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Total Relationship Marketing
This book is dedicated to the future of our daughters Charlotte and Madelene.
Total Relationship
Marketing

Third edition

Evert Gummesson

Marketing strategy moving from the 4Ps – product, price, promotion, place –
of traditional marketing management to the 30Rs – the 30 relationships – of
a new marketing paradigm incorporating service-dominant logic, B2C,
B2B, C2C, CRM, many-to-many marketing, and the value-creating
network society

AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON • NEW YORK • OXFORD

PARIS • SAN DIEGO • SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO
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30 Corporate Drive, Suite 400, Burlington, MA 01803, USA

Third edition 2008

Copyright © 1999, 2002, 2008, Evert Gummesson. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

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accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988

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British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

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08 09 10 11 12 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents

Figures and tables ix

Preface and acknowledgements to the third edition xi
Introduction xv

Chapter 1 Relational approaches to marketing 1

The relational realities of marketing 3
RM, CRM, one-to-one, many-to-many: what are they really? 5
A new logic for marketing: S-D logic 9
Society is a network of relationships – and so is business! 14
The roots of RM/CRM 16
Basic values of marketing 18
A different set of values: marketing as tricks 22
RM versus transaction marketing 24
The value-creating network society 25
Reflective researchers and reflective practitioners: merging science with
common sense and tacit knowledge 26
What do we see through the relationship eye-glasses? 28
Properties of relationships, networks and interaction 29
The 30Rs of RM: introductory specification of 30 relationships 36
Summing up: total RM is more ‘total’ than ever 40
Questions for discussion 41

Chapter 2 Classic market relationships 43

Relationship 1 The classic dyad – the relationship between the supplier and
the customer 45
Relationship 2 The classic triad – the drama of the customer–supplier–
competitor triangle 57
Relationship 3 The classic network – distribution 66
Questions for discussion 73

Chapter 3 Special market relationships 75

Relationship 4 Relationships via full-time marketers (FTMs) and
part-time marketers (PTMs) 77
vi Contents

Relationship 5 The service encounter – interaction between customers and

suppliers 82
Relationship 6 The many-headed customer and the many-headed supplier 91
Relationship 7 The relationship to the customer ’s customer 96
Relationship 8 The close versus the distant relationship 100
Relationship 9 The relationship to the dissatisfied customer 105
Relationship 10 The monopoly relationship – the customer or supplier as
prisoners 111
Relationship 11 The customer as ‘member ’ 117
Relationship 12 The e-relationship 121
Relationship 13 Parasocial relationships – relationships to brands and objects 130
Relationship 14 The non-commercial relationship 138
Relationship 15 The green relationship and CSR 143
Relationship 16 The law-based relationship 155
Relationship 17 The criminal network 161
Questions for discussion 169

Chapter 4 Mega relationships 171

Relationship 18 Personal and social networks 173
Relationship 19 Mega marketing – the real ‘customer ’ is not always found in
the marketplace 178
Relationship 20 Alliances change the market mechanisms 183
Relationship 21 The knowledge relationship 188
Relationship 22 Mega alliances change the basic conditions for marketing 194
Relationship 23 The mass media relationship 199
Questions for discussion 204

Chapter 5 Nano relationships 207

Relationship 24 Market mechanisms are brought inside the company 209
Relationship 25 Internal customer relationships 214
Relationship 26 Quality and customer orientation – the relationship between
operations management and marketing 219
Relationship 27 Internal marketing – relationships with the ‘employee
market’ 225
Relationship 28 The two-dimensional matrix relationship 231
Relationship 29 The relationship to external providers of marketing service 236
Relationship 30 The owner and financier relationship 241
Questions for discussion 251
Contents vii

Chapter 6 Marketing metrics and return on relationships 253

Marketing metrics 255
Return on relationships, ROR 256
Satisfaction, loyalty, value and ROR 258
Duration, retention and defection 261
Triplets and tribes 264
Intellectual capital and the balanced scorecard 269
Return on the non-measurable 273
ROR and some day even RON 276
Strategies for improved ROR 279
An RM-inspired marketing plan and audit 281
Questions for discussion 285

Chapter 7 RM and the network organization 287

Organizing: creating networks of relationships 289
Have you ever seen a corporation? 291
The company and the market: same thing – but different 292
Paradoxes that are not 300
Internal and external ‘employees’ 302
From fenced structures to boundaryless processes 304
Our need for security 308
Synthesis 1: from exclusive hierarchies to inclusive networks and processes 311
Synthesis 2: from partial to complete marketing equilibrium 314
Questions for discussion 316

Chapter 8 RM/CRM – drivers of a paradigm shift in marketing 317

Summing up theoretical and practical contributions to RM/CRM 319
The 4Ps are neither Ps nor 4 any more 320
RM/CRM literature: a comparison with the 30R approach 327
A paradigm shift in marketing 334
The value-creating network society, modernism and post-modernism 337
A future-oriented note on methodology and theory generation 339
Approaching the end of the book – or the beginning? 342
Questions for discussion 344

References 345
Index 365
This page intentionally left blank
Figures and tables

Figures
Figure 1.1 – The basic marketing relationship 5
Figure 1.2 – A network of relationships 6
Figure 2.1 – The three forces of the market economy which together can create
marketing equilibrium 61
Figure 3.1 – Internal and external FTMs and PTMs 77
Figure 3.2 – Principal components of the marketing function of a
manufacturer of industrial equipment 79
Figure 3.3 – FTMs and PTMs in a consulting firm 81
Figure 3.4 – The service encounter: the customer perspective 83
Figure 3.5 – The service encounter: the contact person perspective 85
Figure 3.6 – The service encounter: the support staff perspective 86
Figure 3.7 – The service encounter: the management perspective 86
Figure 3.8 – Relationships between the many-headed supplier and the
many-headed customer 92
Figure 3.9 – Networks of relationships 94
Figure 3.10 – The death of the enduser 98
Figure 3.11 – The physical proximity to the customer versus the distant
relationship via market research reports 101
Figure 3.12 – Alternative relationships to the dissatisfied customer 108
Figure 3.13 – The relationship between payment of taxes and public
services and the customer/citizen 139
Figure 3.14 – The company and its relationships in the green network 149
Figure 3.15 – The law-based relationship as a substitute for burst social
and business relationships 156
Figure 4.1 – Different types of relationships that constitute an individual’s
social network 173
Figure 4.2 – The real ‘customer ’ can be found in a non-market
network above the market 179
Figure 5.1 – Market mechanisms are brought inside the organization 211
Figure 5.2 – Relationships between internal customers, internal suppliers
and external customers in a hierarchical structure 215
x Figures and tables

Figure 5.3 – The interaction in an interfunctional R&D project 218

Figure 5.4 – TQM forging a relationship between marketing functions
and technical functions 223
Figure 5.5 – The difference between internal and external marketing, and the
link between them 225
Figure 5.6 – Two pages from a pamphlet used in Rifa’s internal marketing 228
Figure 5.7 – Relationships between marketing, ownership/investors and
other influencers 243
Figure 6.1 – Loyalty accounting matrix 259
Figure 6.2 – A ‘relationship profitability model’ 260
Figure 7.1 – Three cases of transaction costs 294
Figure 7.2 – Parties and links in Amazon’s network 297
Figure 7.3 – The traditional image of the firm and the market in systems theory,
transaction cost analysis and economics versus the complex
network reality 301
Figure 7.4 – The ‘dino organization’ versus the network organization 302
Figure 7.5 – Shifting from structure in focus supported by processes,
to processes in focus supported by structure 308
Figure 7.6 – Organizational structure transitions 312
Figure 7.7 – The corporation as many images at the same time 313
Figure 7.8 – Today, the company and the market are controlled by the
same forces 315
Figure 7.9 – Complete marketing equilibrium in the network, both ‘outside’
and ‘inside’ the organization 315
Figure 8.1 – A shift in hegemony: from the 4Ps to relationships, networks
and interaction 325
Figure 8.2 – Today’s ‘Ps’ are more than 4 327

Tables
Table 1.1 – The 30 relationships of RM – the 30Rs 37
Table 3.1 – Examples of power organization effects on relationships 112
Table 3.2 – Drivers to deal with green and CSR issues 152
Table 8.1 – Contributions to the shaping of RM/CRM 320
Table 8.2 – 4Ps and more Ps 323
Table 8.3 – Selected definitions which emphasize different aspects of RM 329
Table 8.4 – Selected definitions which emphasize different aspects of CRM 331
Table 8.5 – Comparison between categories in multi-relationship approaches 332
Table 8.6 – The characteristics of my RM/CRM concept and its contribution
to a paradigm shift in marketing 336
Preface and acknowledgements
to the third edition

Revising and updating is a wonderful opportunity to test the viability of one’s own ideas
and to bring them to others. It is an obtrusive reminder that markets, customers, companies,
society and technology keep changing. Relationship marketing (RM) and customer
relationship management (CRM) have become accepted – and debated – parts of marketing.
We still have a long way to go to separate unrealistic theory and research, advocacy, rhetoric
and hype from what can lead to hands-on action in a true relationship spirit. As before, my
effort to sort this out is expressed by the title of the book: Total Relationship Marketing.
What’s new in this third edition and what stays put:

