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Breaking Through the Glass Ceiling Women in
Management 2nd edition Edition Linda Wirth Digital
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Author(s): Linda Wirth
ISBN(s): 9789221108450, 9221108457
Edition: 2nd edition
File Details: PDF, 1.72 MB
Year: 2001
Language: english
Copyright © International Labour Organization 2001
First published 2001
Second impression 2001

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Wirth, Linda
Breaking through the glass ceiling: Women in management
Geneva, International Labour Office, 2001

Woman manager, woman worker, professional worker, labour market segmentation, career
development, equal employment opportunity, equal treatment, sex discrimination, developed
country, developing country.
14.04.2

ISBN 92-2-110845-7

ILO Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

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 PREFACE

We have made significant progress in advancing gender equality in recent

decades. Globally, women’s labour force participation has increased. Women
around the world have been moving steadily into occupations, professions and
managerial jobs previously reserved for men. Their access to education and
training continues to improve, providing many with the necessary qualifications
to aspire to jobs in senior management. Spurred on by women’s movements
worldwide, governments, businesses, trade unions and civil society organiz-
ations have devoted much thought and energy to overcoming troubling and
persistent gender inequalities. Every major United Nations conference repeats
our global commitment to achieving gender equality. But many of the results fall
short of expectations.
At the ILO, we are especially concerned by the patterns of attitudinal and
institutional discrimination that continue to bar women from certain jobs and
hinder their career development. Occupational segregation by sex persists — as
do social policies based on a traditional model of the family with a male
breadwinner. We also see that females occupy few of the positions with the
most power. Real obstacles remain, and these are often rooted in the way work
and life are organized. In most societies, men still have a disproportionate
responsibility for meeting the financial needs of a family while women carry a
larger responsibility for caregiving and family well-being. This means that the
challenges for women in the world of work often revolve around balancing work
and family commitments. Women are still concentrated in the most precarious
forms of work throughout the world. They too often experience a “sticky floor”
and too rarely break through the “glass ceiling”. For women who also experience
racial discrimination, the barrier to top jobs is even worse.
There is a growing awareness and mounting evidence that gender equality
boosts enterprise productivity, spurs economic growth and improves the welfare
of families. Today, the best organizations and firms depend on a balanced mix
of so-called “masculine” and “feminine” attributes. An increasing number are
adopting measures to attract and retain women so as to benefit from their
qualifications and talent in a highly competitive environment. Increasing
numbers of women are joining the paid workforce, as well as establishing and
managing a growing proportion of businesses in many countries.
This book helps us to better understand the problems women face in rising
through the ranks and securing top positions, and offers some useful strategies

© ILO 2001
v
Breaking through the glass ceiling

for shattering the glass ceiling. It builds on a report prepared to guide the
discussions at a tripartite ILO meeting for the financial and professional services
sector on women and management, held in Geneva in 1997.1 It contains
additional information on women in decision-making and in finance, including
the banking sector, and expands on the issue of diversity management and the
family. Examples and data have been updated as far as possible.
Chapter 1 examines current gender inequalities in the labour market and in
political and social life. It focuses on women’s participation in the workforce,
occupational segregation, pay differentials and gender time division. Chapter 2
looks at the progress made by women in professional and managerial jobs. It
presents statistics relating to their progress at top levels of the public service, in
finance and banking, and in politics. Chapter 3 provides data on male and female
participation in education and training. It discusses strategies to help women
qualify for careers in management. The focus of Chapter 4 is on the obstacles to
women’s career development in the workplace. It discusses how and why men’s
and women’s career paths differ and assesses possible strategies to tackle the
obstacles to women’s advancement. Chapter 5 reviews various national policies,
programmes and initiatives to promote women in management. The final chapter
deals with international action, in particular by the ILO, to promote equal
employment opportunities.
Clearly, responsibility for equal opportunity cannot rest in the hands of
isolated organizations or enterprises. Governments, employers’ organizations,
trade unions, civil society organizations and international organizations all need
to move in the same direction, actively promoting gender equality in different
areas and at different levels.
The ILO gives high priority to promoting gender equality in the world of
work. A major concern is to ensure that we have the right labour market
statistics, disaggregated by sex, that are needed to track progress and support
initiatives worldwide. We also intend to support the process through the more
effective use of gender-sensitive indicators, as well as data collection and
dissemination on benchmarking and good practices.
Linda Wirth’s book is a reflection of our commitment to providing a sound
knowledge base on gender equality issues in the world of work. I am certain that
everyone interested in and working to promote gender equality will welcome this
publication.

Juan Somavia
Director-General
March 2001

1
See ILO: Breaking through the glass ceiling: Women in management, report for discussion
at the Tripartite Meeting on Breaking through the Glass Ceiling: Women in Management, Geneva,
1997.

vi © ILO 2001
 CONTENTS

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
List of abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
1. Gender inequalities in the labour market and in society . . . . . . . . . 1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Women’s increasing participation in the labour force . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Women’s jobs in flexible labour markets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Men’s jobs, women’s jobs: Occupational segregation . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Closing the pay gap between men and women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Reconciling work and family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Gender equality in society: Social and economic indicators . . . . . . . . . 20
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2. Women in professional and managerial jobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Statistical issues involved in classifying professional and
managerial employees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Women in professional jobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Women in managerial jobs: The figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Uneven and slow progress for women in management . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Women at the top . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Women managers in the financial, business and banking sectors . . . . . . . 42
Women managers in the public service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
“Glass walls” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Women in politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Earnings gaps between female and male managers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Obstacles to breaking through the glass ceiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3. Improving women’s qualifications and opportunities:
A key element in breaking through the glass ceiling . . . . . . . . . . 61
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
The improved educational achievements of young women . . . . . . . . . . 62
New gender choices in careers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Strategies to widen the educational choices of girls and women . . . . . . . 86
Eliminating sex-role stereotyping in educational curricula . . . . . . . 86
Awareness-raising on educational choices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Promoting gender equality in the teaching profession . . . . . . . . . . 93
On-the-job training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

