution, the Ministry of Education attempted

to introduce a system of comprehensive secondary school where both
academic and vocational subjects such as Agriculture, Book-keeping,
Home economics, and Productive technology were taught to students
beginning from grade 9. However, the vocational courses offered were
entirely theoretical and could not meet their objectives mainly due to lack
of human material and financial resources.

With intent to establish vocational schools in the regions, the Ministry of

Education had introduced a program of 10 + 3 vocational/technical
systems. Up to 1994, there were 17 such schools in different parts of the
country. Students were admitted to these schools from grade 10 and
received both academic and vocational /technical subjects for three
years. As stated by MOE, the students were selected and admitted to
68 Teshome Tola and Girma Zewdie

these schools according to their interest, abilities and achievements

upon completing grade 10 (MOE, 1981:186).

According to the current Education and Training Policy of Ethiopia,

vocational/technical schools would give training to those who after
completing grade ten do not continue general education. Immediately
after the policy went operational, the MOE established 25 Skill
Development Centres throughout the regional states, which offer
technical training to those who have completed grade 12. With the
implementation of the curriculum that came into being following the
advent of the Education and Training Policy (TGE, 1994), the skills
development centers turned into TVET institutions and continued their
services by admitting grade ten graduates. As reported by Otchia and
Yamada (2021), up to 2014, the number of TVET institutions had
reached over 1,300 while enrolment went beyond two million.

TVET Research in Ethiopia

Research in the area of technical vocational education in Ethiopia seems

to have received little emphasis. This might be the reflection of the poor
attention given to the TVET sub-sector in the Ethiopian Education
system. The society’s negative attitude towards manual work in favor of
white collar jobs, limited access to the training institutions owing to their
scarcity, lack of diversification of the economy, etc. have contributed to
the marginal position accorded the TVET sub-sector. One may speculate
that such neglect had de-motivated researchers making them lose
interest in studying the field at the desired level. Since the introduction
of modern education to the country in 1908, there had been only 17
technical vocational schools in the country for long time in Ethiopia.
Following the adoption of the Education and Training Policy by the
Transitional Government of Ethiopia in 1994, TVET got recognition
which led to expansion of institutions throughout the country.
 The Ethiopian Journal of Higher Education Vol. 6 No. 1 June 2019 69
At the same time, the sector also began attracting researchers. For
example, Mesay and Teferi (2016) investigated the ‘Implementation of
Technical and Vocational Training Strategy in Agricultural Sector in
Ethiopia: Practices, Challenges and the Way Forward’. Findings indicate
that the role of ATVET in technology transfer, productivity enhancement,
agricultural commercialization, rural economic growth and
environmental protection is vital. However, its realization has been
constrained by several adverse factors such as graduates’ lack of
practical skills among others. Eden (2012) analyzed ‘Labor Outcomes of
TVET in Ethiopia: Implication of Challenges and Opportunities in
Productive Self-employment of TVET Graduates.’ Her findings indicate
that TVET graduates are highly involved in the labor market as potential
employees and government wage employees rather than engaging in
job creation activities which was envisaged by the national TVET
program.

Getachew’s (2016) study titled, ‘Competence-Based Technical-

Vocational Education and Training in Ethiopia’ found that the Ethiopian
education system, including TVET lacked consistency in political
governance that affected stability of policy direction despite the
introduction of TVET since the 1940s.

Melaku’s (2019) study which focused on identifying practices of quality

assurance in the TVET system of the Amhara Regional State found that
“the TVET quality in the study area has been persistently stricken with
meager supply of necessary resources” (p. 80). Such lack of resources
reflects back on the quality of training and low level of skills development
making the graduates less relevant to the needs of enterprises that could
offer wage employment and/or poses obstacles to attempts at becoming
self-employed.

Nahom (2006) studied the streaming of students to TVET programs in

Ethiopia by drawing data from two institutions in Addis Ababa. His
findings suggested that lack of information on the benefits of vocational
training, limited progression to tertiary level education and the
70 Teshome Tola and Girma Zewdie

procedures of streaming students influenced students’ choices to take

up training in TVET field. Melaku (2017) studied graduate employability
and career decision, the findings of which showed that occupational
prestige, interest in higher qualification levels, as well as preferences for
paid employment were among the driving forces for employment
decisions among TVET graduates of the Amhara region. Abebe (2017)
studied policy-practice gaps relating to students with disabilities in
Ethiopia and found that the issues of strategy, prioritization, and
implementation were not adequately dealt with concerning persons with
disabilities.