■ I’m proud to say that the 30 relationships approach, the 30Rs, stays fit after 25 years
when the ideas started to brew in my head and after 15 years since the 30Rs became
complete. Many liked the Rs from the start, others were puzzled, others joked about
them and yet others claimed that the Rs were too many. A commentary in The Times
Higher Education Supplement advocated that the traditional 4Ps (product, price,
promotion, place) are superior as students and executives can keep 4 things in their
heads but not 30. This is a gross understatement of their intellectual capacity. I know
numerous people – both students and CEOs – who have learnt the alphabet (26 letters)
and can handle multiple strategies simultaneously. Reality is complex – it is not a sound
bite or a one-liner – and marketing complexity has to be addressed with an open and daring
mind. I still do not hesitate to say that this is the most complete attempt so far to cover
RM/CRM on a strategic level and offer the beginnings of a theory. So the 30Rs stay.
■ Each R has been scrutinised for revision and updating. For example, information technology
(IT) keeps changing our lives and relationships. The general notion of e-relationships (R12)
stays but it is demanding to try to discern the big picture because of all new technology
and inventive service. Another example is the green relationship (R15), which in its
broadened sense includes corporate social responsibility, CSR. It is literally hotter than ever.
Specific elements of the relationships need to be adjusted but their core messages remain.
■ Theories, concepts and vocabulary change. Integrating the new ones with the text and
dropping the outdated ones turned out to be a challenge, no, a nightmare. I did not
xii Preface and acknowledgements to the third edition

have access to the Holy Grail and its miraculous power to make everything consistent.
But I want to be remembered for being one of the first to try, hoping that others can
improve it further. With the service-dominant logic, S-D logic, certain conceptual
dilemmas begin to get sorted out. The meaning of S-D logic will be explained and
integrated with RM throughout the text. In the third edition there is even more
emphasis on networks and network theory. In marketing, network thinking has almost
exclusively been applied in B2B. Through the concept of many-to-many marketing,
network theory can form the foundation of all types of marketing, B2B as well as
B2C. The customer-centric concepts of lean consumption and the customer value network
supplement the production-centric lean production and the conventional supplier-
centric value chain. Chain is replaced by network to show that events are not sequential
and linear but iterative and non-linear. Further, the customer centric view of marketing
is suggested to be broadened to balanced centricity, a trade-off between the needs of all
stakeholders of a network. As a consequence the former Chapters 8 and 9 have been
revised and merged into a new Chapter 8.
■ Marketing deals with the generation of revenue and revenue must exceed cost. Don’t
you ever forget it! Over the past 50 years I have seen numerous efforts to find general
models and indicators to get financial control over marketing. The cry for marketing
accountability and metrics is currently loud – again. The problem is to design metrics
that work in practice and provide genuine guidance. All the same it is essential to keep
the assessment of marketing effects, both quantitative and qualitative, on the agenda.
Chapter 6 is an updated effort to do so.
■ As in earlier editions, concepts and ideas are constantly accompanied by short cases
and examples to facilitate reading and make it easier to relate them to practice. Cases
and examples have been substituted wherever they have gone stale. In a five year
period some lose their pitch; they may have danced just one summer. Others change
and need updating but there are also those that are robust enough to stand the test of
time; they are classics. I have tried to avoid superficial hypes, however appealing they
may look at the time. At the end of each chapter a Questions for Discussion section has
been added to support classroom use.
■ I have been careful to include references, update them and give recognition whenever
possible. This is the first time I revise a book when Google, Wikipedia and other
Internet-based sources are both easily accessible and rich in information. It made
updating easier. As anybody can get into Google and find a host of sources on
any subject, I have found it practically impossible to give reference to websites or
information that is widely spread through the media. I have always checked several
sources and tried to assess the credibility of the information.

I’m grateful for this opportunity to prepare a third edition. I’m also grateful to a large
number of people who have stimulated my work over the years. We meet around the
Preface and acknowledgements to the third edition xiii

world at conferences and at each other ’s universities, and we meet in publications.

Many have become good friends. The personal networking facilitates academic work
immensely. I especially want to mention a group of people who have offered research,
publication or speaking opportunities. I can’t add them all to the list but many are also
found among the references in the book.
My roots are in Northern Europe. The Nordic School has become a designation for
researchers and practitioners in Sweden and Finland who started to take an interest in
services in the late 1970s. They focused on service management and marketing where
relationships and interaction formed the core. The Nordic School has gradually found that
quality, value, RM, CRM, networks and service represent a new foundation for marketing.
The Marketing Technology Centre (MTC) in Sweden supported my work on service and
later on relationships at a stage when nobody thought much of it. Christian Grönroos,
Hanken, Helsinki, and Uolevi Lehtinen, University of Tampere, and their colleagues helped
to build a sustainable platform for theory generation in marketing. My affiliation with
their schools became a driver of my own thinking. And so did later Bo Edvardsson and his
colleagues at the Service Research Center (CTF) Karlstad University, Sweden, not least
through the QUIS symposia. My cooperation with these institutions has continued after I
took up my position at the Stockholm University School of Business. For a period it became
a heartland for innovative and unorthodox research within a theory-creating and qualitative
tradition. Its PhD students provided much of the research resources and so did its
Marketing Academy. Leif Edvinsson with a foot in both business and academe and a world
authority on intellectual capital, has supported the broadening and renewal of marketing. A
large number of practitioners have provided encouragement by engaging me in consulting
and speaking assignments, and thus kept me in touch with the realities of marketing.
Many from other countries have been instrumental in paving the road for RM. Bernard
Taylor, long time Editor of The Journal of Long Range Planning, accepted my first effort in
the mid 1980s to publish the 30R approach – although there were only 9 relationships at
that time. An ongoing dialogue with the international icon of marketing, Philip Kotler,
Northwestern University, keeps being a source of inspiration. Much of what The Nordic
School and others have stood for over the years has been skilfully conceptualized and
expanded into the S-D logic by Steve Vargo and Bob Lusch; I greatly value the cooperation
with them. At an early stage David Ballantyne engaged me in the International Colloquia
in Relationship Marketing and recently in the Otago Forum on Service-Dominant Logic
thus offering extraordinary opportunities to conduct a global dialogue. My recent
acquaintance with the IBM project Service Science and its leader Jim Spohrer holds many
promises for the future. A very special thanks to Akiko Fujioka, Japan, and Cristina
Mele, Italy, who have been instrumental in adapting my book for publication in their
home countries. As to methodological issues and research approaches, Barney Glaser,
co-creator of grounded theory has become a friend and coach, later with committed
support by Andy Lowe. Barney not only thinks grounded theory, he lives it.
xiv Preface and acknowledgements to the third edition

During the process of creating this third edition my long time colleague and friend
Chris Lovelock, pioneer in service and enthusiastic contributor to marketing renewal,
unexpectedly passed away. Chris, I’ll miss our dialogue!
Among others who have contributed to my thinking and helped to create a dialogue
in their home countries and globally and are: in Australia Adrian Payne, Louise Young
and Ian Wilkinson; in Canada Ulrike de Brentani, Michèle Paulin and Ronald Ferguson;
in Germany Friedhelm Bliemel, Anton Meyer and Bernd Stauss; in Ireland Stephen
Brown, David Carson, Tony Cunningham, Damien McLoughlin and the late Liam Glynn;
in Latin America Jaquie Pels and Javier Reynoso; in New Zealand Rod Brodie, Richard
Brookes, Nicole Coviello and Brendan Gray; in Poland Kazimierz Rogozinski and Richard
Nicholls; in the UK Michael Baker, Keith Blois, Douglas Brownlie, Martin Christopher,
Bob Johnston, Michael Saren, Michael Thomas and Nikos Tzokas; and in the US David
Bejou, Len Berry, Mary Jo Bitner, Stephen W. Brown, Shelby Hunt, Jay Kandampully,
Parsu Parasuraman, Atul Parvatiyar, Roland Rust, Jag Sheth, and Pat and Joan Townsend.
A special thanks to the team at Elsevier who has made this third edition possible.

Evert Gummesson
Stockholm University School of Business,
SE-10691 Stockholm, Sweden
[email protected]; www.fek.su.se/home/eg/
January 2008
Introduction

The purpose of this book is to contribute to a more realistic approach to marketing

management. It addresses the question: ‘What do you learn if you look at marketing as
relationships, networks and interaction, and what can you do with this knowledge?’
This way of approaching marketing is referred to as relationship marketing (RM), and
within this concept the topical issues of customer relationship management (CRM) and
one-to-one marketing belong.
The book has been written for all those who want to develop their knowledge of
marketing: practitioners, students, educators and researchers. As marketing management
permeates every activity in today’s business – and not only the marketing and sales
departments – this book will be of particular interest to top executives and managers of
all types of functions.
Chapter 1 is an introduction to RM and its 30 relationships, the 30Rs, prevalent in
business. This is by far the broadest and most comprehensive framework of RM that has
been designed; hence the reference to total relationship marketing. Each relationship is
then covered in more detail in Chapters 2–5. Chapter 6 is about marketing metrics and
return on relationships (ROR), that is, the financial effects of RM and the effects on
relationship-oriented marketing and business planning. Chapter 7 deals with RM and
new organizational formats, captured under the term network organization; the chapter
also puts RM and its organization in the context of the market economy. Chapter 8 covers
theories and experiences that have formed the foundation of RM, describes how RM and
CRM have emerged from these, and forebodes a paradigm shift in marketing.
The structure of the book, particularly the presentation of the 30Rs, is, in a sense,
encyclopaedic – a hypertext in modern terminology – which gives readers the option to
look up what they are interested in without having to read every page in sequence from
cover to cover.
This page intentionally left blank
Chapter

1
Relational
approaches to
marketing

In this chapter

■ The relational realities of marketing 3

■ RM, CRM, one-to-one, many-to-many: what are
they really? 5
■ A new logic for marketing: S-D logic 9
■ Society is a network of relationships – and so is business! 14
■ The roots of RM/CRM 16
■ Basic values of marketing 18
■ A different set of values: marketing as tricks 22
■ RM versus transaction marketing 24
■ The value-creating network society 25
■ Reflective researchers and reflective practitioners: merging
science with common sense and tacit knowledge 26
■ What do we see through the relationship eye-glasses? 28
■ Properties of relationships, networks and interaction 29
■ The 30Rs of RM: introductory specification of the
30 relationships 36
■ Summing up: total RM is more ‘total’ than ever 40
■ Questions for discussion 41
This page intentionally left blank
Relational approaches to marketing 3

INTRODUCTION

The chapter presents the purpose and outline of the book, and the concepts of relationship
marketing (RM), customer relationship management (CRM), one-to-one marketing and
many-to-many marketing are defined. The ideas of a new general marketing logic, the
service-dominant logic (S-D logic) are discussed together with certain basics of marketing,
among them the problem with customer centricity and the need for a broader stakeholder
focus, balanced centricity. Although marketing attempts to be scientific, the importance
of tacit knowledge emerging from reflection, experience, common sense and intuition
is brought to the fore. The reader is urged to see marketing through the ‘relationship
eye-glasses’ and to adjust to a paradigm shift in marketing. To help in this process the
general characteristics of relationships and a summary of the 30 specific relationships of
RM, the 30Rs, are introduced.