© ILO 2001 vii

Breaking through the glass ceiling

4. At the workplace: Career development in practice . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Gender differences in career paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Getting over the recruitment hurdle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Promotion opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Recruiting for top jobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
The right training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Working time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Job design and work organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Balancing professional and family responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Combating sexual harassment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Human resource management to advance women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Equal employment opportunity policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Achieving targets: Positive action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Diversity management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Total E-Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Human resources information: The need for benchmarking . . . . . . 126
Key career-building strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Networking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Career tracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Mentoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Succession planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
A comprehensive approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Ensuring effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Sensitization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Commitment and accountability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

5. Policies for promoting women in management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
National policies and programmes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Promoting positive action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Programmes addressing the glass ceiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
The role of the social partners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Women networking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

6. International action to promote equal employment opportunities . . . . 153

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
International labour standards on women workers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
ILO standards on gender equality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Discrimination in employment and occupation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Equal remuneration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Maternity protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Workers with family responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
From protection to equal treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Global actions taken within the United Nations system . . . . . . . . . . . 161
The United Nations Convention on the Elimination of all Forms
of Discrimination against Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
The 1995 Fourth World Conference on Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Beijing+5: Global High-level Plenary Review of the Beijing Platform
for Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
ILO policies and programmes to promote equality in employment . . . . . 163
Women workers’ rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

viii © ILO 2001

 Contents

“More and Better Jobs for Women” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

Mainstreaming gender issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Women in management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Gender equality and employers’ organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
How employers and their organizations can promote gender equality
in the workplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Gender equality and trade unions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Social dialogue on gender equality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

Select bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

Annex I. Gender disparity: HDI, GDI and GEM rankings by country . . . . . 183

Figures
1.1. Women’s economic activity rates for the age group 20-54 in 1950, 1970,
1990 and 2010 (world, more-developed and less-developed regions) . . . 3
1.2. M-shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3. Economic activity rates by sex and age group in 1950, 1970, 1990 and
2010 (world and selected countries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4. Women’s share in the labour force in 1970, 1990, 2000 and 2010 (world
and by region) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5. Proportion of part-time workers compared with total employment,
1996-97 (selected countries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.6. Involuntary part-time work as a percentage of total employment, 1993-95
or nearest year (selected countries and areas) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.7. Women’s percentage share of jobs in financing, insurance, real estate and
business services, 1989-92 and 1996-98 (selected countries and areas) . . 12
1.8. Women’s gross hourly wages as a percentage of men’s, 1995 (selected
European countries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.9. Mean annual earnings of university-educated women as a percentage
of those of university-educated men in two age brackets, 1995-96
(selected OECD countries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.10. International comparison of wage differentials and share of housework by
sex (selected OECD countries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1. The glass ceiling in the organizational pyramid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2. Women’s percentage share of professional work, 1993-95 and 1997-98
(selected countries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.3. Percentage of people employed in legislative, senior official and
managerial positions, 1998 (selected countries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.4. Women’s percentage share of legislators, senior officials and managers
and their share in total employment, 1998-99 (selected countries) . . . . . 32
2.5. Women’s percentage share of administrative and managerial positions, and
their share in total employment, 1997-98 (selected countries) . . . . . . . 34
2.6. Women’s percentage share of legislators, senior officials and managers,
1993-95 and 1997-98 (selected countries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.7. Women’s percentage share of senior executive positions in major
corporations, Brazil, 1990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.8. Percentage of women managers in the United Kingdom by function group,
1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.9. The glass ceiling and glass walls in the organizational pyramid . . . . . . 48
2.10. Indicative survey of posts of presidents of parliamentary committees held
by women, world overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

© ILO 2001 ix
Breaking through the glass ceiling

2.11. Percentage of government positions occupied by women, 1996 (selected

countries by region) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.12. Percentage of women employers, 1989-91 and 1997-98
(selected countries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.1. Overall number of female graduates per 100 male graduates at upper-
secondary level in selected EU Member States, 1995-96 . . . . . . . . . 63
3.2. Female graduates per 100 male graduates at upper-secondary level in
selected EU Member States (general education), 1995-96 . . . . . . . . . 64
3.3. Female graduates per 100 male graduates at upper-secondary level in
selected EU Member States (vocational education), 1995-96 . . . . . . . 65
3.4. Women’s percentage share of enrolments at third-level institutions, 1985
and 1996 (worldwide and by region) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.5. Percentage of degrees obtained by women at institutions of higher
education by type of degree, 1990 and 1996 (United States) . . . . . . . . 67
3.6. Percentage of degrees awarded to women by subject area, 1990 and 1996
(United States) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.7. Number of science graduates per 100,000 individuals in the labour force,
men and women aged 25-34, 1995 (selected OECD countries) . . . . . . 68
3.8. Percentage of university-level qualifications in different subject categories
by sex, 1996 (OECD countries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.9. Percentage of non-university qualifications in different subject categories
by sex, 1996 (OECD countries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.10. Percentage of women engineering students attending third-level
institutions, 1990-91 and 1995-97 or nearest years (selected countries) . . 84
3.11. Percentage of primary degrees (ISCED 6) in maths and computer science
awarded to women, 1996-97 or nearest years (selected countries
and territories) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.12. Percentage of postgraduate degrees (ISCED 7) in maths and computer
science awarded to women, 1996-97 (selected countries) . . . . . . . . . 87
3.13. Percentage of female business and administration students in third-level
education (ISCED 7), 1990-91 and 1995-97 or nearest year (selected
countries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.1. Percentage distribution of men and women by career track, Japan . . . . 102
4.2. Why is female representation so low? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.3. Executives’ perceptions of women’s opportunities in entry-level jobs
in selected Asian countries and territories, 1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.4. Balancing career and personal life, United States: How women executives
do it . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.5. To what extent is sexual harassment in the workplace a problem in your
country/territory? (selected Asian countries/territories, 1997) . . . . . . . 118
4.6. Awareness-based diversity-training model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

