Migration Theories, Realities and Myths

Dušan DRBOHLAV
[email protected]

Charles University in Prague,

Faculty of Science,
Department of Social Geography and Regional Development
This presentation is also based on the results of the following
projects:

• 1) Grant Agency of the Czech Republic No. P404/10/0581:

“Migration and development – economic and social impacts of
migration on the Czech Republic and Ukraine (with a focus on
the analysis of remittances)”,
• 2) Investigative plan MSM 0021620831, financed by the
Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech
Republic.
 Important books relevant to the topic
(selection):
VETROVEC, S. ed. (2010): Migration; Critical Concepts in the Social Sciences. Vol. I,
Theories. London and New York, Routledge.

MASSEY, D.S., ARANGO, J., HUGO, G., KOUAOUCI, A., PELLEGRINO, A., TAYLOR,
E. (1998): Worlds in Motion; Understanding International Migration at the End of the
Millenium. New York, Clarendon Press, Oxford University Press Inc.

BRETTELL, C.B., HOLLIFIELD, J.F. (2000): Migration Theory; Talking across

Disciplines. London and New York, Routledge.

PORTES, A. (2010): Economic Sociology; A Systematic Inquiry. Princeton and Oxford,

Princeton University Press.
 Structure of the presentation
- Objectives
- Key terms
- Migration and its myths
- Migration and its unique characteristics
- The role of human needs and information
- Migration theories and their shortcomings
- Micro versus macro approaches
- Selected current migratory trends
- Economic-theoretical perspective
- Historical-structural perspective
 Structure of the presentation
- Systems approach
- Theory of societal systems
- Value expectancy model
- Grand theory on immigration
- How to use theories in research – one example
Primary objectives of the presentation
To combat the following myths:
1) There is no need to work with migration
theories
2) There is one “general” theory that can
explain international migration processes
3) Theories as such are taboos, one should
use them only as they were originally
designed and proposed
 Key terms

Myth

1) a traditional sacred story, typically revolving around the activities of

gods and heroes, which purports to explain a natural phenomenon
or cultural practice ...
2) …
3) …
N) an unproved or false collective belief
 Key terms

Theory - general explanations

 Key terms
Theory – the most developed form of scientific
knowledge … bringing a systematic, general
picture of regularities and significant
interconnections and contexts …

consistency, clear definition of terms,

completeness,

exact data, a set of principles, postulates,

axioms, logic inferences, causal links,
a summary of theoretical results …
 Theory

A full-fledged theory should have four elements

(Portes 1997):

1) a delimitation and description of some patch of reality

2) an identification and definition of a process or
characteristic to be explained (the dependent variable)
3) one or more explanatory factors and their types of
effects, additive or interactive
4) a logical link to at least one other similar proposition
 Theory

“The biologist passes, the frog remains”.

… Theories pass, the frog remains …
(J. Rostand 1894-1977; in Knowles 2007)

While theories may be discarded, the facts

remain unaltered … (Knowles 2007)
 Myth I
• International migration is a simple topic that
anyone can comprehend and study

• Migration is a complex (interdisciplinary)

issue that is influenced/conditioned by various
- mostly external - factors … This makes any
analysis very difficult.
 Myth II
• International migration can be easily
controlled, in the sense that immigrant flows
can be stopped in accordance with our needs

• Many realities of the current world, as it is now, go

against this proclamation:
globalization, the integration of the world economy,
cheap international travel, the information revolution,
“western liberal doctrine” spread throughout third-
world countries …
 Myth III
• International migration is an “either – or”
matter

International migration is not a “black and white

story” … there are different patterns involved,
both winners and losers, etc. …
The short answer to the question as to whether I am for or against
immigration is: “Yes!” (Chiswick 2009)
 Myth III cont.
• International migration is not merely
settlement migration or circular labour
migration …

– the whole picture is very diversified

– new types of migration…
– e.g. “fluid migration” (IDEA project, Okolski’s
team)
 Myth III cont.
• Regarding economic impacts:
“In broad terms, the economic impact of
migration is positive for the destination
country; but the size of the impact is not great,
and there are distributional consequences to
consider” (Kleinman 2003).
 Myth IV
• We can successfully combat illegal/irregular
international migration
• No, we cannot; because:

• There is an intense and permanent DEMAND for an illegal foreign

workforce, particularly from a number of employers in developed countries
who are always willing to hire such cheap, flexible, and productive
workers, in spite of the various risks involved
• The phenomenon is often “quietly” tolerated by political representatives
and officials
– It is even considered one of the structural components of modern
capitalism (e.g. Pallidda 2005).