The relational realities of marketing

Two practical experiences from business drew my attention to the importance of

relationships in marketing.
I was hired by a market leading northern European management consulting firm which
had just been acquired by the large international PA Consulting Group headquartered in
London. One of my tasks, besides doing consulting assignments, was to sell the services
of a group of consultants. My knowledge of marketing was based on textbooks used in
business school education and practical experience as a marketing manager of consumer
goods. I was taken by surprise when realizing that (at that time in Northern Europe) the
consulting company did little or nothing that the books prescribed. No explicit marketing
strategy, no marketing organization, no marketing planning, no marketing research, no
specialized sales force, no advertising and no public relations.
Should the fresh consultant tell the CEO the bad news – that they were doing
everything wrong – followed by the good news: I’m here to set it right? There was a
disturbing fact, though. The company was doing well. It must be doing something right.
Through observation and advice from senior colleagues – one had worked for 14 years
as consultant to the same large corporation – I learnt that one thing in particular mattered
beside the professional knowledge: the network of relationships that the individual
consultants belonged to through past and present professional achievements, birth or
membership of social groups. And furthermore, relationships were equally important
internally when consultants were selected by their colleagues to staff new assignments.

Creating and maintaining a network of relationships – outside as

well as inside the company – constituted the core marketing of the
4 Total relationship marketing

consulting firm. Credibility and referrals built on performance in the

assignments and the relationships that developed there. Advertising,
public relations, branding, and other marketing activities were
supportive, but they were not the core of their marketing.

Another significant experience occurred during the 1980s while I was working as a
consultant to Ericsson. The then CEO, Björn Svedberg, commissioned one assignment with
the following words: ‘Evert, explain to us what we are actually doing in our marketing
and selling!’ Ericsson is known for being a leading supplier of telecom equipment and
systems and for its mobile phone operation in alliance with Sony. At that time each sale
was large, complex, high tech and long term. A major marketing strategy – although
it was not officially perceived as such – was the creation and maintenance of long-term
relationships with a few large telecom operating companies, as well as the cultivation of
relationships with research institutions, own suppliers, government agencies, politicians,
banks, investors, the media and others. The relationships concerned many people in
several tiers and functions within the customers’ organizations and also within Ericsson’s
own organization.

Ericsson’s success over its 130 years of existence has been based on
a combination of state-of-the-art technology and a well-developed
network of relationships.

These two experiences taught me a very obvious and common-sense lesson: when
your current real world experience clashes with your previous experience and received
theories, rethink! I found that my textbook knowledge and experience of marketing
management and consumer marketing was not adequate. Simply put:

INSIGHT When – after careful scrutiny – you find that the terrain differs from your
map, trust the terrain and your own judgement!

Aren’t these experiences just history in the third millennium? No! And are the lessons
applicable to smaller businesses? Yes! Grönroos tells the example of rice merchant Ming
Hua in ancient China, many thousands of years ago.1 He developed an initially slow rice
business to become the local market leader. What did he do? He did relationship marketing!

1
Grönroos (2007, pp. 29–30).
Relational approaches to marketing 5

So did the milkman in sociologist Odis Simmons’ study from the 1960s.2 From this case,
Simmons who was not a marketing scholar but had practical experience from work as a
milkman, developed a theory of RM based on the core concept of ‘cultivated relationship’.
The home delivery of milk is a small industry today but it has had its offsprings. Stew
Leonard started out as a milkman, then build a dairy product store and now operates 4
huge fresh food stores in Connecticut and New York, known for service excellence and
for cultivating relationships.
So relationships are part of human nature. They are timeless. They are independent of
culture. They are there in every type and size of business.
Why did it take marketing theory so long to discover what practitioners already felt
and acted on? Relational approaches in marketing gradually became the object of research
and conceptualization during the past decades and the 1990s marked a breakthrough
with skyrocketing interest. Let us look at the state-of-the-art and peek into the future.

RM, CRM, one-to-one, many-to-many: what are they really?

Relationship marketing (RM) is usually defined as an approach to develop long-term

loyal customers and thus increasing profitability. My definition is more generic:

Relationship marketing is interaction in networks of relationships.

Let’s now look at the core concepts that constitute RM: relationships, networks and
interaction.
Relationships require at least two parties who are in contact with each other. The basic
two-party relationship of marketing, the dyad, is that between a supplier and a customer
(Figure 1.1).

Figure 1.1 The basic marketing relationship

2
Simmons (1993). His study it is an application of ‘grounded theory’ which is dicussed further at the end
of Chapter 8.
6 Total relationship marketing

Figure 1.2 A network of relationships

A network is a set of multi-party relationships, which can grow into enormously complex
patterns. A graphic pattern of a network is shown in Figure 1.2. In the relationships, the
simple dyad as well as the complex networks, the parties enter into active contact with
each other. This is called interaction.
Returning to our initial two cases, and although consultancy and telecom have gone
through changes, the significance of relationship, networks and interaction remains.
Their application may vary with time as technology and market conditions change, but
their essence is timeless. A management consulting company provides service to business-
to-business (B2B) clients; it is not business-to-consumer marketing (B2C). Ericsson is
a combination of B2B (systems for telecom operators) and B2C (mobile phones). The
telephone once changed interaction among customers and the mobile phone has given rise
to a second wave of customer-to-customer interaction (C2C).3 The phone and computers
have increased C2C intensity and made it part of marketing. Although the frameworks
presented in marketing textbooks have claimed to be universally valid, they dealt with
consumer goods marketing: cola drinks, painkillers, cookies and cars. The textbooks did
not include services, only marginally B2B and almost entirely left out C2C. There was not
a word about relationships, interaction and networks – and there still is very little. The
textbooks diverted the mind from substantive and universally significant issues.
In the wake of RM followed one-to-one and CRM (Customer Relationship
Management). The last two concepts represent the same basic thinking but today CRM
is the most frequently used term.4 I prefer to see RM as the overriding concept for a new
type of marketing and CRM as techniques to handle customer relationships in practice.

3
See further Nicholls (2005).
4
For an overview of current definitions see Chapter 8. Peppers and Rogers launched one-to-one in
1993. Comprehensive books with somewhat different approaches to RM/CRM include Storbacka and
Lehtinen (2001); Christopher, Payne and Ballantyne (2002); Bruhn (2003); Little and Marandi (2003);
Egan (2004); Buttle (2006); Payne (2006) and Donaldson and O’Toole (2007).
Relational approaches to marketing 7

My definition of CRM follows from the RM definition:

CRM is the values and strategies of RM – with special emphasis on the

relationship between a customer and a supplier – turned into practical
application and dependent on both human action and information
technology.

Today, RM/CRM provide a framework for such diverse marketing situations as

described by the cases of the PA Consulting Group, Ericsson, Chinese rice merchant Ming
Hua, and the milkman. These cases offer glimpses of the significance of relationships,
networks and interaction in B2C and B2B, in small local businesses and global giants,
and in diverse types of businesses, countries and cultures, and again: their existence
seems timeless. RM is a general marketing approach and in my view an antecedent to a
paradigm shift in marketing.
Many-to-many marketing is an extension of RM/CRM and one-to-one marketing to show
the complexity of relationships when we leave the two-party relationship, the dyad, for
the multi-party relationship. The world is a network of relationships and many-to-many
is my designation for its marketing application. This book is focused on RM but it
forebodes the need to broaden marketing to its networks. This has been done, especially
in B2B, but the concept of many-to-many encompasses all marketing. My definition is:
Many-to-many marketing describes, analyses and utilizes the network properties of
marketing.
The case of Mr. Ray is an illustration of B2B marketing strategy with a many-to-many
network perspective.

CASE STUDY Mr. Ray and his many-to-many mini-world5

As part of a long-term strategy to strengthen its position in the American

market, a European machine manufacturer planned to buy a company in the
United States. They had found a candidate and a group from the buyer visited
the company during a couple of weeks. The project leader explains:
‘I worked together with the CEO of our US subsidiary, his COO and CFO, and
our Director of Manufacturing from headquarters in Europe. The owner and
founder of the US company was known as Mr. Ray and that was also the brand

5
Taken from Gummesson (2008a); the case is based on Bagelius (2003). Reprinted with
permission.
8 Total relationship marketing

of the company’s machines. During a hectic period we analyzed Mr. Ray’s

company from all possible angles. In the US, Mr. Ray was a well-known brand
in its niche. The company was interesting to us considering their products,
company size and market share. We found it to be well managed. The
accounting seemed correct and we had no feeling that they were withholding
information. But we also discovered that the company was somewhat
under-financed and that product development had been held back.
‘Most of the evenings we spent with Mr. Ray or members of his management
team. They took well care of us and showed us the sights of the neighborhood,
among others the city art museum, which was sponsored by Mr. Ray. We were
invited to Mr. Ray’s home and got to know his family.
‘One day we were on our way to lunch in Mr. Ray’s Cadillac. I insisted on
being the host. Mr. Ray had been very generous to us but within decent limits.
We stopped at a farm which has been rebuilt to a self-service restaurant. When
we carried our loaded trays to the table I noticed that several guests greeted
Mr. Ray very politely. Some even stood up and bowed.
‘When we came back after lunch, two of us proceeded with the collection
and analysis of financial data. The other two concentrated on the relationship
between the employees and Mr. Ray, his executives and his family. My
suspicion that many of the employees were relatives and friends was
corroborated. It also turned out that many of the suppliers, key customers,
local media, politicians and city government members had a close personal
relationship to Mr. Ray and his family. The company was in fact a large family,
a network of friendly relationships with Mr. Ray as its hub.
‘Back home we could present a bright picture of Mr. Ray’s company, a
picture that was largely based on fact. From a financial and marketing aspect
the company was definitely a suitable candidate for acquisition. Yet our
recommendation was to abstain. The main reason was that the company was
dominated by relatives and friends. Traditions and norms in the United States
would make it very difficult for a European company to exert leadership. And just
imagine what a future conflict could lead to in the form of claims in courts, where
Mr. Ray would stand out as the local hero and we as the bad guys from overseas!
We had already had one unfortunate experience at home. We bought a company
where the former owners two years later – without regard to the agreement –
started anew in direct competition with the company we had acquired. They
changed the color of their machines to blue, that was all. Despite our efforts to
stop them legally, they continued and we became the real losers.’
Relational approaches to marketing 9

The book is about these and other relationships. The relationships will be listed,
described, analysed, illustrated and discussed. RM is not just another bag of tricks to
capture customers; it offers a wide range of conditions for more efficient management and
marketing – and opportunities of making money. This will be elaborated on throughout
the book.
In the late 1990s, half of the large US corporations (‘the Fortune 500’) had Relationship
Managers and the number is probably growing.6 Key Account Managers (KAMs) who
are in charge of large B2B customers, as well as CRM managers to handle the transition to
CRM systems, have grown in numbers. These positions, however, can only be supportive;
RM/CRM have to permeate the whole organization and its culture to become effective.