The above mentioned Ethiopian studies much dwelt on identification of

factors that negatively affected the expansion and relevance of TVET
training in the country. Lack of policy directions, failure to involve persons
with disability, lack of awareness about the benefits of TVET and
disinterest on the part of potential trainees to join manual jobs,
preferences for paid employment, shortage of training resources and
failure of training institutions to equip trainees with practical activities,
etc., affected the achievement of TVET objectives in Ethiopia. Involving
trainees in the cooperative training programs is hoped to minimize much
of these challenges by bringing the three parties (enterprises, institutions
and trainees) together for mutual benefits.

Method

A descriptive survey design was employed to collect quantitative data

from trainers, and trainees (N = 238). A total of 5 TVET institutions drawn
from two regional states (Amhara, Oromia) and one city administration
(Addis Ababa), Ethiopia were involved in the survey. The two regional
states and the city administration were purposively selected with the
belief that they represent large geographic areas in the country. The five
TEVT institutions were selected by using lottery method (simple random
sampling) from among those having ease of transport access. Trainees
(N=190) and Instructors (N=48) were selected using random-sampling
as well as purposive techniques respectively from different fields of
 The Ethiopian Journal of Higher Education Vol. 6 No. 1 June 2019 71
study. To go about the selection, list of trainees was obtained from their
respective departments and every sixth person in the list was selected
systematically as member of the sample until the required sample size
was secured. Instructors who supervised these trainees during the
cooperative training period were purposively selected with the belief that
they would have a similar encounter of the CTP site as their students. A
survey questionnaire containing a total of 38 Likert Scale type items
(divided into 4 subscales) was adapted and modified from the work of
Donkor, Nsoh, and Mitchual (2009). The original questionnaire
contained 44 items each of which was rated over 4-point scale. The
adapted instrument was modified by omitting six items that do not relate
to the research questions. In addition, the original instrument that had 4
scale points was modified to a three Likert Type scale for easy
comparison of respondents’ views. The scores on the scale ranged from
1 to 3 with the expected mean being 2.00. The survey questionnaire thus
modified has 5 parts. Part one intended to collect demographic data. Part
two contained 9 items that measured the adequacy of the cooperative
training for the needs of the trainees. Part three contained 10 items that
measured the usefulness of the program to the stakeholders (trainees,
the TVET institutions and the industry). Part four, with 8 items, measured
the extent of skills acquisition by the trainees during the cooperative
training attachment, while part five contained 11 items meant to identify
types and levels of challenges encountered by the trainees during the
cooperative training period.

Reliability analysis was calculated for the 38 items in the questionnaire

to determine the acceptability of the instrument for collecting data in the
local context by administering the questionnaire to 30 trainees and 10
trainers on one TVET institution found in Addis Ababa. The analysis then
produced Cronbach’s Alpha reliability of 0.74. According to Cortina
(1993), a Cronbach’s alpha result of 0.70 is acceptable, 0.80 or greater
is preferred, while higher is better. Therefore, the researchers were
convinced that the questionnaire was reliable to measure and produce
similar results when used with different groups as the calculated
Cronbach Alpha reliability was greater than 0.70 which is acceptable.
72 Teshome Tola and Girma Zewdie

240 copies of the questionnaire were distributed to the two groups of

respondents with assistance from coordinators of cooperative training
programs in each institution. Of these, 238 completed questionnaires
were collected back with 99% return rate. Two of the instructors
belonging to two TVET institutions did not complete and submit by the
time we collected the filled in questionnaire

Each item in the four sub-scales was rated over 3-point scale. The
collected data were quantitatively analyzed using SPSS version 20
Software. Mean scores, independent sample t-test, and one-way
ANOVA were used as techniques of analysis. Rejection of the null
hypothesis was set at the .05 level of significance. Data were organized
in the form of tables and interpretations made to arrive at valid
conclusion.