• In addition, in the post-communist world, we observe degraded morale that

allows many informal activities to become a generally tolerated reality
 Myth V
• Illegal/irregular migration brings no positive
effects for the receiving countries
• There are some positive impacts: Filling unappealing and low-paid work
positions, a cheap and flexible workforce, the development of certain
economic entities and branches. Also, individual households benefit from
the presence of illegal/irregular workers (cheaper home services,
construction, reconstruction, etc.), the prices for certain goods and services
decrease …

• Illegal/irregular economic migration - a dangerous phenomenon. As

illegal/irregular migrants do not comply with the law and legislation, they
contribute to the undermining of democratic systems, which are based upon
adherence to legal principles. In light of such principles, this type of
migration is also inequitable/unfair.
 Myth VI
• International migration (immigrants) may
eliminate anticipated problems of population
ageing in developed immigration countries

• A report from the UN Population Division:

“Replacement Migration: Is It a Solution to a
Declining and Ageing Population (2000, 2001)”
clearly affirms that no, this is not possible.
The migration flows needed to keep the potential
support ratio (workers to non-workers) constant are
unprecedentedly high, for instance:
in the EU: 13.5 million a year,
in Korea: more than 5 billion!
 Myths

Chiswick, B.R. (2009): Top Ten Myths

and Fallacies Regarding Immigration
Policy Paper Series, IZA Policy Paper No.
12. Bonn, Institute for the Study of Labour.
 Myths
The main goal of this presentation is to
combat the following myths:
1) There is no need to work with migration
theories
2) There is one “general” theory that can
explain international migration processes
3) Theories as such are taboos, one should
use them only as they were originally
designed and proposed
Migration and its unique characteristics

International migration is a very complex

phenomenon. This is true not only for
migration, its consequences are also
complex …

… external heterogeneous factors behind …

The complexity of various features of
migration

- specificity in time and space,

- growing interdependence and international
linkages among various migration flows, tied to
the increasing political, economic and social
interdependence among nation states,
- multi-causality of migration motivation,
- qualitatively and quantitatively different types of
migration flows at various hierarchical levels.
 Broad range and causality of migration
“Migration analysis is the attempt to explain the decision-
making mechanism (individual, household, or village)
and human behaviour for persons (with different
personality traits and sociocultural backgrounds)
interacting with and reacting to (at different levels) the
general environment (socioeconomic, ecological, and
political stimuli) over time (short- and long-run situations)
in order to achieve (maximize, minimize, or satisfy)
certain objectives (personal or otherwise, economic and
noneconomic) with certain consequences (on the
migrant and others in the sending and receiving points)“
- Chang (1981) ►►►
 Interdisciplinary approach
When researching migration issues, an
interdisciplinary approach is necessary

geography, sociology, economics, demography,

ethnology, anthropology, political science,
history, psychology, law, planning …

- The interdisciplinary view seeks to develop “a

more satisfactory theoretical approach”
(Hammar 1992)
 Human needs as a key trigger of
migration movements -
An individual‟s ambitions to permanently
increase and differentiate her/his needs –
a primary cause of migration (see e.g.
“pleonexie” - Korcak 1973);
in line with secondary human needs:
 Human needs as a key and natural
trigger of migration movements -
Secondary human needs:
1) Acquisition – need to gain possessions and property
2) Achievement – need to overcome obstacles, exercise power and try to do difficult tasks well
and quickly
3) Dominance – need to influence or control others
4) Autonomy – need to resist influence or coercion
5) Aggression – need to assault or harm another
6) Affiliation – need to form friendships and associations
7) Nurturance – need to nourish, aid or protect helpless people
8) Succourance – need to seek help, protection, or sympathy
9) Cognizance – need to inquire, explore, seek knowledge, and satisfy curiosity

These needs include, in fact, psychological, economic, social and political aspects as well. In
particular, needs no. 1,2, 4, and 9, can trigger and propel movements and be quite relevant to
international migration.

Migration – inherent law of human existence (not an aberrant or even a “perverse” behaviour)
 Information as a very important
aspect behind migration movements

The role of information in the migration context

is crucial …
… the current era of globalization and
information revolution contributes to the
intensity of migratory movements

Pred‟s matrix makes it possible to infer a probability of moving,

according to the quality and quantity of information available to a
person as well as to her/his ability to make use of this information
…
 Paradoxes I
Concerning migration, it is typical to find ambiguities, contradictions and
paradoxes …

1) The heart of the matter lies in the migration process itself and its
mutual interrelations with the socioeconomic sphere –

- contradiction between the short-term and long-term effects of

economic development upon the propensity to emigrate …
 Paradoxes II
2) Problems stemming from scholars‟ different attitudes towards the
object of study … (there is also a risk that, perhaps, “firm faith” rather
than objective reasoning comes into play.