A new logic for marketing: S-D logic

Since the 1970s, when services marketing was discovered and up till now the division
between goods and services has been taken for granted, even if it has been questionned
from different directions. Although services in official statistics constituted more than
half of economic activity in developed countries, they were neglected in marketing and
management. The goods/service division is peddled in official statistics and political
debates and a nation’s economic development is commonly referred to the industrial
(manufacturing) sector, the service sector and the agricultural sector. This way of looking
at our economy is totally production centric; there isn’t a customer in sight.
But goods are different from services, aren’t they? Yes – and no! The two are a faithful,
married couple and they are always holding hands. Therefore there are no clear-cut goods
marketing or services marketing situations. Further, in statistical reports goods and services
are arbitrarily defined. Even a seemingly simple service category such as ‘hotels’ includes
a large variety of marketing situations that defy ‘hotels’ as a meaningful categorization
for marketing purposes. Each marketing situation is made up of a unique set of features
and dependent and so many other variables than just goods and services. Marketing is
complex and all efforts to make approximate generalization based on armchair reasoning
is likely to lead us astray both is practicing and researching marketing.
The fact that goods and services appear together has disturbed many over the years.7
This is not new but eventually it is seriously catching the imagination of marketers.
Efforts have been made to get product accepted as a joint term for goods and services and
to use offering, package or solution as all inclusive concepts for what the customer buys.

6
Whiting (1998).
7
The first were probably Wyckham, Fitzroy and Mandry (1975).
10 Total relationship marketing

It has not worked. When you read ‘products’ in a marketing text it generally means
goods, and the other concepts are only used in select cases.
Two articles by Vargo and Lusch (2004a) and Lovelock and Gummesson (2004)
independently of each other argued that the conventional criteria used to distinguish
goods from services did not do their job. These criteria, for services referred to as the
IHIPs (intangibility, heterogeneity, inseparability and perishability), could equally well be
turned around and attached to goods. The basic problem of course was that goods and
services cannot be separated but an obsolete paradigm has led us to believe so. Goods –
things – always appear with services – activities.
It was not until Steve Vargo and Bob Lusch in another article presented a new
marketing logic – service-dominant logic, usually referred to as S-D logic – that many of
the scattered thoughts from the past began to fall in place.8
As S-D logic affects the way RM/CRM is presented in this new edition of my book, a
summary of its characteristics is given below and will be referred to throughout the text:

■ Goods/services integrated and replaced by service (in the singular) and value proposition:
As has been discussed above the division of the economy in goods and services has
caused constant headache over decades. It has been kept at bay with painkillers which
eventually, as is the case with all medication addressing symptoms and not the root
cause, has spawned side effects and failed to kill the pain. Value proposition is used in
S-D logic to stress that the supplier has a proposition, encompassing the service that this
proposition can render and the price the customer pays. To avoid the wrong associations
it is important to note that ‘service’ as used in S-D logic refers to the service given by
whatever we purchase, irrespective of this being goods or services (as these terms are
used in official statistics). To avoid a mix-up with conventional thinking I also use value.
■ Knowledge: In S-D logic the application of specialized skills and knowledge through
deeds, processes and performances is the fundamental unit of exchange and it defines
service. Knowledge is also the fundamental source of competitive advantage. Further,
service provision is integration of resources between the parties involved with the
supplier and the customer in its core.
■ Operand and operant resources: Behind the S-D logic is the transfer from a goods-dominant
logic (G-D logic) where the resources were land, animal and plant life, minerals and other
physical objects. These were operand resources, those which you do something to; operant

8
The original article by Vargo and Lusch (2004b) together with commentaries by eight marketing scholars
appeared in the same issue of the Journal of Marketing. For a progress report on S-D logic as well as
critique, see an anthology edited by Lusch and Vargo (2006a); a special issue of Marketing Theory
(2006); and a special issue of the Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science (2008). For critical views see
Stauss (2005); Achrol and Kotler (2006); and Shembri (2006). For an overview of the value concept, see
Korkman (2006).
Relational approaches to marketing 11

resources are those who do it. In G-D logic, the No. 1 resource is the operand resource.
In S-D logic the operant resource – the skills and knowledge how to do something – is
the No. 1 resource. And who does it, who is the operant resource? When we started to
hear that ‘customers are our most valuable resource’, customers were seen as operand
resources; you do something to them. Companies were the operant resources, those
who did it. S-D logic changes these taken-for-granted and long obsolete approaches.
The customer has been promoted from a passive operand resource to an active operant
resource.
■ Co-creation of value: For example, buying a car is classified as the outcome of goods
marketing, renting a car as the outcome of services marketing. For each customer,
however, value is created in his or her interaction with the car. It is driving to a
desired destination; driving the car well or badly; taking good care of it, or neglecting
its maintenance; praising its convenience, or cursing traffic jams, absence of parking
space, and the rising gas price; enjoying music and the privacy, or getting bored by
long, lonely hours in the car; and so on. The car remains a value proposition whether
it is driver owned, owned by your employer, bought with borrowed money, leased,
rented or owned by your parents. Value actualization is in the hands of the customer and
consequently suppliers and customers co-create value.
■ Network extension: The development of S-D logic has an open source code; anyone
can contribute to improvements. Further, the customer as an operant resource and
co-creation of value are not only a supplier–customer affair, it can be extended beyond
the mere dyad and embrace further stakeholders. This aligns with my RM concept and
even more so with the many-to-many concept. It can be applied in complex and adaptive
networks in which we are embedded in society such as intermediaries, competitors,
friends, government, the media, and not least other customers, C2C.
■ Marketing definition. Summing up, the marketing definition emerging in S-D logic says
that ‘marketing is the process in society and organizations that facilitates voluntary
exchange through collaborative relationships that create reciprocal value through the
application of complementary resources’.9 You will find later that this definition is well
aligned with the message of this book.

In connection with S-D logic I want to draw the attention to a grand ongoing project started
by IBM in 2004, Service Science, Management and Engineering (SSME), usually referred
to as Service Science. It is a project with high momentum that makes an effort to spread
service thinking in the academic world and among practitioners. It is particularly focused
to get education at institutes of technology to include service and to make manufacturing
companies see their output as service rather than just goods. As this is a gigantic

9
Lusch and Vargo (2006a, pp. xvii–xviii).
12 Total relationship marketing

undertaking the project still is at an initial stage, but the expectations are high that it will
open up new ways of approaching both marketing and management in general.
A general conclusion from S-D logic is that customers are gaining a more significant
and active role in marketing. It also means that customers are becoming more powerful
as the next case displays.

CASE STUDY Consumer power

The customer ’s role in marketing is gradually being understood. Even

advertising agencies, who traditionally work with mass marketing, are
rethinking. As a token of this, consumers were recently recognised to have a
more influential role in marketing than the professional marketers. Every year
the American journal Advertising Age nominates the best advertising agency.
In 2006, the award did not go to a traditional agency but to – the consumer!
Through the Internet, email, mobile phones and other IT media and C2C
interaction through communities, individual customers reach out in the
world. Consumers control the brands more than the legal brand owners do.
Web-based chat groups, hate sites and fan clubs have been around for some
time. Now we also have blogs and the TiVo (which keeps commercials off
your TV). In an instant, YouTube, which lets anybody show their videos on the
Internet, has become a smashing hit.10

10
Based on Creamer (2007). About the customers’ increasingly pivotal role in service
development, see Edvardsson et al. (2006).

As customers become more intimately intertwined with each other, with suppliers
and with other network actors, the boundaries between previously taken-for-granted
categories and roles become fuzzy and overlapping. Should they be considered parties
or are they just one? Engeseth (2006) takes it all the way and advocates the concept of
one. Like man and wife in the Bible the two become one flesh. It aligns with S-D logic and
the co-creation of value and with the customers more eminent role in marketing. But not
all suppliers and customers want to go to bed with each other. I conclude we need two
perspectives, first, to view the parties separately and stress their differences in roles and
goals and, second, to view them as one by stressing their affinity. The boundaries between
customers, suppliers, competitors, governments and other have to be recognized for what
they really are: fuzzy and overlapping.
Relational approaches to marketing 13

We should do the same with the conventional divide between goods and services.
When the terms goods and services (services in the plural) are used in this text they
represent a certain emphasis or perspective. They are used when either the things aspect
or the activities aspect is in focus for analysis or action. We can also use the term services
in a loose sense when we talk about hotel services, maintenance services and so on.11 The
lack of consistency is not a consequence of sloppiness as a mainstream academic might
conclude but an expression of respect for a complex and systemic reality.
The numbers of marketing situations are like the stars in the sky. We cannot really
count them and allocate them to general categories which consider the necessary details.
The situations are composed of similarities and differences, of modules that can be shared
in different configurations and customized or mass-customized to take care of situations
that closely resemble each other.
How do RM/CRM and the S-D logic harmonize with the most recent definition of
marketing proposed by the American Marketing Association (AMA) in 2004? The new
definition can have serious consequences. According to AMA’s magazine Marketing
News12‘ … the American Marketing Association is responsible for the official definition
of marketing, used in books, by marketing professionals and taught in university lecture
halls nationswide’. The definition is:
‘Marketing is an organizational function and a set of processes for creating,
communicating and delivering value to customers and for managing customer
relationships in ways that benefit the organization and its stakeholders.’
I would like to challenge the following issues:

■ ‘Marketing is an organizational function…’ Within the Nordic School tradition we have

long talked about the marketing function as something that is spread throughout the
organization.13 Marketing is not solely confined to one of a series of compartmentalized
silos in an organizational hierarchy. It is also a state of mind, a culture and the collective
consciousness of an organization.
■ ‘… for creating, communicating and a delivering value to customers …’ This statement
exposes the traditional marketing management thinking that the supplier does
something to the customer unidirectionally; customers remain operand resources and
their capacity as operant resources is not recognized. Research in services marketing
and B2B has shown that suppliers do things with customers. You communicate with
somebody and a message is only accepted on the conditions of the receiver unless