Tables
1.1. Attitudes of men and women towards working women in the United
States, 1978, 1986 and 1995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2. Changes in occupational segregation in the United States, 1974-94 . . . . 11
1.3. Percentage of women employees and women managers in European
banks, 1995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1. Proportion of women in executive positions in European banks, 1990 and
1995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.2. Share of women at decision-making level in EU ministries of finance,
1994-95 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.3. Percentage of men in male-dominated managerial and professional
occupations, various years (selected countries and territories) . . . . . . . 46

x © ILO 2001
 Contents

2.4. Women in committees of the European Parliament: Parliamentary term

1999-2004 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.5. Obstacles to the recruitment and promotion of women to junior, middle
and senior management positions in Europe: Viewpoints of personnel
managers and female bank managers (in percentages) . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.1. Women’s percentage share of enrolment at third-level institutions,
1985 and 1996 (least-developed, developing and developed countries) . . 66
3.2. Women as a percentage of total staff and student bodies in third-level
institutions, 1995-97 or nearest year (selected countries by region) . . . . 94
4.1. Factors suggested by women in Europe for improving women’s
recruitment at different management levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.2. Diversity management and equal opportunities: Different approaches . . 123
6.1. Women on the governing bodies of selected business or employers’
organizations, latest year available (selected Latin American countries) . . 167
6.2. Women on the national governing bodies of national unions and union
confederations, latest year available (selected Latin American countries) . 170

Boxes
4.1. Some typical characteristics of the sexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.2. Myths associated with women in business and common reservations about
hiring/promoting women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.3. Making procedures gender neutral: Measures selected by Toronto–
Dominion Bank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.4. Sexual harassment policy statement of the Prudential Insurance Company
of America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.5. Checklist for Total E-Quality label . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.6. Making a mentoring programme successful . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
4.7. Retaining women: A checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
4.8. Example of a comprehensive affirmative action programme . . . . . . . . 131
4.9. Key actions for genuine commitment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
5.1. The Berlin Anti-Discrimination (Public Sector) Act, 1991 . . . . . . . . . 142
6.1. Strengthening social dialogue on gender issues in the Southern Cone . . . 172

© ILO 2001 xi
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The information on which this book (and the original report) was based comes
from a variety of sources. Extensive use was made of publications on women in
management in many countries, as well as articles from scholarly journals and
from the financial press. ILO publications were frequently consulted. Most of
the figures are based on statistics collected by the ILO, UNESCO and other
United Nations bodies. In addition, valuable information was supplied by ILO
member States, employers’and workers’organizations, research institutions and
women’s associations, and ILO regional and subregional offices and multi-
disciplinary advisory teams. This help is gratefully acknowledged.
I should especially like to thank Jane Zhang, Director of the ILO Bureau for
Gender Equality, for her constant support and commitment. I also wish to thank
the ILO colleagues who provided valuable assistance in the preparation of the
book: Loretta de Luca, formerly of the Salaried Employees and Professional
Workers Branch; Ann Herbert, of the Conditions of Work Branch; Petra
Ulshoefer of the Bureau for Gender Equality; Luesette Howell, formerly of the
ILO Bureau of Employers’Activities; Amrita Sietaram of the ILO Bureau for
Workers’Activities; Nadejda Veleva, external graphics consultant; and Dorothea
Mahnke (an ILO intern who conducted further research on diversity
management). Updating and expansion were carried out with the assistance of
external consultant Joanna Jackson.

© ILO 2001 xiii

 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AFL-CIO American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial

Organizations
ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations
CAHRS Centre for Advanced Human Resource Studies
(United States)
CAPS Chicago Area Partnerships
CEC Chinese Employers’ Confederation
CEDA Chinese Enterprise Directors’ Association
CEDAW United Nations Committee on the Elimination of
Discrimination against Women
CEO chief executive officer
CHRC Canadian Human Rights Commission
ECLAC United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and
the Caribbean
EU European Union
EUROSTAT Statistical Office of the European Commission
EWL European Women’s Lobby
EWMD European Women’s Management Development Network
FAWE Forum for African Women Educationalists
FTSE Financial Times Stock Exchange 100 Companies
GDI Gender-related Development Index (United Nations)
GEM Gender Empowerment Measure (United Nations)
GNP gross national product
HDI Human Development Index
HEDCO Higher Education for Development and Cooperation of Ireland
ICA International Co-operative Alliance
IPO initial public offering
IPU Inter-Parliamentary Union
ISCE-93 International Classification of Status in Employment 1993
ISCED International Standard Classification of Education
ISCO International Standard Classification of Occupations
JIWE Japan Institute of Women’s Employment
MBA master’s degree in business administration
MERCOSUR Mercado Común del Sur (Common Market of the Southern Cone)

© ILO 2001 xv
Breaking through the glass ceiling

NFLS Nairobi Forward-looking Strategies for the Advancement of

Women 1985
NFWBO National Foundation for Women Business Owners
(United States)
NGO non-governmental organization
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
SMEs small and medium-sized enterprises
SNEF Singapore National Employers’ Federation
TQM total quality management
TUC Trades Union Congress (United Kingdom)
UIA Unión Industrial Argentina
UIC-CFDT Union des Ingènieurs et Cadres – Confédération Française
Démocratique du Travail
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund
WAM Women and Mathematics
WEDGE Women’s Entrepreneurship Development and Gender
in Enterprise
WIM Women’s Institute of Management (Malaysia)
WIPL Women in Public Life
WISE Women into Science and Engineering

xvi © ILO 2001

GENDER INEQUALITIES
IN THE LABOUR MARKET AND IN SOCIETY 1
INTRODUCTION
“Glass ceiling” is a term coined in the 1970s in the United States to describe the
invisible artificial barriers, created by attitudinal and organizational prejudices,
which block women from senior executive positions. Whether this glass ceiling
occurs in the workplace or in politics is essentially a reflection of social and
economic gender inequality. With the achievement of educational parity and
changes in social attitudes towards men’s and women’s roles, it had been
somehow assumed that women would quickly move up the career ladder. This
has proved hard to achieve and no more so than at the top, where the prevalence
of male executives tends to perpetuate the glass ceiling and where women often
find themselves without the right mix of corporate experience required for senior
executive positions.
This chapter reviews some of the gender inequalities that lie behind the
phenomenon of the glass ceiling. A major source of discrimination stems from
strongly held attitudes towards women’s and men’s social roles and behaviour.
If one compares the effective roles played by women and men rather than
looking at women as an isolated group, it becomes apparent that each has
different access to resources, work opportunities and status. The consequences
of gender inequalities include women being “crowded” into a narrow range of
occupations where there is less responsibility and/or lower pay, or having to
work part time, where there are fewer opportunities for advancement. While this
situation can be explained to some extent by men’s and women’s perceptions of
their respective social roles, these roles have in fact been undergoing substantial
changes in recent decades. Labour force participation patterns of men and
women, and social attitudes, have been gradually evolving to reflect these.
Since the advent of the women’s movement, changes in social acceptance
of gender equality have been primarily due to changing perceptions among
women and men themselves. The promulgation and enforcement of equal
opportunity laws have not only lessened institutional discrimination; they have
also had a considerable impact on the awareness of populations. In recent years,
women’s working lives have become characterized by more continuous labour
force participation. Women have entered many of the professions previously
reserved for men, and their earnings have become an essential part of household