Results

Data analyses were carried out in the order of the research questions.

1. How adequate are the cooperative training activities for the needs
of the trainees?

Adequacy of the cooperative training program to the trainees was

assessed using 9 items which seek to identify the level of adequacy of
the program activities in terms of knowledge acquisition, attitude and
value formation as well as development of technical skills by the
trainees. Item level analysis indicated over 93% of the respondents
witnessed that the cooperative training program was adequate in helping
trainees acquire new knowledge that was never experienced during
theoretical instruction at their respective institutions. It also created
opportunity for testing previously acquired knowledge in practical hands-
on situations. It was reported by a good number of the study participants
that working in the apprenticeship environment enhanced the
modification of previously acquired knowledge as the trainees got new
inputs from workplace supervisors and/or experienced workers. The
 The Ethiopian Journal of Higher Education Vol. 6 No. 1 June 2019 73
cooperative training scheme was carried out with the prime objective of
meeting enhancement of training quality and promotion of relevance of
TVET to the requirements of the labor market. In addition, the scheme is
hoped to facilitate the future transition from school to work and
employability of graduates.

For about 89% of the research participants, beyond assisting the

trainees sharpen manipulative skills already acquired in the institutions,
the industrial attachment was adequate in exposing the trainees to new
technologies, machines, equipment and materials as well as their
functions and operations. On top of this, 84% of the respondents claimed
that the practical performance at the workplace required the apprentices
to apply safety rules and procedures taught to them during the beginning
of the cooperative training activities.

The Cooperative training program was also adequate in helping trainees

develop positive attitude towards work and form habits of working in
teams which in turn lead to developing team spirit and interpersonal skills
in the trainees. Item level analysis showed that the CTP was also rated
as adequate by 72% of the respondents in making trainees develop self-
confidence to carry out production tasks independently of mentors or
workplace supervisors. Attainment of interpersonal skills is another form
of attitude development which was rated as adequate by 68% of the
trainers and trainees alike. One aspect of developing interpersonal skills
is oral communication between workplace staff and the trainees.
According to most of the respondents (82%), the program was greatly
adequate in building communication skills. Such skills have the value of
promoting personal growth and development for each individual, as well
as the quality of skill which trainees can transfer to their future career.
74 Teshome Tola and Girma Zewdie

Table 1: Adequacy of CTP to trainees

Adequacy for Less than Adequate More than

Adequate Adequate
Knowledge acquisition f 66 141 31
% (28) (59) (13)
Skills development f 34 186 18
% (14) (78) (8)
Attitude formation f 62 130 46
% (26) (55) (19)

Overall, the cooperative training program activities were rated as

adequate and more than adequate by 72%, 86% and 74% for knowledge
acquisition, skills development and attitude formation respectively. It can
thus, be concluded that the cooperative training activities were strong
enough in meeting their objectives of developing the knowledge, attitude
and skills of trainees who participated in the apprenticeship program.
Enterprises are always expected to offer practical training through the
provision of industrial knowledge, practical skills and work attitudes. The
program, therefore, is helpful to the trainees in that they relate the
theoretical lesson of the classroom with the reality in the hosting
organizations. It also enables them to refine their previously acquired
knowledge and form new understandings from their practical
experiences at the workplace. Further, the program is judged sufficient
for trainees to acquire both soft and hard skills they have never
encountered before as it exposes them to new people and work culture,
new and up to date materials, equipment and machines which are hard
to come by in the TVET institutions. As trainees interact with experienced
staff at the work site, they develop interpersonal communication skills
and sharpen manipulative skills by working with new technologies. The
cooperative training program was also judged good in promoting positive
attitude towards work, development of self-confidence in handling tasks
independently as well as formation of team spirit.
 The Ethiopian Journal of Higher Education Vol. 6 No. 1 June 2019 75
2. How useful is the program to the trainees, the training institutions
and the industry?