11
See also the discussion about the meaning of service in Grönroos (2007).
12
Keefe (2004, p. 17).
13
The Nordic School is a designation for research in service, relationships and networks emanating from
Northern Europe; see Gummesson, Lehtinen and Grönroos (1997) and Grönroos (2000, 2006).
14 Total relationship marketing

brute force, fear or lack of choice is present. RM puts emphasis on an open dialogue
and interaction. There is also value for suppliers, why else would they bother? It could
equally well be claimed that customers deliver value to suppliers. This is all within the
spirit of relational approaches to marketing. Together with the S-D logic it leads me
up to questioning the relevance of the B2C expression. In B2B it is not evident who
is the seller and who is the buyer, the first or the second B. In B2C it is business-to-
customer but it could just as well be the other way around, C2B. It may sound like a
word game, but expressions like B2C subconsciously block our perception. Therefore I
will henceforth use an extended acronym: B2C/C2B.
■ ‘… for managing customer relationships …’ It reminds me of the nasty sergeant in the
movie An Officer and a Gentleman. With the dictatorial military power vested in him,
he shouted, abused and forced the soldiers to do anything he wanted; the relationship
was aggressive. Suppliers should not one-sidedly be encouraged to manage customers;
relationships are also managed by customers. The attitude is not interactive and most
people resent being managed by their bank, supermarket or car supplier. Test it on your
family: Who manages the relationships? Is it the husband, the wife or (increasingly)
the kids?
■ ‘… that benefit the organization and its stakeholders.’ I suspect that in ‘stakeholders’ the
customers and employees are hidden. But I fear that in today’s short-term economy
with more boardroom attention given to finance and accounting than to marketing, the
focus is on shareholder value.

The suggested revisions are shown below:

‘Marketing is a culture, an organizational function and a set of processes for creating,
communicating, and delivering value to with customers and for managing interacting in
networks of customer relationships in ways that benefit the organization, its customers
and its other stakeholders.’
My version finally reads:
Marketing is a culture, an organizational function and a set of processes for creating,
communicating, and delivering value with customers and for interacting in networks of
relationships in ways that benefit the organization, its customers and other stakeholders.
In this version the definition points to essentials both contributed by RM/CRM and
S-D logic.

Society is a network of relationships – and so is business!

Relationships are at the core of human behaviour. If we dissolve the social networks of
relationships, we dissolve society and the earth is left with a bunch of hermits. In that
Relational approaches to marketing 15

case no marketing is needed, for two reasons. The short-term reason is that hermits
live alone. They breed their own sheep for wool, cheese and meat, they grow their own
vegetables, and they tailor their own clothes, if any. They do not need mobile phones
because there is no one to call. No market for Nokia or Motorola.
The long-term reason is that the human race will be extinct after one generation. But
if it is true that nature has a genetic urge for multiplication, couples and families will
spring up and the atomistic world of individuals will turn into a growing network of
relationships.
As citizens and family members we are surrounded by relationships in our daily lives.
We have relationships at work, with neighbours, with stores and other providers. Driving
a car is a complex social interaction with other drivers in a network of roads.
People have girlfriends and boyfriends, go steady, marry, have an affair, divorce. Many
have used matrimony as a metaphor for commercial relationships: to enter into marriage
with a customer or to divorce a supplier. ‘Business dancing’ has been suggested as
another metaphor.14 Dancing is a dynamic relationship. You can invite somebody to dance
with you. It can be a smooth waltz, but you can also step on your partner ’s toes. Peters15
makes it even more dramatic: ‘Today’s global economic dance is no Strauss waltz. It’s
break dancing accompanied by street rap. The effective firm is much more like carnival in
Rio than a pyramid along the Nile.’
Relationships are central for business people. Craftsmen exchange services with other
craftsmen whom they know and trust. The first thing I heard about business was that
you need to be well connected, and that it helps to have relatives in high places and to
belong to the right clubs. People who knew each other did business and then the seller
wined and dined the buyer. As individuals, we voluntarily enter formal relationships
through associations. Rotary, for example, brings people together from different trades
and professions. The Rotarians get to know each other and business relationships are
facilitated by the long-term friendship that develops among them.
Marketing and business are subsets or properties of society. In practice, relationships,
networks and interaction have been at the core of business since time immemorial.
They have certainly not gone unnoticed by business people.16 For example, Ericsson has
expanded and remodelled its network for 130 years. The sad story is that relationships have
too long gone unnoticed in research and education. Does the current interest in RM/CRM
imply that marketing theorists are getting closer to marketing reality? Are we beginning
to discern the marketing content of Japanese keiretsus, Chinese guanxies, global ethnic
networks, the British school tie, trade between friends, loyalty to the local pub and so on?

14
Wilkinson and Young (1994).
15
Peters (1992, p. 17).
16
One of the early academic proponents for a network view of the market was Thorelli (1986).
16 Total relationship marketing

Marketing theory has not invented these phenomena, practice has. Some practitioners
have lived them, others have not. A book can draw your attention to relationships by
adding them to the map, making them visible.
Relationships between customers and suppliers are the ground for all marketing.
Within the conventional marketing management mode of thinking, much of marketing
is reduced to impersonal exchange through mass promotion and mass distribution. The
manufacturer offers products and services via an intermediary and the consumer offers
money. The manufacturer and even the retailer are no more than brand names; they may
even be totally anonymous to the consumer, who in turn is just a statistic. This approach
to marketing does not comply with the reality of society.
In contrast, the RM/CRM spotlight is on the individual, on the segment of one. It’s one-
to-one marketing. But focus is also on groups of like-minded people, affinity groups. The
group members share a common interest, they want a relationship with the supplier, its
products and services, and even with each other. Golfers, environmentalists, computer
geeks and Harley-Davidson owners belong here. They form communities.

The roots of RM/CRM

During the industrial era, mass manufacturing of standardized goods gave birth to mass
marketing and mass distribution. During this brief period of our history, marketing
theory and education evolved around consumer goods marketing. Services marketing
and B2B – where relationships were also central during the industrial era – remained
blank spots in research and education.
Research and practice in marketing during more than 30 years point particularly to
the significance of relationships, networks and interaction. Literature on RM/CRM has
emerged at an exponential rate in many languages. With certain exceptions, the literature
is narrow, characterized by treating single issues in RM such as consumer loyalty,
databases for smarter direct marketing, call centres, customer clubs or CRM software
systems. These are all valuable bits and pieces, but they lack the coherent framework of
an overriding theory.
The more radical theories that have contributed to RM/CRM stem from services
marketing and the network approach to B2B. A first effort to merge these two schools was
presented by Gummesson in 1983. Relationships, networks and interaction play a
subdued role in traditional marketing management, popularly referred to as marketing mix
or the 4Ps (product, price, promotion, place). It has hegemony over marketing education
throughout the world, but refers first and foremost to the mass marketing of standardized
consumer goods. Despite its limitations it is erroneously presented as a general marketing
Relational approaches to marketing 17

theory.17 In the area of sales management and negotiations, relationships are emphasized but
often limited to a salesperson’s interaction with a buyer or to negotiations between teams.
However, for B2B a series of models on organizational buying behaviour developed around
1970 that show a more complex, partly network-like type of marketing.
These three approaches – services marketing, B2B as networks and traditional
marketing management – are central in the RM/CRM root system. The roots have been
extended through S-D logic and many-to-many marketing and may keep doing so with
the future aid of the Service Science project.
These were all influences from marketing but there are also influences from adjacent
non-marketing areas. One area that has significantly contributed is quality management. In
its core are customer perceived quality and customer satisfaction. Quality management
has inspired the concept of relationship quality, that is, the efforts to improve quality of
relationships, and not just the quality of goods and services. Relationship quality emerged
in the large quality programme of Ericsson in the early 1980s. The purpose was to make
explicit the fact that relationships are part of customer perceived quality. This is far from
the traditional engineer ’s production-centric quality concept. Often the human aspect,
the h-relationship, ‘to be liked’, sorts out the winner from the loser.18 Lean production as
a quality strategy expanding into lean consumption and the supplier value chain into the
customer value chain also belong here. This will be further explained later.19
Accounting has often stood out as a nightmare for marketers and salespeople, and been
felt as a bureaucratic obstacle to relationship building. Investors, stock market analysts,
top management and controllers have, however, gradually begun to question the role
of traditional accounting: Do we really measure what matters? Modern accounting goes
beyond the mere financial numbers and accountants, who are by training historians,
acknowledge the impact of customers, employees, knowledge, IT readiness, environmental
effects, corporate social responsibility and innovation as antecedents to future profit. The
current efforts to design accounting for today’s and tomorrow’s business life are found
under the concepts of the balanced scorecard and intellectual capital. They help to give a
framework to the measurement of return on relationships (ROR). Chapter 6 is dedicated to
marketing metrics and marketing’s contribution to the bottom line.
There is also a connection to organization theory. RM is also a result of – or possibly a
cause of – new organizational structures and processes where the roles of customer and
supplier are not as clear-cut as in Figure 1.1. The fuzziness stands out better in Figure 1.2,

17
For critical discussions of marketing management theory, see Brownlie and Saren (1992); Brown (1998);
Gummesson (2002); Grönroos (1997); Saren et al. (2007).
18
Gummesson (1987b, 1993); Holmlund (1997).
19
Lean production and lean consumption combined into lean solutions is treated by Womack and Jones
(2005a, b).
18 Total relationship marketing

where suppliers and customers interact in a network together with competitors, own
suppliers, intermediaries and others. RM is not happening in a vacuum, it is mirroring other
events in business and society. When organization is discussed in the following chapters, it
is treated as a network of relationships and referred to as the network organization.
IT is the latest branch of the RM root system. It is easy to get enthralled by the media
hype and the trendy praise for all the blessings of technology. What in this daily hullabaloo
will exert sustainable influence and what is just a short-lived, albeit colourful, butterfly? We
begin to discern some answers, to see IT in a context as part of marketing theory. IT has a lot
in common with RM. The Internet, email and mobile telephony form new networks within
which we can interact. IT has not fathered RM as is sometimes claimed, only changed it.
Even if the ideas of CRM date far back under other names, IT has made it possible to
go further and has caused the explosion in CRM software. The IT influence is covered
specifically in ‘the e-relationship’, but is also an integral part of the whole book.
Marketing offers no fully fledged theory, but the word theory will be used here in a
broad sense. The most complete theory that has a link to marketing is the neoclassical
micro-economic theory, also called price theory. Its severe shortcoming is that in order to
reach a self-imposed desire for rigour and theoretical completeness, a series of limiting
assumptions have to be made, such as all customers being the same, all suppliers being
the same and all products being the same. It disregards differentiated offerings and
brands, service, quality and relationships. Thus, micro-economic theory distances itself
from the variety and complexity of real life, and the validity of the theory becomes weak,
even non-existent.20
Furthermore, the borderline between theory and practice is thin. To design theory,
researchers interview and observe marketers and customers. Activities and decisions in
companies form empirical evidence for theory. Thus, there is no a priori conflict between
theory and practice; they are two sides of the same coin. There often is, however,
animosity between representatives of theory and practice who claim that their side of the
coin shines brighter. Such pseudo-conflicts do not contribute to knowledge development
and are left aside here.