© ILO 2001 1
Breaking through the glass ceiling

Table 1.1. Attitudes of men and women towards working women in the United
States, 1978, 1986 and 1995

Statement Men/Women Percentages that strongly

agree with statement

1978 1986 1995

“In general, women have to be better performers Women 72 84 77

than men in order to get ahead.” Men 27 31 31
“In general, women are penalized more Women 38 45 1 51
for mistakes than men.” Men 17 931 13
“In general, men often exclude women Women 67 61 65
from informal networks.” Men 59 53 35
“In general, women have an easier time finding Women 54 81 76
a sponsor or mentor than men do.” Men 37 55 40
“In general, women received their present positions Women 462 42 25
because they are women.” Men 64 2 62 39
“In general, women are not serious about Women 6 18 3
their careers.” Men 17 25 6
1
1988 data.
2
1972 data.
Source: John P. Fernandez and Julie Davis: Race, gender and rhetoric: The true state of race and gender relations in cor-
porate America (New York, McGraw-Hill, 1999), pp. 49 and 61.

income. These changes have led to shifts in societal views about the role of
women in the economy. Table 1.1 illustrates the growth in awareness between
1978 and 1995 of the existence of discrimination against working women in the
United States. A large percentage of those surveyed thought women have to
perform better than men to get ahead. On the other hand, the proportion of those
who believed women received their positions because they were women
decreased from 46 per cent in 1978 to 25 per cent in 1995.
A survey in Japan in the early 1990s showed increasing disagreement by
both men and women with the traditional belief that men should hold jobs and
women should stay at home and do housework.1 In 1987, 50 per cent of men and
38 per cent of women thought that women should stay at home. By 1990, these
figures were 36 per cent and 24 per cent respectively.

WOMEN’S INCREASING PARTICIPATION IN THE LABOUR FORCE

Labour force feminization continues unabated. Figure 1.1 illustrates the
increases in women’s economic activity rates over time from a global perspective
and from the perspective of less-developed and more-developed regions.
At the global level in 1990, 67 per cent of all women aged 20-54 were
economically active. By the year 2010, this figure is expected to reach almost
70 per cent. Regional figures produced by the ILO 2 revealed that in 2000, nearly
58 per cent of women were economically active in Africa, 64 per cent in Asia,
46 per cent in Latin America and the Caribbean, 69 per cent in Europe and 73 per
cent in North America. For the year 2010, these proportions are expected to

2 © ILO 2001
 Gender inequalities in the labour market

Figure 1.1. Women’s economic activity rates for the age group 20-54 in
1950, 1970, 1990 and 2010 (world, more-developed and less-
developed regions)

Source: ILO: Economically Active Population, 1950-2010 (Geneva, 1997), pp. 23, 26 and 29.

remain the same for Asia, and rise by 1 per cent for Africa, Europe and North
America, while in Latin America and the Caribbean, women’s participation rates
will increase by 4 per cent to 50 per cent.
Higher educational levels attained by women coupled with falling fertility
rates, particularly in industrialized countries, are contributing to such increases
in women’s economic activity rates. Another marked trend is that of women
spending more of their productive years in the workforce. Periods away from the
labour force to give birth and care for children are becoming shorter. In the
United States, for example, the proportion of working mothers with children
under the age of 3 grew from 34 per cent in 1975 to 57 per cent in 1994,3 while
the percentage of working mothers with children less than a year old was 53.6
in 1998.4 The labour force patterns of women in many countries are approaching
that of men and this can be depicted graphically as an inverted U shape. Figure
1.2 shows how, at the global level, the classic M-shape of women’s labour force
participation is flattening out and rising. This development is particularly
marked in industrialized countries, with the notable exception of Japan, where
women have greatly increased their participation but still drop out of the labour
force to care for children. In developing countries, the pattern varies from
country to country as illustrated in figure 1.3 by the examples of Côte d’Ivoire
and India.
Women’s share in the labour force is also increasing worldwide, but at a
slower pace than their participation rates. By the year 2010, their share will be
just over 41 per cent, up from 38 per cent in 1970. In some regions, the increase

© ILO 2001 3
Breaking through the glass ceiling

Figure 1.2. M-shape

should be more significant (figure 1.4). By the year 2010 in Latin America,
women are expected to account for almost 37 per cent of the labour force
compared with 24 per cent in 1970. Over the same period, women’s share of the
job market in North America will grow from 36 per cent to 47 per cent, while in
Oceania it is estimated to increase from 33 per cent to almost 45 per cent. In
other regions increases should be less striking.5

WOMEN’S JOBS IN FLEXIBLE LABOUR MARKETS

Figures 1.3 and 1.4 illustrate the quantitative nature of women’s ever-increasing
participation in paid employment, but manifest gender inequalities exist in
employment status and the quality of jobs held by men and women. Women
often have part-time and temporary jobs, while men hold more of the well-paid

4 © ILO 2001
 Gender inequalities in the labour market

Figure 1.3. Economic activity rates by sex and age group in 1950, 1970,
1990 and 2010 (world and selected countries)

World – Women World – Men

Age group Age group

Jamaica – Women United States – Women

Age group Age group

France – Women Japan – Women

Age group Age group

Côte d’Ivoire – Women India – Women

Age group Age group

Source: ILO: Economically Active Population, 1950-2010, op. cit.