For example: “In the developmental approach, there are

differences in interpretation of benefits and costs, depending on what
is thought to constitute development. Those inclined to think of growth
and development as a matter of capital accumulation and
industrialization, view migration as drawing off surplus labour, causing
wage increase and stimulating technological change …those that
have primary concern for distribution, local development and social
problems are quick to point out the cost-sectoral and regional
imbalances, decline in production (and possibly productivity) in
certain sectors, conspicuous consumption and so on …” (Swamy
1985)

Important philosophical-methodological aspects within interpretations!

 Paradoxes III
3) Policy-related paradoxes
- The right to emigrate (established in the UN Declaration of
Human Rights) has no counterpart entailing a right to immigrate.
- Developed countries have proclaimed and demonstrated a
willingness to support, both politically and economically, the
development of the Third World; while, in reality, their economic
policies directly or indirectly restrain these efforts.
- On the one hand, developed immigration countries proclaim
the necessity to combat undocumented migration and yet, on the
other hand, they often tolerate irregular/undocumented migrants in
their labour markets.
Contradictions among scholars’ opinions

“Push-pull” concept …
Golledge and Stimson (1987) argue that the
push-pull model can, perhaps, be used
more at the micro-level. Bogue (1977)
points out that “the traditional push-pull
framework has limited utility for a micro-
level approach”
 Migration theories and related
shortcomings
Very often we tend to speak about “pragmatic” or
“ad hoc” attitudes
- Some of the so called “theories” are actually
nothing more than concepts, frameworks,
perspectives, attitudes, or rather primitively
summarized experiences …
- Very limited attempts have been made to
establish a theory about the simultaneous
interaction of factors, while practically no attempt
has been made to formulate general causal
models, in which the listed factors appear as
aspects of casual mechanisms …
 Theories and related shortcomings

There are hardly any precisely ascertained facts

followed by principles, laws, axioms and
postulates describing the object of study …
There is a lack of logical methods of inferring, of
proof and there is no summary of theoretical
knowledge.
As a corollary, … hardly any systematic, general
picture exists regarding regularities and
fundamental continuities in the given field …
 Theories and related shortcomings

A close connection between a final theory and empirical facts

“The use of theories is constrained by the availability of data, whereas

interpretation of data depends on available theories” (de Beer 1990)

Generally, international migration statistics are also subject to many

shortcomings!

Thus, a vicious cycle comes into play …

The true value of international migration research?: A good theory

yields the best practical use … ???!!!
 Theories and related shortcomings
There is no one general theory of migration … “It is unlikely that any
one general theory could encompass all specific empirical foci”
(Richmond 1984), … grand theory of migration is impossible to
design (Portes 1997) - The reason is that the different areas that
compose the field of migration studies are too disparate to be unified
in any meaningful way… such a theory would necessarily be too
generic and abstract to the point of being useless for empirical
analysis, researchers or policy makers (Portes 1997, Triandafyllidou,
Blair 2006)

Too complex – it is beyond our grasp …

It should encompass aspects like: Who are migrants? Why do they

move, stay or return? Why and where do they move? When do they
move? What are the effects of such action on migrants and on
others? etc… (see Chang 1981)
 Theories and related shortcomings

- Theories focus mostly on labour migration

movements
- Theorizing is concentrated on immigration
countries
- Little attention in migration theories
focuses on females
- Political considerations/aspects are more
or less “ignored” in migration theories
 Theories and related shortcomings

- When establishing theories – delay in

following the actual features of objective
reality
- The role of borders is not adequately
taken into account in migration theories
- Applying “experience” accepted in internal to
international migration without any corrections or
improvements, sometimes even without references
…!!!
 Internal versus international migration -
common features and differences
Common features:
1) Similar analytical frameworks (methods of analysis)
2) Common social and economic roots
3) Similar determinants and consequences
4) “Structural similarities” – i.e., migrants tend to be
young
5) Places boasting a high standard of living (in a complex
view) serve as magnets for migration
6) Movements which begin as short term (or circulatory)
often change into long-term or permanent stays
7) Close relationship between geographical and social
mobility
 Internal versus international migration:
common features and differences

Differences:
1) International movements are much more
susceptible to political and administrative
control
2) The reasons for international migration are
more complex. In the broadest sense of the
word, such migration is much more impacted
by political factors and social networks
3) The distance factor carries a different weight
with these different types of migration
 Micro versus macro approaches
Arise out of philosophical and methodological
differences …
Macro tradition – mainly the
Marxist/conflict/historical-structural perspective

Micro approaches – functionalist, equilibrium,

classical/neo-classical perspective (e.g. push-
pull, cost-benefit, human capital models) or the
behavioural perspective …
 Micro versus macro approaches
The micro-level perspective – emphasis on individuals,
families, households, specifically on their behaviour and
processes tied to this microsocial milieu …
The macro-level perspective emphasizes economic, social,
and political circumstances, the context of which is the
actual arena for the behaviour of individual migrants …

It is a must to consider both macro and micro

approaches in any meaningful study of international
migration …

Both perspectives are significant and complementary to

one another …
 Micro versus macro approaches
„Microlevel study must take into account at all steps the
influence of macrofactors, the social and institutional, the
economic and the geographic context within which the
individual exists. On the other hand, macrolevel studies
of migration that do not include a consideration of the
decision-making process may very easily miss some
important factors and aspects of migration“ (Gardner
1981)

To overcome the problems???