Usefulness of the cooperative training was assessed using a ten-item

subscale. Some of the items focused on determining the level of
usefulness to the needs of the trainees. Others related to the industry
while still some more measured the level of usefulness of the CTP to the
hosting organization (industry). Concerning usefulness to trainees,
about 89% of the study participants declared the program was useful in
giving opportunities to trainees to apply theoretical knowledge and
principles in real work environment. The trainees also developed specific
occupational skills and knowledge of particular business organizations
in which they were receiving the cooperative training. Such practical
activities, according to 87% of the respondents, provided opportunities
for interacting with workplace staff and supervisors on skill areas they
had difficulty to perform some tasks. That means the trainees learned
how to operate and work with new equipment and technologies by
closely working with more skilled and experienced employees of the
hosting organization.

While interacting with experienced staff, 90% of the study participants

believed the trainees developed oral communication skills. In so doing,
they became apt to get more socialized into workplace culture. In this
respect trainees became well acquainted with rules, regulations, work
procedures and methods of the hosting organization. Furthermore, 83%
of the respondents believed that the program widened the view of the
trainees concerning the link between their fields of study, the
requirements of the workplace and the contribution of the industry to
national economic development. In general, the trainees learned both
hard (technical or practical) and soft (communication, team work spirit)
skills. CTP activities also provided well-furnished learning environments
for the apprentice where they demonstrated performances by doing
assigned tasks using real equipment. Working in such environment is
believed to be the best opportunity for learning as distinct from formal
classroom instruction and simulated environments. The CTP facilitates
76 Teshome Tola and Girma Zewdie

smooth transition from school to the labor-market because the trainees

become more skilled and socialized into the culture of the work
environment. The trainees may also find jobs easily after graduation if
they are able to meet the requirements of the workplace during the
apprenticeship program. Where there are no vacant positions at the end
of the CTP session, trainees who have better performance may be
shortlisted by the management of the industry and contacted for future
employment opportunities.
With regard to usefulness of the CTP to the training institutions, well over
85% of the respondents believed the program was useful or more than
useful in that the industrial attachment reduced cost of training which the
institutions were practically unable to afford. The machines, materials
and resources at the hosting organizations were made to serve
achievement of program objectives without any additional expense. The
use of such resources and facilities, according to 81% of the
respondents, contributes to the enhancement of quality and relevance of
the training curriculum to the needs of the industry or the employing
organization.
Other than supervising and coaching trainees during industrial
attachment, working staff of the employing organizations, according to
about 34% of the respondents, may also assist in teaching parts of
particular courses in the classrooms by talking to trainees about the
nature and requirements of the job they are engaged in as well as
preparing the graduating class for job interviews. Two-thirds (66%) of the
respondents, however, rated such function of employees of the
organizations as less useful implying that there was no such relationship
and practice among the training institutions and employing
organizations.
Training institutions through the industrial placement programs can build
relationships with managers and employees working in the industry
(86%) so that they enter into some form of relationship that paves ways
for identifying potential employers for their graduates. Continued
partnership may also help training institutions to generate financial
resources from stakeholders.
 The Ethiopian Journal of Higher Education Vol. 6 No. 1 June 2019 77
For nearly 77% of study participants, recruiting employees directly from
among participants of cooperative training institutions has advantage for
employers in that it would help them reduce training costs on the one
hand, and reduce turnover of those already trained and given jobs by the
employers themselves, on the other. Employers can, therefore, fill
vacant positions immediately by offering jobs to the CTP participants or
by contacting the TVET institutions for more qualified and competent
graduates.
The CTP is also useful to employers in that they get the opportunity of
recruiting qualified applicants who meet their specific occupational
needs. Through industrial attachments, employing organizations get the
opportunity to judge the worth of the training program delivery and give
feedback to institutions by completing evaluation forms for each
individual trainee.
CTP provides opportunities for employers to directly recruit trainees who
have developed work specific skills that may not be easily found in the
local labor market. According to Susan, et al. (2016), it is also a means
of retaining highly motivated workforce thereby building sense of
belongingness and loyalty between the employee and the employer.
Apprentices can help boost production and maximize profit that would
benefit the hosting business firm through contribution of free labor.

Table 2: Usefulness of CTP to stakeholders

Usefulness Less than Useful More than Missing

to Useful Useful
Trainees F 40 184 5 9
% (16.8) (77.3%) (2%) (3%)
Institution F 39 160 39 -
% (16.4) (67.2) (16.4)
Industry F 27 136 75 -
% (11.4) (57.1) (31.5)

Table 2 is a summary of the usefulness of the CTP to the stakeholders.