© ILO 2001 5
Breaking through the glass ceiling

Figure 1.4. Women’s share in the labour force1 in 1970, 1990, 2000 and 2010
(world and by region)

1
Share as a percentage of economically active population.
Source: ILO: Economically Active Population, 1950-2010, op. cit., pp. 1-5.

and secure ones. Women make up the majority of part-time workers (between
60 and 90 per cent), and a large proportion of women who work do so on a part-
time basis (figure 1.5). In developing countries, significant proportions of these
women work in the informal sector or at home.
Nonetheless, a large proportion of women chooses to or is obliged to work
part time because of family responsibilities. Part-time work for women is often
triggered by motherhood, while for men it occurs more often in conjunction with
labour market entry or exit. For women, the outcome of this labour market
segmentation is lower income, limited access to qualified jobs and fewer
opportunities for career development. However, the extent of women’s part-time
work depends not solely on the division of labour in the home but also on the
interests and needs of business, and on labour market policies and regulation.6

6 © ILO 2001
Other documents randomly have
different content
 STORY XXX
UNCLE WIGGILY AND THE LION

Once upon a time, as Uncle Wiggily was hopping through the woods,
he heard a roaring sound, coming, it seemed, from a distant clump of
trees.
"Oh, ho!" exclaimed the bunny rabbit gentleman. "That's thunder! I
suppose we are going to have a storm. I didn't bring my umbrella,
but I can find a large toadstool, or mushroom. That will do as well."
The animal folk often use toadstools for umbrellas, you know, and
Uncle Wiggily had done this more than once. The bunny hopped on a
little farther, and the roaring, rumbling sound boomed out again.
"The thunder is coming nearer," thought Mr. Longears. "I had better
hurry if I am going to pick a toadstool umbrella!"
He limped on his red, white and blue striped rheumatism crutch over
toward a large mushroom (which, of course, isn't the same as a
toadstool, though they look alike), and Uncle Wiggily was just
breaking off the stem, so he would not get wet in the thunder
shower, when, all of a sudden, a loud voice asked:
"Can you please tell me where the circus went to?"
Uncle Wiggily turned so quickly that he nearly lost the twinkle from
the end of his pink nose. For the voice that spoke was almost as loud
as thunder.
"Was that you making the noise like a storm?" asked the bunny as he
saw a large yellow creature, with a great head, surrounded by a fluffy
mane, and a tail on the end of which was a bunch of hair.
"It was," answered the big animal. "I'll try to speak more gently if it
hurts your ears. But, naturally, I have a loud voice, being a lion, you
know."
"Yes, I knew you were a lion. I remember seeing you in the circus,"
spoke the bunny gentleman, who was not at all afraid. "But tell me,
why aren't you with the show now?"
"Because I ran away," the lion answered. "I got tired of being shut up
in my cage all the while, and, when the man left the iron door open I
slipped out. I've been hiding in the woods ever since; but it is not as
much fun as I thought it would be. Now I wish I could go back to the
circus. Can you please tell me where it is?"
"I am sorry to say I cannot," Uncle Wiggily answered. "But if you will
come with me to my hollow stump bungalow—not that you can get
inside, for you are too large—why, perhaps Nurse Jane may know
where your circus is. She knows nearly everything."
"Who is Nurse Jane?" asked the lion.
"She is Miss Fuzzy Wuzzy, my muskrat lady housekeeper," replied the
bunny gentleman.
"A rat, is she?" went on the lion. "I don't know much about rats, but
once a mouse gnawed the ropes, when I was caught in a net, and
set me free—that was before I joined the circus."
"Well, a muskrat is something like a big mouse," said Uncle Wiggily,
"so I think you will like Nurse Jane."
"I'm sure I shall," the lion rumbled, trying to make his voice soft and
gentle.
"Well, then," went on Uncle Wiggily, "please come along with me,
and I'll try to find the circus for you. Nurse Jane may know where it
moved to, or some of the animal boys and girls may tell us."
So Uncle Wiggily hopped through the woods, the lion stalking along
beside him, and soon they reached the hollow stump bungalow of the
bunny gentleman.
"Nurse Jane! Nurse Jane!" called Mr. Longears. "I have brought home
a friend with me!"
"Not to dinner, I hope, Wiggy," remarked Miss Fuzzy Wuzzy, from
inside the bungalow. "I have a dreadful headache! I haven't been
able to wash the breakfast dishes yet, and as for making the beds,
and dusting the furniture—it is out of the question! So if you want
dinner——"
"Please tell her not to bother," whispered the lion. "I am not hungry
and——"
"Is that thunder?" asked the muskrat lady, thrusting her head, tied up
in a wet towel, from her bedroom window.
And when the muskrat lady saw the big lion she screamed.
"Pray do not be frightened, my dear Miss Fuzzy Wuzzy," the lion said.
"I just came with Uncle Wiggily to inquire where I might find the
circus, from which I foolishly ran away. But I'll toddle on, and not
bother you, since you are ill."
"Oh, it isn't really any bother," spoke the muskrat lady. "I could get
you a cup of tea. It was only your loud voice that startled me."
"I'm sorry," rumbled the lion, as gently as he could. "I'm afraid my
voice is rather louder than the purr of a pussy cat. But I can't help it."
"Oh, of course not!" agreed Nurse Jane. "I wish I could ask you in,
but our bungalow was not made for lions."
"I'll come in and get him something he can eat outside," offered
Uncle Wiggily. "By that time some of the animal boys or girls, who
know where the circus went, may come along, since you don't know,
Nurse Jane."
"No, I am sorry to say I don't know," spoke the muskrat lady, as she
went back to bed with her headache.
Uncle Wiggily took some carrot soup and some lettuce tea out to the
lion, but though the tawny creature said he was not hungry, he ate
nearly all there was in the bungalow, for his appetite was much larger
than that of the muskrat lady or Mr. Longears.
"And now I would like to do you and Nurse Jane a favor," went on
the circus chap, licking the soup off his whiskers with his red tongue.
"Couldn't I help wash the dishes or make the beds?"
"I'm afraid not!" laughed Uncle Wiggily, thinking how funny it would
look to see a lion making a rabbit's bed.
"Yes, I suppose I am too large to get in the bungalow," went on the
roaring chap, in as gentle a voice as he could make come from his
throat. "But I know one way in which I can help!"
"How?" asked Uncle Wiggily.
"With my tail," said the lion. "That isn't too large to put through one
of your windows. And on the end of my tail is a tuft of fluffy hair, just
like a dusting brush. Please let me stick my tail in through the
different windows. Then I can switch it around, and dust the furniture
for Nurse Jane."
"Do you think you can?" asked the bunny, doubtful like.
"Of course!" said the lion. "True, I never before have dusted furniture
in a bunny's hollow stump bungalow, but that is no reason for not
trying. Please give me a chance!"
So Uncle Wiggily opened all the windows. The lion backed up, and
thrust his tail first in one and then in another. When his tail was in
the parlor he switched it around—I mean he switched his tail around
—and the fluffy tuft of hair on the end knocked all the dust off the
chairs, table and piano. Soon the parlor was as nicely dusted as
Nurse Jane could have done it herself.
In this way, with his tail, the lion dusted all the rooms in the
bungalow, even the one where Nurse Jane was lying down with a
headache. And when the muskrat lady saw the lion's fluffy tail
switching around on her chairs in such a funny way, she laughed, and
then, in a little while, her headache was all better.
"You certainly are a good houseworker," said the muskrat lady as she
got up and drank a cup of tea. "And you have done me a great
favor."
"Pray do not mention it," spoke the lion politely as he flapped his tail
in the air to rid it of dust. "It was a pleasure!"
Then along came Jacko Kinkytail, the monkey boy, and he said the
circus had moved on to a town about ten miles away.
"Thank you! I'll travel there and get back in my cage," rumbled the
lion. Then, with a polite bow to Nurse Jane and Mr. Longears, the
tawny, yellow chap with the big voice walked away through the
forest. And every time the muskrat lady thought of the lion thrusting
his tail in through the window to dust the furniture she had to laugh.
Now would you like to hear a story about Uncle Wiggily and the
tiger? Well, you may if the scrubbing brush doesn't take the cake of
soap out to the washrag's party and forget to bring it back for the
bathtub to play ball with.
 STORY XXXI
UNCLE WIGGILY AND THE TIGER