Basic values of marketing

Management thinker Peter Drucker, who died in 2006 almost 96 years old and until the
end listed as the No. 1 management guru in the United States, said somewhere that ‘the
problem with good ideas is that they quickly degenerate into hard work’. There is invariably

20
Hunt and Morgan (1995).
Relational approaches to marketing 19

a gap between ideas and action, between RM philosophy and CRM application. The
gap can be caused not only by lack of implementation skills and stamina, but also by
difficulties in grasping the essentials. There may be a lack of data, or inability to put
data together in a meaningful pattern or map – ‘theories’ – which facilitate decisions
and actions. The difficulties are caused by at least four ‘random variables’: customers,
competitors, the general economy and technology change. None of these and their
interdependence can be predicted with accuracy.
The gap is also caused by marketers who have not internalized marketing values.
Drucker was an early proponent of customer centricity. In his classic management book
from 1954, he says: ‘Marketing … is the whole business seen from the point of view
of its final result, that is, from the customer ’s point of view.’21 As Michael Baker in the
United Kingdom points out ‘… the distinction between success and failure in competitive
markets may be reduced to two basic issues, first, an understanding of customer needs,
and, second, the ability to deliver added value …’22 This is the essence of the marketing
concept and the antecedent to creating customer satisfaction and loyalty. This marketing-
oriented and customer-centric approach is in opposition to product and production orientation,
according to which the customer is obliged to buy what is available or not buy at all.
Production orientation is typical of markets with a shortage of goods and services, and
markets of centrally planned economies, but also of complacent industries in wealthy
market economies such as in Europe and the United States.
Being customer centric has become a widespread slogan. It is understood and
implemented to a varying degree. It may just be perceived as a fad which it is timely to
confess to, or yet another smart trick to trap the consumer. The customer in focus values
have not killed the old values, just pushed them into a corner from which they make
recurring and successful efforts to break out. But a basic question is if customer centricity
is realistic. Several researchers and consultants have suggested programmes for the
implementation of customer centricity.23 My contention is that customer centricity as the prime
target for business is non-implementable and not fit to form the foundational credo of marketing.
It could be a transient goal – but it has been so for 50 years by now. There are different
perceptions of its success, all the way from just being nice rhetoric and not actionable (with
some exceptions) to being a commodity that ‘… no longer gives companies the edge in
competitive situation … and every extra dollop of marketing orientation results in ever-
diminishing returns’.24 Satisfied customers are not the only drivers of success. A balance of
interests can only be actualized in a context of many stakeholders. After the one-party focus

21
Drucker (1954, p. 36). For a discussion on the past and future of marketing, see Baker (1999a, b).
22
Baker (2006, pp. 197–198)
23
See Shah et al. (2006) for an overview.
24
Brown (2007, pp. 151–152).
20 Total relationship marketing

(the customer), RM introduced a two-party focus (customer and supplier) and there is an
emerging multi-party focus (multiple stakeholders) through many-to-many marketing. I
call for balanced centricity. It means that in long-term relationships and a well-functioning
marketplace all stakeholders have the right to satisfaction of needs and wants.

INSIGHT I propose that inadequate basic values and their accompanying procedures –
the wrong paradigm – is the biggest obstacle to success in marketing. If
marketers and top management do not understand and accept relationship
values as a natural vantage point, there will be neither positive effect of RM,
nor of the installation of computerized CRM systems, eCRM.

The most fundamental values of RM/CRM are well in line with the tenets of S-D logic.
They will be presented here in somewhat different terminology:

1 Marketing management should be broadened into marketing-oriented company management:

Since the early 1970s, I have made a distinction between the marketing and sales
department and the marketing and sales function in order to emphasize that marketing
and sales are more than just the activities of specialized departments. They are functions
that must permeate every corner of an organization, not least the minds and actions
of management. I have introduced the terms part-time marketer (PTM) and full-time
marketer (FTM) to stress that FTMs are people who work in departments designated
to marketing and sales tasks (see further R4 in Chapter 3). PTMs are all the rest of the
employees and they also include actors in the external environment like customers and
the media. PTMs exist in every organizational unit. They influence the relationship
with customers through service encounters, face-to-face, ear-to-ear, email-to-email,
mobile phone message-to-message and computer-to-website. Marketing management
in this sense requires marketing orientation of the whole of the company, that is,
marketing-oriented management.
2 Long-term collaboration and win–win: The core values of RM are found in its emphasis
on collaboration and the creation of mutual value. It includes viewing suppliers, customers
and others as partners who co-create rather than opposite parties. Back in 1976, Baker
suggested that marketing be defined as ‘mutually satisfying exchange relationships’. RM
should be more of win–win than win–lose, more of a plus sum game than a zero sum game.
In a plus sum game, the parties increase value for each other; in a zero sum game, what
one gains is the loss of another. A constructive attitude is expected by all those involved
and all should find the relationship meaningful. If these conditions are fulfilled, the
relationships may become sustaining. For a supplier, it is important to retain existing
Relational approaches to marketing 21

customers, a fact which is increasingly being stressed. Extending the duration of the
relationship becomes a major marketing goal. Too much emphasis has been put on the
acquisition of new customers and too little on caring for existing customers. RM/CRM
encourage customer retention and discourage customer defection well aware of the fact
that attraction marketing – getting new customers – must also be persued. Although
collaboration is the core property of RM, my RM concept holds that both competition
and collaboration are essential in a functioning market economy. Traditional marketing is
prejudiced in favour of the benefits of competition. It sees collaboration as inhibiting
the forces of the market. The misunderstanding is obvious among those politicians
and business leaders who advocate competition as a cure-all for society’s problems, a
counter-reaction to the socialistic advocacy for central planning and regulations.
3 All parties should be active and take responsibility: RM should not be mixed up with
traditional selling, which represents the supplier perspective and does not put the
customer and an interactive relationship in focus. In relationship selling, the initiative
comes from the salesperson and depends on ‘… how well the relationship is managed
by the seller ’.25 In this sense, relationship quality and a long-term relationship become
the consumer ’s trust in the salesperson based on the salesperson’s present and past
performance.26 But the initiative to action cannot be left to a supplier or a single party of
a network; everyone in a network can, and should, be active. Contrary to the mythology
of marketing, the supplier is not necessarily the active party. In B2B, customers initiate
innovation and force suppliers to change their products or services. Consumers suggest
improvements but have a tough time getting lethargic and complacent suppliers and
legislators to listen. Chat groups on the Internet empower customers to reach out at
no cost but time; it makes C2C interaction possible. Customers can exert pressure on
suppliers and it may even go so far that hate sites are created. At the same time, the
supplier has more and better information available to act on. In services marketing
consumers are often both producers and ‘project leaders’, whereas the role of the
provider is limited to offering an arena.
4 Relationship and service values instead of bureaucratic–legal values: Bureaucratic–legal
values are characterized by: rigidity; legal jargon; application of dysfunctional laws
and regulations; a focus on internal routines; more interest in rituals than in results;
belief in the supplier as the expert and the customer as ignorant; the customer being a
cost and a residual of the system; customers as masses and statistical averages; and
the importance of winning over the customer in a dispute. These values historically
dominate governments and their agencies. Its representatives have previously disclaimed
marketing, but the international wave of privatization, deregulation and demand for

25
Levitt (1983, p. 111).
26
Crosby, Evans and Cowles (1990).
22 Total relationship marketing

competition, as well as the failure of the command economies, has forced a change. RM is
a valid concept for public organizations as well, and an understanding of how marketing
could be applied to public bodies to the benefit of the consumer/citizen is growing.
Unfortunately, bureaucratic–legal values are also common in private companies. RM
requires different values based on relationships and service to the customer. These
values establish that all customers are individuals and different in certain respects; that
the outcome is the only thing that counts; that customers are the source of revenue and
should be in focus; and that the supplier ’s task is to create value for the customer.27

These values were written long before S-D logic managed to distil them and other ideas
into a more communicative and consistent message. RM may stand out as a naively idyllic
and benign agenda that is purely academic and not paying attention to the harsh realities
of marketing practice. It requires more ethical behaviour than traditional marketing. But
all business people do not base their activities on RM/CRM values as presented here. We
will come back to this on several occasions.

A different set of values: marketing as tricks

RM may sound like everybody is in agreement and no manipulation or persuation takes

place. This is not so. A boy–girl relationship includes many attempts to play tricks to get
the other party do as you want. It’s the same in marketing. Stephen Brown of University
of Ulster, Ireland, has described manipulation vividly though the case of Joseph
Duveen.28

CASE STUDY The Duveen legacy

Joseph Duveen dominated the art market for Old Masters during the first half
of the twentieth century. In Brown’s terminology Duveen created ‘lustomers’,
customers who were driven crazy by the lust to acquire the right art. He used
skilled manipulation, which Brown has conceptualized into the 4Ds:

■ Dearth: ‘… there is nothing like scarcity to stimulate the gotta-get-it urge among
lustomers’.

27
See Gummesson (1993, pp. 40–42).
28
Brown (2007); quotations from pp. 150–151.
Relational approaches to marketing 23

■ Denial: ‘He understood that people appreciate things all the more if they are
difficult to obtain …’ and ‘… disdain what comes easily.’
■ Distinction: ‘… dangling deliciously unobtainable carrots definitely helps
drive consumers wild with desire, but unless the product or service itself is
distinctive – and confers distinction on its possessors – it is pointless playing
the strategic stock shortage game …’
■ Discourse: Duveen ‘… was a superlative storyteller ’ and ‘… convincingly
demonstrated that story orientation rather than customer orientation is the
real secret of marketing success’.