79% of the respondents asserted the program was useful or more than
78 Teshome Tola and Girma Zewdie

useful to trainees. The cooperative training program gives trainees

opportunities to apply and test the abstract theories and principles learnt
in the TVET classrooms in simple practical ways by using the real tools
and/or machines in a specific context. By combining theory with practice,
the trainees can form new knowledge and understanding. Engagement
in cooperative training is also useful to the trainees in that they interact
and share experiences with workplace staff. In so doing, they develop
communication skills by closely working and discussing with the
employees they observe and work with. Furthermore, the trainees could
also understand the relationship between their theoretical as well as
practical training on the one hand, and the contribution their training
would make to the national economy on the other.

As it is evident from Table 2, over 83% of the respondents rated the

practice of the cooperative training as useful or more than useful to the
training institutions. The trainers get opportunities to supervise their
trainees in the hosting organizations (workplace) and thereby reflect on
their knowledge and skills which may help them refine their experiences
for improved future actions. TVET institutions become cost effective by
exploiting the latest and real materials available in the workplace. With
TVET institutes lacking adequate equipment, enterprises which provide
access to modern machines or hand tools will be appreciated by both
TVET trainers and trainees because they complement the basic
knowledge learned in TVET institutions with industry-based skills.
Similarly, if the cooperative training follows the unit of competency
learned in TVET, then it is likely that after completion; most of the
trainees will be able to master the theoretical and practical aspects of
the competencies.

More than 88% witnessed the usefulness of the program to the hosting
organizations. Based on these data, it would be safe to conclude that the
cooperative training program is equally beneficial to all parties involved
in its delivery. As every member of the stakeholders draws multiple
benefits, each party needs to contribute its level best to strengthen the
program so that achievements of the CTP objectives are realized to the
 The Ethiopian Journal of Higher Education Vol. 6 No. 1 June 2019 79
fullest potential. Knowledge of these benefits is hoped to forge close
work relations between the two organizations as well as the trainees who
may enter into agreements that would legally bind their cooperation.

Table 3: Mean scores for usefulness by TVET institutions

Usefulness Mean of TVET institutions Statistics

of CTP to Sululta Sebeta Wingate Entoto Debreberhan F P
Trainees 2.3600 2.0878 2.2560 2.4703 2.3520 5.74 .000*
Institution 2.3429 2.0122 2.1900 2.3919 2.3067 3.86 .005*
Industry 2.3571 2.3171 2.3900 2.6351 2.4600 2.36 .054

*significant at the .05 level

Instructors and trainees of the five institutions unanimously agreed that

the cooperative training was equally useful to the trainees, the TVET
institutions and the industry. Their mean values are above the average
of 2.00 when calculated out of 3.00 points. To find out whether or not the
institutions differ significantly on their views towards the usefulness of
the program to the three parties in the cooperative training program,
analysis of variance (ANOVA) was computed (Table 3) for the five
institutions involved in the study. Results showed that the program was
significantly more useful to trainees (F=5.76; P = .000) and institutions
(F=3.86; P = .005) compared to the industry. While the usefulness of the
CTP to the three parties was justified by all institutions, Entoto TVET
compared to Sebeta, viewed this issue more positively claiming it was
more than useful to the trainees and the training institutions. Usefulness
to the industry (F =2.38; P = .054) was not significant. This leads to the
conclusion that trainees and trainers at the surveyed institutions have
similar understanding about the benefit to industries that host the
trainees for the practical training.
80 Teshome Tola and Girma Zewdie

3. Is there statistically significant difference between trainees’ and

trainers’ responses on CTP’s adequacy and usefulness?