"Uncle Wiggily! Oh, Uncle Wiggily!" called a voice after the rabbit
gentleman, as he was hopping away from his hollow stump bungalow
one morning.
"What's the matter now?" inquired the bunny, turning around so
quickly that his tall silk hat nearly slipped down over his pink,
twinkling nose. "Does the Woozie Wolf or the Fuzzy Fox wish to
nibble my ears?"
"I hope not!" exclaimed Nurse Jane, the muskrat lady housekeeper,
for she it was who had called. "But will you please take my scissors
with you, Uncle Wiggily?"
"Take your scissors? What for?" asked Mr. Longears.
"To have them sharpened," answered Miss Fuzzy Wuzzy. "They are so
dull I can hardly cut anything, and I want to cut some linen up into
new sheets and pillow cases. Take my scissors along with you, Wiggy
dear, and have them made good and sharp."
"I will," promised the bunny rabbit gentleman. Then, wrapping the
dull scissors in a grape-vine leaf, Uncle Wiggily put them in the top of
his tall silk hat, and set the hat on his head.
"Why do you put them there?" asked Nurse Jane.
"So I'll remember them," the rabbit gentleman answered. "If I put
them in my pocket I'd forget them. But now, if I meet Mrs. Twistytail,
the pig lady, or Mrs. Wibblewobble, the duck lady, and bow to them,
I'll take off my hat. Out will slide the scissors, and then I'll remember
that I am to get them sharpened."
"That's a good idea," said Nurse Jane. "Now don't forget to bring
them back to me good and sharp. If you don't I can't cut up into
sheets and pillow cases the new linen I have bought."
"I'll not forget," promised the bunny gentleman.
He hopped on and on through the woods, and he had not gone very
far before, all of a sudden, he heard a growling, rumbling-umbling
noise, a little like far-off thunder.
"I wonder if that can be the lion again?" thought Uncle Wiggily.
"Perhaps he couldn't find the circus and he has come back to dust
more furniture for Nurse Jane with the end of his tail stuck through a
window in the bungalow."
Uncle Wiggily looked through the forest, but he saw no tawny lion.
Instead he saw, limping toward him, a beast almost as big as the
lion, but with a beautiful black and yellow striped coat.
"Oh, ho! Mr. Tiger—the one I saw when I went to the circus with
Baby Bunty!" exclaimed Uncle Wiggily. "This is a tiger!"
"Yes, I am the striped tiger," answered the other animal. "And, oh,
what trouble I am in!"
"What is the matter?" kindly asked the rabbit gentleman, for he could
see that the tiger was limping and in pain.
"I ran a thorn in my foot," went on the black and yellow fellow, "and
my eyes are so poor I can't see to pull it out."
"Perhaps I can," Uncle Wiggily said. "I have strong glasses."
So the bunny gentleman looked through his spectacles, and soon saw
the thorn that was in the tiger's foot. It did not take Uncle Wiggily
long to pull it out.
"Oh, thank you, so much!" growled the tiger, though not in a cross
voice. "It serves me right, I suppose, for having run away from the
circus."
"Did you run away, too, as the lion did?" asked Uncle Wiggily.
"Yes," answered the striped beast, "we ran away together—the lion,
some other animals and myself. But now I'd be glad to run back
again."
"The lion was," said Uncle Wiggily. "He was very glad to go back."
"Don't tell me you have met him!" exclaimed the tiger. "Where is he?"
"He started back yesterday, after stopping at my bungalow and
helping Nurse Jane dust the furniture with his tail through the
windows," the bunny answered.
"Then I'm going back, too!" declared the tiger. "It isn't as much fun
roaming by yourself through the woods as I thought it would be. I'm
going back!"
"Before you start," kindly suggested Uncle Wiggily, "please come to
my bungalow with me."
"Does more furniture need dusting?" asked the tiger, laughing. "I
have no fluffy tuft on the end of my tail, as has the lion."
"It isn't that," the bunny answered. "But I would like to have Nurse
Jane put some salve on the place where the thorn ran in your paw,
and also wrap it up in a rag."
"That would be very nice," spoke the tiger. "Right gladly will I come
with you."
So he limped through the forest with the bunny gentleman, and soon
they came to the hollow stump bungalow.
"More company for you, Nurse Jane!" called the jolly rabbit uncle.
"That's nice," answered Miss Fuzzy Wuzzy. "Oh, you're a tiger, aren't
you?" she went on, as she saw the striped beast.
"And he has a sore paw," spoke Uncle Wiggily. "Will you put salve on
it for him, Nurse Jane?"
"Of course," answered the muskrat lady. And when the tiger's sore
paw was nicely wrapped in a clean rag, he started off through the
woods to find the circus.
"Good-bye, and come again," invited Uncle Wiggily, making a low and
polite bow with his tall silk hat.
"I will," promised the tiger. And then the bunny suddenly exclaimed:
"Oh, your scissors, Nurse Jane! I forgot all about getting them
sharpened," and he picked them up from where they had fallen when
he took off his hat.
"Oh, dear! That's too bad!" said the muskrat lady. "And I wanted to
cut the linen in strips to make sheets and pillow cases. Now it is so
late I'm afraid the sharpening place will be closed."
"Perhaps I can help," said the tiger, turning back.
"Can you sharpen scissors?" asked Uncle Wiggily.
"No," was the answer, "but my claws are sharper than any scissors
you ever saw. If you and Nurse Jane will hold the cloth, I will cut it
into strips for you with my sharp claws. I don't need to use my sore
paw. I'll take my other one."
"Oh, that will be very kind of you," said Nurse Jane. "I forgot that
tigers have sharp claws."
So the muskrat lady and the rabbit gentleman held the linen cloth in
front of the tiger, and with his claws he cut and slashed it into just
the shapes Miss Fuzzy Wuzzy needed for making sheets and pillow
cases.
"I am very glad I could do you this favor," the tiger said, when all the
linen was cut.
"So am I," spoke Uncle Wiggily, "for if you hadn't been here to use
your claws, Nurse Jane would not have forgiven me for not
remembering to get the scissors sharpened. Good-bye!"
"Good-bye!" echoed the tiger, as he walked on to find the circus. And
that night he slept in his cage again.
So if the doorknob doesn't try to crawl through the keyhole to play
bean bag with the rice pudding in the gas stove oven, I'll tell you
next about Uncle Wiggily and the elephant.
 STORY XXXII
UNCLE WIGGILY AND THE ELEPHANT