Today’s markets surround us with Duveen followers. When Apple’s

charismatic CEO Steve Jobs launched the iPod, when the countdown started
for the release of the last Harry Potter, and when hysteria broke out over H&M’s
limited edition of designer clothes by Stella McCartney and Karl Lagerfeld,
backed up by Madonna as fashion model in advertisements, we recognize
the Duveen legacy. These are all strong brands to which customers develop a
parasocial relationship (see R13 in Chapter 3) but the activities also support
C2C interaction in social networks of customers with a shared lifestyle.
Just like J. K. Rowling and Apple and H&M investors, Duveen became
wealthy but perhaps more important was the social recognition bestowed on
him by the Queen; he first became Sir Joseph Duveen and later Baron Duveen
of Millbank.

In international B2B marketing bribes and political pressure are ubiquitous. So is

unethical lobbying with spin-doctors that upset democratic procedure; hyped ‘promises’
and outright lying and lying by omission (the marketing of financial instruments and
food products); and deliberately confusing customers by non-comparable propositions
(phone operating companies). We encounter this daily.
All this is embarrassing both for practitioners and professors and is silently swept
under the carpet. But as it keeps happening in contemporary society just like it has
done over the centuries it may be in the human genes. The task of the marketer is not
to reform mankind and society but to do business on prevailing conditions. In today’s
complex markets it is not enough to be street-smart, you must also be book-smart and
utilize scientific research. For example, there are market researchers who have specialized
in transforming small children into big-time consumers. Part of this is to ‘educate’ kids
to more efficiently nag their parents for more products, fancier brands and seductively
‘tasty’ sugar-based junk food.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 UTOPIA YARN BOOK 79 Utopia Girls' 3 Corner Tam-
o'Shanter Knitted Cap No. 826 Sec Illustration, Page 78 MATERIALS
m skeins Blue Utopia Germantown Wool. 1 skein White Utopia
Germantown Wool. 1 pair of Ivory Knitting Needles, No. 4. 5 Steel
Needles, No. 6. 1 Crochet Hook, No. 2. DIRECTIONS With blue cast
on 63 sts., k. 54 ridges (9;< inches), decrease 1 st. at left corner, k.
4 rows, decrease 1 St., k. 3 rows, decrease 1 St., k. 2 rows, decrease
1 St., k. 1 row, decrease 1 St., k. 2 rows, decrease 1 St., k. 3 rows,
decrease 1 St., k. 4 rows, decrease 1 St.. altogether 63 ridges, bind
off loosely. With white cast on 63 sts., k. 15 ridges, on separate
needle k. 24 sts., bind off 20 sts., and on the other 24 sts. k. in
ridges, decrease 1 St. at circle every other row until there are 15
sts., k. 20 ridges, increase 1 St. every other row at circle until there
are 24 sts., k. other side to correspond until there are 24 sts. on
needle. Cast on 20 sts., then k. 24 sts. from other side on same
needle, having 63 sts. on needle. K. in ridges, on left side decrease 1
St., k. 4 rows, decrease 1 St., k. 3 rows, decrease 1 St., k. 2 rows,
decrease 1 St., k. 1 row, decrease 1 St., k. 2 rows, decrease 1 St., k.
3 rows, decrease 1 St., k. 4 rows, decrease 1 St., having 63 ridges
altogether from start. Band — With blue and 4 steel needles pick up
120 sts. around circle of cap, k. 1, p. 1, for lYi inches, bind off
loosely. At front of cap bend over corner 4^ inches. Button — Cover
1 large button, sew on at top corner of hat. Crochet lower and upper
part on 4 sides with s. c, St. together. Utopia Child's Scarf No. 827
See Illustration. Page 78 MATERIALS 3 skeins Blue Utopia
Germantown. J^ skein White Utopia Germantown. 1 pair of Ivory
Knitting Needles, No. 6. DIRECTIONS Cast on SO sts., k. in ridges for
3 inches. With white k. 2 rows (1 ridge), throw thread over needle,
k. 2 sts. together, throw thread over needle, k. 2 sts. together,
repeat to end of row, then k. 1 row, with blue k. 3 ridges, with white
k. 1 stripe until there are 4 white stripes with 3 blue ridges between,
k. with blue in ridges for 36 inches, then k. same border, 4 white
stripes as before. Finish both ends with a 4-inch fringe. Knot 2
strands into every st. See Model No. 826. Utopia Child's Slip-Over
Sweater No. 828 Size 26-27 Chest Measure See Illustration. Page SO
MATERIALS 4 skeins Coral Utopia Shetland Floss. 2 skeins Gray
Utopia Shetland Floss. 1 pair of Ivory Knitting Needles, No. 4. 1 pair
of Steel Needles, No. 6. DIRECTIONS Back — With knitting needles
No. 4 and coral cast on'86 sts. (12 inches). First Row — K. 1 row.
Second Row — K. 1, p. 1, k. 1, p. 1, repeat to end of row, ending
row k. 1. Third Row — P. 1, k. 1, p. 1, k. 1, repeat to end of row,
ending row p. 1. Fourth Row — K. 1, p 1, k. 1, p. 1, repeat to end of
row. ending row k. 1. Fifth Row — P. 1, k. 1. p. 1, k. 1, repeat to end
of row, ending row p. 1. Sixth Row — K. 1, p. 1, k. 1, p. 1, repeat to
end of row, ending row k. 1. Seventh Row — K. 1 row with gray.
Eighth Row — K. 1 row with gray to fo*m ridge. Repeat these 8
rows throughout sweater, k. same pattern 8 times (7 inches). Belt —
With steel needles and gray k. 1, p. 1, repeat to end of row, ending
row k. 1. Next row, p. 1, k. 1, repeat to end of row, ending row p. 1.
Repeat these 2 rows alternately for 4 rows, change to coral 4 rows,
change to gray 4 rows, change to coral 10 rows, change to gray 4
rows, change to coral 4 rows, change to gray 4 rows, altogether 3
inches. With ivory knitting needles No. 4 k. same pattern S times
{W2 inches). With coral cast on 50 sts. for sleeve (7 inches), k. 1
row, cast on 50 sts. for other sleeve, k. same patThe nature of
zvoman is closely allied to art.
 80 UTOPIA YARN BOOK -Child's Sweater 832— Child's Cap
tern 6 times (S inches). On separate needle k. 83 sts., bind off 20
sts. for back of neck and on other 83 stitches over shoulder, front
and sleeve after the following directions and the other side to
correspond. K. pattern 6 more times (5 inches), altogether 10 inches
for sleeve, increase 1 st. on front of neck every 4th row, leaving 93
sts. on needle, bind off SO sts. for sleeve, k. 6 rows more, k. the 43
sts. on a spare needle, k. the other side to correspond. Slip the 43
sts. to the other 43 sts., having 86 sts. on needle. K. same pattern S
times to belt. K. belt same as back with steel needles. K front same
length as side seam on back, bind off. Cuffs — With gray and steel
needles pick up 50 sts. on right side, k. 1, p. 1, for 4 rows, change
to coral 4 rows, change to gray 4 rows, change to coral 10 rows,
change to gray 4 rows, change to coral 4 rows, change to gray 4
rows. With ivory knitting needles and coral k. 1, p. 1, for 1 inch, k. S
ridges with gray, bind off loosely. Collar — With gray cast on 40 sts..
k. in ridges for 2 inches. On separate needle k. 20 sts., and on other
20 sts. k. in ridges for 8 inches, k. other side to correspond, join
together at back and sew neatly to sweater. Buttons — Ch. 3 sts.,
turn, skip 1 St., 6 s. c. in next St. Next row, 2 s. c. in every St.,
altogether 12 sts. Make IS buttons without moulds. Sew around
collar one inch apart. Child's Cap No. 832 MATERIALS lYz skeins
Coral Utopia Shetland Floss. 1 skein Gray Utopia Shetland Floss.' 2
pair of Ivory Knitting Needles, No. 3. With double thread k. 1, p. 1,
throughout cap DIRECTIONS With gray cast on 90 sts., k. 1, p. 1, for
4 rows, with coral k. 4 rows, with gray k. 4 rows, with coral k. 10
rows, with gray k. 4 rows, with coral k. 4 rows, with gray k. 4 rows;
this finishes band; then k. 2 inches. With coral k. 6 rows, with gray
k. 1 row, p. 1 row, with coral k. 6 rows', with gray k. 1, p. 1,
continue pattern until there are 6 coral stripes (6 inches). With coral
bind off 4S sts., with gray k. 1 row, k. the other 45 sts., bind off. Sew
cap together, turn down point at each side and fasten with button.
See Model No. 828 Girls' Crochet Leggings No. 848 See Illustration,
Page 8 1 MATERIALS 2 hanks White Utopia Scotch Knitting Yarn. 1
Crochet Hook, No. 4. DIRECTIONS Ch. 54 sts., turn, 53 s. c. in every
ch. St., turn, S3 s. c. in the 53 s. c. of previous row, work 2S rows
without turning. Twenty-sixth Row — 12 s. c, 29 h. d. c, thread in
front of needle, 12 s. c. Twenty-seventh Row — 10 s. c, ii h. d. c, 10
s. c. Twenty-eighth Row — 8 s. o., 27 h. d. c, 8 s. c. Twenty-ninth
Row — 6 s. c, 41 h. d. c, 6 s. c. Thirtieth Row — 4 s. c, 45 h. d. c, 4
s. c. Thirty-first Row— 2 s. c, 49 h. d. c, 2 s. c. Thirty-second Row —
53 h. d. c. for 12 rows, decrease 1 St. every other row at center
back for next 10 rows and decrease 1 st. every row of next 4 rows,
having 44 h. d. c, work 19 rows straight, at 78th row increase
Instruction enlarges the natural powers of the wind.
 UTOPIA YARN BOOK 81 Model No. 848 1 St. at center front
and draw stitch tight at back. Seventy-ninth Row — Increase 2 sts.
at center front and tight at back. Eightieth Row — Increase 2 sts. at
front. Eighty-first Row — Increase 2 sts. at front and finish with 2
rows of s. c. Boy's Sweater No. 830 6-year size MATERIALS y/z
hanks Utopia Scotch Heather Knitting Yarn. }4 hank Red Utopia