Table 4: T-test results for adequacy and usefulness of CTP

Variable Group N Mean T P≤.05

Adequacy of the CTP Trainees 186 2.37 .953 .342
Trainers 48 2.29
Usefulness of the CTP Trainees 186 2.39 .468 .640
Trainers 48 2.35

Views of trainees and trainers were compared to see if they hold same
or different perceptions concerning the adequacy and usefulness of the
CTP. Both groups said that the program was more than adequate to the
trainees and more than useful to the three parties to the partnership. In
all cases, the trainees had better mean scores for adequacy and
usefulness than did the trainers. Independent sample t-test was
calculated for trainees and trainers to see if there were significant
differences between mean scores on adequacy and usefulness of the
cooperative training program run by the stakeholders. Although the
trainees scored higher mean values for the two variables (adequacy and
usefulness), the mean differences between trainees and trainers (t=.953;
p=.342) for adequacy; and (t=.468; p=.640) for usefulness were not
statistically significant at the .05 level. That means both trainees and
trainers have similar understanding that the program was more than
adequate for the trainees and more than useful to each of the
participants (trainees, institutions and industries) alike.

4. What were the challenges faced by trainees during the

cooperative training?

Although the cooperative training was adequate and useful, it was not
implemented without difficulties. To understand the drawbacks that the
activity encountered, list of possible challenges facing the program were
presented to the study participants seeking their responses regarding
 The Ethiopian Journal of Higher Education Vol. 6 No. 1 June 2019 81
the level of challenges perceived by them. The challenges were of three
levels: simple, mild and severe challenges.

Over one-third of the trainees and trainers perceived the program as

posing severe challenges relating to the following points:

Feeling of fear that the trainees would cause some dangers in the
workplace and/or damage machines, equipment, materials, etc. was one
of the major challenges as reported by 36% the study participants.
Companies are always profit-oriented and thus try to avid loss of any
kind including material, financial and/or time resources. They also expect
compensation for lost materials and other resources, but the training
institutions are not in a position to afford such cost. The very reason
cooperative training was legally instituted was to compensate for the lack
of the institutions by providing all necessary resources that would help
trainees become practically skilled and competent. From among the
study participants, 35% agreed that some industries or enterprises
exhibited failure to identify relevant skills and knowledge the apprentice
should gain during the practical training sessions. On top of the
challenges mentioned above, some organizations demonstrated apathy
to hosting trainees for they want to avoid compensation arising from
injuries caused to trainees during practical training. Some others failed
to understand the role cooperative training plays in the development of
national economy. Industries’ participation in cooperative training is
totally voluntary that there is no legally binding agreement entered into
between the industry and the TVET institutions. However, according to
the TVET proclamation No.391 /2004, Article 13, agreement must be
signed between the trainee, the TVET institution and the hosting
organization by the time CTP starts in the organization. Such an
agreement remains functional only for the period of the practical training
at the industry/enterprise. TVETs are afraid that if they ask for signing
agreement the industries would totally resist to accept trainees for the
CTP.
82 Teshome Tola and Girma Zewdie

Shortage of time to manipulate materials, machines and equipment in

the workplace was one of the practical challenges witnessed by one-
third (34%) of the respondents. Some industries or enterprises hosting
the trainees for practical training assumed that the trainees were novices
who could not produce the required amount or volume of output per unit
time spent on the work. Some industries limited the time for cooperative
training to only one month because they had to be fair to all institutions
that send their trainees for similar training. The space they had for the
practical training was limited to host students from two or more
institutions including public universities. This situation contributed to the
reduction of practical skills training time. As a result, the principle of 30%
theory and 70% practice seems to have been violated.

For another one-third (34%) of the study subjects, in some organizations

lack of access to machines, equipment and/or materials to work with are
other type of challenges that constrain the effort at helping trainees
become practically skilled. In most cases such organizations make the
trainees spend much of the time on entry level skills than letting them
carry out core tasks (e. g., cutting textile than engaging in sewing
activities in garment factories; measuring and cutting activities than
assembling or fixing materials in Micro and Small Enterprises engaged
in metal and/or woodworks). Lack of access to machines and equipment
is one of the major challenges faced by trainees from rural TVET
institutions. This is aggravated by the large number of trainees running
for the limited available facilities at the workplaces. Fair distribution of
industries and/or enterprises is important to minimize the disparities
among urban and rural TVET institutions. It is hoped that the expansion
of industry villages and private investment in the regions would minimize
the gap observed among urban and rural area TVETs as well as
industry-trainee ratio in the future.