"Matches, Uncle Wiggily! Matches!" cried Nurse Jane Fuzzy Wuzzy

one morning, as the bunny rabbit gentleman was hopping down the
forest path, away from his hollow stump bungalow.
"What's that? Patches?" exclaimed Mr. Longears. "Did I put on my
garden trousers that have patches?" and he tried to twist his neck
like a corkscrew, so he could look behind him.
"No, I didn't say 'patches'!" laughed Nurse Jane. "I said matches.
Don't forget to bring me some matches to light the fire, when you
come back from looking for an adventure."
"Oh! Matches!" repeated the bunny. "I'll get some for you, Nurse
Jane."
Over the fields and through the woods hopped the bunny rabbit
gentleman. He looked here, there and everywhere for an adventure,
but could not seem to find one. The Woozie Wolf nor the Fuzzy Fox
did not chase him to nibble his ears. Not that Uncle Wiggily wanted
them to, but, if they had, that would have been an adventure.
"Well, perhaps I shall find one when I come back," said the bunny
gentleman as he hopped along to the seven and eight cent store,
where he bought a box of matches.
Carrying these fire-sticks in his paw, Uncle Wiggily was hopping
through the forest, on his way back to the hollow stump bungalow
when, all at once, the bunny gentleman felt the ground trembling,
and he heard a sound like a big horn being blown, and then a loud
voice said:
"Oh, dear! I can't get it out!"
"Well, what can this be?" thought Uncle Wiggily. "That horn sounds
like the big brass one I heard in the circus. From the way the earth
shakes I'd say a big automobile truck was coming along. And as for
someone who can't get something out—well, that sounds like trouble!
I'd like to help, but first I must see who it is."
Uncle Wiggily looked through the bushes, and at first he thought he
saw the side of some big house moving behind the trees. Then he
noticed something like a great leaf flapping in the wind, and a
moment later something long, like a fire hose, was thrust forward.
"Why, it's an elephant!" exclaimed the bunny, as he caught sight of
the big chap.
"An elephant is just who I am," was the answer in a rumbling voice,
coming through the rubber hose of a trunk. "I'm from the circus, and
I wish I might be back there this minute, eating my hay!"
"Oh, so you have run away from the circus also, like the lion and
tiger?" questioned the bunny.
"Yes," answered the elephant, "I did. But what do you know of my
friends, the lion and tiger?"
"Oh, I have met them," answered Mr. Longears. "But is that your only
sorrow—wishing you were back in the circus?"
"Indeed it is not," the elephant answered. "I have stepped on a loose
stone, and it is fast between the toes of my left hind foot. I can't get
it loose by stamping on the ground, and I can't reach so far back with
my trunk. I'm in great pain and trouble!"
"That is too bad," spoke Uncle Wiggily. "I guess your stamping on the
ground is what I thought was an auto truck coming along."
"Perhaps," admitted the big circus elephant. "I wish I could get that
stone out from between my toes," he went on, stamping so hard that
he shook the very trees, making them rustle as though a wind had
blown them.
"Maybe I can help you," said Uncle Wiggily most kindly. "I have with
me my red, white and blue striped rheumatism crutch. With that I
may be able to poke out the stone that hurts you."
"I wish you'd try," begged the elephant.
It did not take the bunny gentleman long to loosen the stone from
between the elephant's toes, for the foot of an elephant is not like
that of a horse or cow—he really has toes and toe-nails, just as you
have, only a little larger, of course. Well, I should say so!
"Ah, I feel much better, Uncle Wiggily! Thank you!" spoke the
elephant through his hollow rubber hose-like trunk, and it sounded
like a trumpet or brass horn when he talked. "Now that the stone is
out of my foot I shall go back to the circus."
"The path to the place where the circus is now showing leads past
my bungalow," said the rabbit gentleman. "I'll hop along and point
out for you the way. I'd like you to meet Nurse Jane."
"That will give me pleasure, also," remarked the elephant, who was
very polite.
So he and Uncle Wiggily went along together, but several times the
bunny had to say:
"Please don't go so fast, Mr. Elephant. I can't keep up with you."
"I beg your pardon," spoke the immense chap. "Suppose I lift you
upon my back and carry you that way?"
"I should much like that," the rabbit uncle said. So in his trunk the
elephant gently lifted up Uncle Wiggily, and set him down on the
broad back.
"Ah, this is even better than my auto," laughed Uncle Wiggily, as the
elephant crashed his way through the forest. Soon they came to the
hollow stump bungalow.
"More company for you, Nurse Jane!" called Uncle Wiggily, with a
laugh.
"Eh? What's that? Where are you? I don't see anybody but a big
elephant?" cried the muskrat lady, looking up.
"I'm on his back!" answered the bunny. And as the elephant lifted Mr.
Longears down in the trunk, Nurse Jane was so surprised that she
hardly knew what to say.
"Will you—er—have a cup—I mean a washtub of tea?" the muskrat
lady asked, well knowing that so big a creature must drink a lot of
everything.
"Some water is all I need, thank you," answered the elephant. "I had
something to eat in the forest before I met Uncle Wiggily."
Then the big chap put his trunk down in the brook and sucked up a
great quantity of water. Uncle Wiggily put the box of matches down
on the bench at the side of the bungalow, where the sun shone
bright and hot, and watched the elephant drink.
"Well, now I'll travel along and go back to the circus," said the big
chap with the large trunk and little tail. "I'll tell the lion and tiger I
met you."
"Please do." begged the bunny, and then, all of a sudden Nurse Jane
cried:
"Fire! Fire! Fire! Oh, the sun has set off the box of matches, and the
bungalow is burning! Fire! Fire! Fire!"
Surely enough, this had happened. The box of matches, fizzing and
spluttering, was burning Uncle Wiggily's bungalow.
"Turn in an alarm; Get the firemen! Call out the water bugs!" cried
the bunny gentleman.
"Just a moment! Don't get excited!" spoke the elephant calmly. "I will
put out that fire in a second!"
He sucked up more water from the brook in his trunk and squirted it
on the blaze. The fire hissed and spluttered and died out in a puff of
smoke.
"Oh, you have saved my bungalow!" cried Uncle Wiggily. "Thank you
ever so much! Only for you I'd be burned out of house and home!"
"Pooh! That wasn't any more than you did for me—taking the stone
out of my foot," said the elephant. "With my rubber hose-nose of a
trunk, I very often put out little fires."
"Oh, I'm so glad Uncle Wiggily met you!" sighed Nurse Jane. "If he
hadn't, our bungalow would have burned down, perhaps, Mr.
Elephant!"
"Well, one good turn deserves another," laughed the elephant as he
tramped away through the forest to find the circus, and the bunny
gentleman and Nurse Jane waved "Good-bye" to the big chap.
So if the wheelbarrow doesn't catch cold when it runs after the train
of cars to get a ride around the block, the next adventure will be
about Uncle Wiggily and the camel.
 STORY XXXIII
UNCLE WIGGILY AND THE CAMEL