Scotch Knitting Yarn. 1 pair of Ivory Knitting Needles, No. 4. 1
Crochet Hook, No. 2. DIRECTIONS Back — With khaki and ivory
knitting needle No. 4 cast on 71 sts. (14 inches), k. 3 ridges, with
red k. 1 ridge, with khaki k. 2 ridges with red, k. 1 ridge with khaki,
k. 2 ridges. Next row — K. 5, p. 1, k. S, p. 1, repeat to end of row.
Next row — K. I, row. Xext row — K. S, p. 1, k. 5, p. 1, repeat to
end of row. Next row — K. 1 row. Repeat these last 4 rows
alternately throughout sweater, k. 56 ridges (14>2 inches). Cast on
60 sts. for sleeve, k. across back, cast on 00 sts. for other sleeve, k.
25 ridges (5 inches). On separate needle k. 82 sts., slip 17 sts. for
neck on spare needle to use for collar; on other 82 sts. k. same
pattern over shoulder and front, cast on 18 sts. for front of neck, k.
25 ridges (155^ inches), having 100 sts. on needle, bind off 60 sts.
for sleeve, k. 10 more ridges; the other 40 sts. slip on separate
needle. K. other front to correspond, slip the 40 sts. to the other 40
sts., having 80 sts. on needle, k. front seam same length as back
with same border, bind off. Cuflfs — Pick up 40 sts. on right side of
sleeve, k. 8 ridges, then k. with red 1 ridge, with khaki 2 ridges, with
red 1 ridge, with khaki 3 ridges. Collar — On the 27 sts. on back of
collar pick up 5 sts. on both sides, having ?i7 sts. Model No. 830 Be
sure your yarn is equal to your work — use Utopia.
 82 UTOPIA YARN BOOK on needle, k. 13 ridges, with red k.
1 ridge, with khaki k. 3 ridges, with red k. 1 ridge, with khaki k. 3
ridges, with red crochet 1 s. c. in every St. for 2 rows around collar
front of neck and 3 inches down front, turn over lap. Belt — Cast on
12 sts., k. in ridges for 25 "inches, make buttonhole in center and 6
ridges apart another buttonhole, decrease 1 St. on both sides of
needle every other row until there are 3 sts. left, bind oflf. With red
crochet 1 s. c. in every st. around belt. Make 3 red buttons; 2 for
belt, 1 for front. Pocket — Cast on 17 sts., k. 13 ridges, with red k. 1
ridge, with khaki k. 2 ridges, with red k. 1 ridge, with khaki k. 2
ridges, bind ofT. Sew neatlj- on right side of sweater. Boy's Sweater
No. 831 8 to 10 year size Alodel Xo. 831 MATERIALS 3^ hanks
Utopia Scotch Heather Knitting Yarn. J4 hank Green Utopia Scotch
Knitting Yarn. 1 pair of Ivory Knitting Needles, No. 6. 2 pair of Ivory
Knitting Needles, No. 3. DIRECTIONS Back — With gray cast on 100
sts., k. 4 ridges or 8 rows. Next row — K. 1 St., throw thread over
needle, slip 1 St., k. 2 sts. together, throw thread over needle, slip 1
St., k. 2 sts. together, repeat this pattern (Percale St.) to end of row.
Continue Percale st. throughout sweater for 20 inches. On separate
needle k. 38 sts., bind off 24 sts. for neck, on other 38 sts. k. over
shoulder and front; increase 1 St. at front of neck every other row
until 17 sts. have been added, the last 10 sts. k. in ridges for border.
On left front make first buttonhole in 4th ridge and 5 inches apart
another buttonhole, having S buttonholes altogether. \\'ork other
front to correspond, without buttonholes. K. side seam same length
as back, including 4 ridges. Sleeve — Cast on 60 sts., k. pattern for 4
inches, decrease 1 St. at each end of needle every 6th row until
there are 59 sts. on needle, k. pattern for 12 inches. With No. 3
needle k. 2. p. 2 for 2 inches. K. 12 ridges (2J4 inches), with green
k. 4 ridges, bind off, turn over for cuff. Collar — Cast on 3 sts., k. in
ridges, increase 1 St. at one side every other row until there are 20
sts. on needle, k. in ridges for 9 inches, decrease 1 st. every other
row same as other end until there are 3 sts. left, bind off. With green
and 3 needles. No. 3. pick up 20 sts. on slant side on first needle, 45
sts. on 2d needle and 20 sts. on 3d needle, k. 1 row, next row
increase first and last St. every other row on the 3 needles until
there are 4 ridges, bind off. Sew neatly to sweater. Pockets — Cast
on 23 sts., k. same pattern for 5 inches, k. 4 ridges, with green k. 4
ridges, bind off. ' . Sew sleeve in coat to seam at underarm. Sew on
S buttons. Labor is itself a plcasnri
 UTOPIA YARN BOOK 83 Boy's Sweater No. 835 MATERIALS
4 skeins Utopia Scotch Heather Knitting Yarn. 5/2 skein Brown
Utopia Scotch Knitting Yarn. 1 pair of Ivory Knitting Needles, No. 6. 1
Crochet Hook, No. 3. DIRECTIONS Back — Cast on 90 sts., k. 3
ridges, with brown k. 1 ridge, with gray k. 2 ridges, with brown k. 1
ridge, with gray k. 2 ridges, k. 2, p. 1, repeat to end of row, then p.
2, k. 1, repeat to end of row, then p. 1 row, then k. 1 row, repeat
these last 4 rows alternately throughout sweater until there are 38
blocks (15 inches). Cast on 7S sts. for sleeve, k. across, cast on 75
sts. for other sleeve, k. same pattern for 10 blocks (5 inches). On
separate needle k. 107 sts., leave 25 sts. on separate needle for
collar and on other 107 sts. k. over shoulder, front and sleeves after
the following directions and the other side to correspond. Cast on 22
sts. at front of neck, k. 1 block, make first buttonhole and 5 blocks
apart another buttonhole until there are 3 butionholes. K. 10 blocks
(S inches) for other half of sleeve, bind off 75 sts. for sleeve; on the
other 55 sts. k. 3 more blocks, slip the 55 sts. on a separate needle,
k. other side, then slip the 55 sts. to the other 55 sts., having 110
sts. on needle, k. side seam same length as back with same border.
Collar — Pick up IS sts. on both front sides of neck, slip the 25 sts.
to the 15 sts., having 55 sts. on needle, k. 10 ridges, with brown k. 1
ridge, with gray k. 2 ridges, with brown k. 1 ridge, with gray k. 3
ridges. Cul^s— Pick up 40 sts., k. 6 ridges, with brown k. 1 ridge,
with gray k. 2 ridges, with brown k. 1 ridge, with gray k. " bind off.
For Pockets — Cast on 20 sts., k. with brown k. 1 ridge, with gray
decrease 1 St. on both ends of needle every other row, k. 2 ridges,
with brown k. 1 ridge, with gray k. 4 ridges, until there are 2 sts.
left, bind oflf. Buttons — With brown cast on 6 sts., increase 1 St.
every other row on both sides until there are 12 sts. on needle,
decrease 1 St. every other row on both sides until there are 6 sts.
left. Make 7 buttons. Sew 1 to each pocket lap and 3 down front.
With crochet hook crochet 1 s. c. in every St. around collar, cuffs and
pockets and down front on buttonhole side. 3 ridges, ridges. Model
No. 835 Boy's Scotch Cap No. 837 S.-r Ilhistratioit. Page S4
MATERIALS 1 hank Gray Utopia Scotch Knitting Yarn. ■4 hank Dark
Blue Utopia Scotch Knitting Yarn. 1 pair of Ivory Knitting Needles,
No. 4. 1 pair of Steel Needles, No. 5. 1 Crochet Hook, No. 3.
DIRECTIONS Cast on 20 sts., k. 1 row, k. in ridges for crown,
increase 1 st. at each end of needle every other row until there are
46 sts. on needle; for back increase 1 st. every other row until there
are 50 sts. on needle. K. 1 row, p. 1 row, k. 1 row, decrease at back
1 St. every other row until there are 46 sts. on needle, then
decrease 1 st. on both ends of needle every other row until there
are 20 sts. left, bind off. For side cast on 15 sts., k. in ridges,
increase 1 st. every Sth row at top until there are 27 sts. on needle,
k. 3 ridges straight, decrease 1 st. every Sth row until there are 15
sts. on needle, then increase 1 st. every Sth row until there are 27
sts. on needle, decrease 1 st. every No man 7i-as ever ■u.'ise bv
chance.
 84 UTOPIA YARN BOOK Model No. 837 5th row until there
are IS sts. on needle. Crochet together crown to side with dark blue.
Crochet 2 rows s. c. in every st. around top of cap, with gray crochet
1 s. c. in every st. around lower part of cap. With crochet hook ch.
30 sts., turn, skip 1 St., 1 s. c. in every St., turn, slip the first 3 sts.,
make 1 s. c. in every St., taking back loop only, leave the last 7 s. c.
sts., ch. 5, turn, skip 1 St., 1 s. c. in every St., taking back loop only
to end of row, turn, slip 3 sts., 1 s. c. in every st. taking back loop
only, leaving 7 s c, make 5 ch., turn, skip 1 St., 1 s. c. in every st.
taking back loop only, turn, slip 3 sts., 1 s. c. in every St., leaving 7
s. c, ch. 5 sts., turn, skip 1 St.. 1 s. c. in every st. to end of row. Sew
on to side of cap. Sew button at point. Cast on S sts., k. in ridges
until about 11 inches, make bow. Sew to back of cap. Boy's
Stockings No. 829 MATERIALS 2 hanks Gray Utopia Scotch Knitting
Yarn. 2 pair of Steel Needles, No. 5. DIRECTIONS Cast on 72 sts., 24
sts. on each of the 3 needles. K. 2, p. 2, for 3 inches. First and
Second Rows — K. Third and Fourth Rows— P. 2, k. 1. Repeat these
4 rows IS times, then decrease 3 sts. always on the same needle, k.
9 blocks, decrease 3 sts., k. 6 blocks, decrease 3 sts., k. 7 blocks,
decrease 3 sts., k. 7 blocks. Leg must measure 14 inches. Heel —
Slip S sts. from the 2 needles on to the instep needle, having IS sts.
on each of the 2 needles for the heel. Slip 1 St., k. 13 sts., pi for
seam, k. 14 sts., and slip 1 St. Model No. 829 An unequalled
sentiment attaclics tu Babies' first booties, ivhicli Utopia quality is in
keeping with.
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