Lack of finance to cover transport costs for traveling to the workplace

and back home is another obstacle to the smooth functioning of the
practical training as reported by 35% of trainers and trainees. While there
is no budget allocated for the trainees’ transport, there is little money
 The Ethiopian Journal of Higher Education Vol. 6 No. 1 June 2019 83
made available for the trainers to go to the cooperative training sites to
make regular supervision and follow up. Such a problem results in lack
of interest on the part of the instructors in the follow up and supervision
activities. Consequently, many of the instructors were seen spending
less than half the time they were supposed to spend on supervision
work.

In addition, trainees fail to reach the workplace in time due to inadequate

transport services in Addis Ababa and some places in the regions.
Punctuality is one of the requirements expected of an employee, and
failure to demonstrate this might make industries lose confidence in the
trainees. Trainees in the regional states incur unnecessary cost to rent
houses in places accessible to the work site. Though very few, some of
the rural trainees are thus forced to pay for two rented houses at the
same time - one for regular residence around the TVET institution, and
the other for temporary stay near the workplace when engaged in
practical training. The trainees neither receive any kind of financial
incentive from industries/enterprises nor do they get stipend from the
TVET institutions/government.

The following were rated by more than 50% of the respondents as

causing moderate challenges:

 Absence of open-mindedness among workers and/or supervisors

(59%) in involving the trainees in practical activities;
 The organization’s suspicion of trainees’ commitment to the
attachment program (58%);
 Lack of willingness by the organization to admit the trainee to the
appropriate work unit (57%);
 Unavailability of the right kind of workplace supervisors (56%);
 Unavailability of the right kind of organization for their field of
study and/or lack of willingness to accept trainees where available
(56%);
 Absence of managerial/supervisory support to trainees in the
middle of performing tasks (56%);
84 Teshome Tola and Girma Zewdie

In general, challenges of different levels and types were noted to work

against the smooth functioning of the development of skills by trainees
through the cooperative training scheme. Despite their varying levels
and types, the observed challenges have become obstacles to the
achievement of CTP objectives.

The study found that the cooperative training run through joint
participation of the Ethiopian TVET institutions and the industries was
adequate in meeting the needs of the trainees in terms of modifying or
fixing knowledge, forming and maintaining workplace attitudes and
values, as well as equipping trainees with practical skills using same
materials and technologies available in the actual production or service
sites. Beyond proving adequate knowledge and skills as well as building
positive attitudes in the trainees, the cooperative training was also found
to be equally useful to the three parties.

Despite the reported adequacy and usefulness, however, challenges of

different levels and various types militate against the smooth operations
of the cooperative training undertakings. Few of them were perceived to
be mild while others posed moderate to severe challenges. Fear of
causing damages when working with machines, company failure in
identifying areas of skills to be learnt by trainees, and shortage of finance
to cover transportation cost for trainees were among the challenges
perceived as severe by the participants. In terms of types, a general
conclusion is that the challenges can be categorized into resource-
related, attitude-related, motivational, and legal dimensions.

Recommendations

To facilitate the smooth operation of cooperative training activities and

equip trainees with the desired knowledge development and application,
as well as develop practical skills and good work habits, the following
recommendations which guide future practice and research are
forwarded.
 The Ethiopian Journal of Higher Education Vol. 6 No. 1 June 2019 85
 TVET institutions need to facilitate means of involving employers
to serve as board members so that awareness about the need for
cooperative training is created among relevant industries.
 TVET institutions need to involve employers in program design,
implementation and evaluation plan to promote curriculum
relevance and quality to the needs of the industry.
 The Ministry of Education may need to devise means of
compensating for loss of equipment by employers through
subsidies.
 TVET institutions need to get into agreement with employers to
host reasonable number of trainees for cooperative training and
hire graduates upon completion of their studies.
 The Ministry or the Regional TVET Agencies need to consolidate
partnership among relevant stakeholders including TVET
institutions, employers, job creation agencies and trade unions to
facilitate smooth transition of trainees to the world of work.
 Future research needs to include the view of employing
organizations as well as industries or enterprises that host the
cooperative training program by using alternate approach and
instruments such as in-depth interview, on-site observation
and/or focus group discussion.

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