"What sort of an adventure do you think you will have to-day, Uncle
Wiggily?" asked the muskrat lady housekeeper of the bunny rabbit
as he hopped away from the hollow stump bungalow one morning.
"Well, Nurse Jane, I hardly know," was the answer. "I may meet with
some of those queer circus animals again."
"I hope you do," Miss Fuzzy Wuzzy said, as she tied her whiskers in
a bow knot, for she was going to dust the furniture that day. "The
circus animals are very kind to you. And it is strange, for some of
them are such savage jungle beasts."
"Yes," spoke the bunny gentleman, "I am glad to say the circus
animals were kind and gentle. More so than the Pipsisewah or
Skeezicks. But then, you see, the circus animals have been taught to
be kind and good—that is, most of them."
"I hope you never meet the other sort—the kind that will want to
nibble your ears!" exclaimed Nurse Jane as Uncle Wiggily put his tall
silk hat on front-side before and started off with his red, white and
blue striped rheumatism crutch under his paw.
"I hope nothing happens to him," sighed Nurse Jane as she went in
to put the dishes to bed in the china closet.
But something was going to happen to Uncle Wiggily. You shall hear
all about it.
On and on through the woods hopped the bunny rabbit gentleman,
looking first on one side of the path and then on the other for an
adventure. He was beginning to think he would never find one
when, all of a sudden, he heard a rustling in the bushes, and a voice
said:
"Oh, dear! I can't go a hop farther! I'm so tired, and my bundle is so
heavy. I guess I'm getting old!"
"Ha! That sounds like trouble of the old-fashioned sort!" murmured
Uncle Wiggily to himself. "I may be able to give some help, as long
as it isn't the fox or wolf, and it doesn't sound like them."
The bunny gentleman peered through the trees and, sitting on a flat
stump, he saw an old gentleman cat, looking quite sad and forlorn.
"Hello, Mr. Cat!" called Uncle Wiggily, cheerfully, as he hopped over
toward the stump. "What's the trouble?"
"Oh, lots of trouble!" mewed the cat. "You see I'm a peddler. I go
about from place to place selling pins and needles and things the
lady animals need when they sew. Here is my pack," and he pointed
to a large bundle on the ground near the stump.
"But what is the matter?" asked the bunny gentleman. "Don't the
animal ladies buy your needles, pins and spools of thread? Just step
around and see Nurse Jane Fuzzy Wuzzy, my muskrat lady
housekeeper. She is always sewing and mending. She'll buy things
from your pack."
"Oh, it isn't selling them that's the trouble," said Mr. Cat. "But I am
getting so old and stiff that I can hardly carry the pack on my back
any longer. I have to sit down and rest because my back aches so
much. Oh, how tired I am! What a weary world this is!"
"Oh, don't say that!" laughed Uncle Wiggily, who felt quite cheerful
that morning. "See how the sun shines!"
"It only makes it so much hotter for me to carry the pack on my
back," sighed the cat.
"Ha! That is where I can help you!" exclaimed Mr. Longears. "I am
quite well and strong, except for a little rheumatism now and then.
That, however, doesn't bother me now, so I'll carry your peddler's
pack for you."
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