… close co-operation and mutual acceptance of objective
results among supporters of the different perspectives …
 Migration research – historical
patterns
• E.G. Ravenstein (1885, 1889): The Laws
of Migration. Journal of the Royal Statistical
Society, 48, pp. 167-235 (52, pp. 241-301).

E. Lee (1969), R.P. Shaw (1975)

W. Zelinski
(1971)
 Current trends – “S curve” versus
transnationalism

• Actually, the two concepts need not be in

opposition … a transnational system can
also be created by migrants who settle
abroad but sustain significant ties with
their place of origin …
Circular labour migration and its transformation
into permanent immigration and settlement
(Martin, Taylor 1995)
• Stages in this transformation
 Current trends - transnationalism
• … “The creation of a transnational community linking
immigrant groups in the advanced countries with their
respective sending nations and hometowns … This field
is composed of a growing number of people who live
dual lives: speaking two languages, having homes in two
countries, and making a living through regular contact
across national borders. Activities within the
transnational field are comprised of a whole gamut of
economic, political and social initiatives ranging from
informal import-export business, to the rise of a class of
binational professionals, to the campaigns of native
politicians among their expatriates” (Portes,
Guarnizo,Landolt 1999)
 Transnationalism and its types
(Portes, Guarnizo, Landolt 1999)
New migratory forms/types – “liquid migration”

The concept of liquid migration is inspired by Zygmunt Bauman‟s work (1999;

2005) on liquid modernity (Engbersen et al. 2009).

Central to the notion of liquidity is the idea that „thick‟ and stable social institutions
(class, family, labour, community, neighbourhood and nation state) are fading
away and being replaced by flexible, „thin‟ institutions (see also Zijderveld 2000).

Migration has always been strongly embedded in patterns of family, community,

local labour markets, and the nation-state (Portes and Sensenbrenner 1993;
Portes 1995). The transformation of these institutions, together with ever more
advanced communication technologies and the disappearance of internal borders
following EU enlargement, has changed migration patterns in post-industrial
societies and has made migration trends less predictable.

Liquid migration has six dominant characteristics:

 “Liquid migration” (Engbersen
forthcoming)
• 1 Settlement: temporality of migration and stay:
• − Temporary migration
• − Temporary settlement; semi-integration in destination country
• 2 Type of migration: Labour and student migration:
• − Labour migrants
• − Student migrants
• − „Economic‟ asylum seekers and refugees
• 3 Status: legal residential status:
• - Regular migration
• − Temporary work permit holders (Romania and Bulgaria)
• 4 Destination: No predetermined receiving country:
• − Multiple receiving countries
• − New receiving countries
• 5 Family: individualised life strategy:
• − Individualised forms of migration
• − First generation pattern
• 6 Migratory habitus: intentional unpredictability
• − No definite migration aspirations
• − Open options
IDEA conceptual framework
Okolski, Arango, Fassmann … (Okolski ed. forthcoming)
• Concept of the European „migration cycle‟
• Based on an assumption that all European nation states proceed from net emigration to net
immigration countries
• Over the course of this change, countries experience specific migration stages: preliminary, take
off, expansion and maturity
• In the preliminary stage - masses of rural population are pushed out and compelled to migration
due to rapid growth in productivity coupled with a high rate of natural increase, leading to large
emigration
• On the contrary, the mature stage involves a steady and sizable presence of immigrants (or their
descendants) and a continuous, but strictly regulated inflow of foreigners in accordance with the
needs of economy
• The stage of maturity emerges from two intermediate stages (take-off and expansion) and it
develops with declining natural increase, the ageing of the population and growing labour demand

• Hence, the main drivers in a country‟s change from an emigration to an immigration country are
related to demographic and economic developments along with paradigms of migration and
control policies

• A primary objective was to juxtapose the migration situation of CEE countries to the „migration
cycle‟ concept
 Economic-theoretical perspective and migration
(neoclassical economic approach)

Most alternative approaches are derived from the push-pull and human capital
models (e.g. Sjaastad 1962, Todaro 1969)

The push-pull model generally emerges from the idea that migration is a
consequence of the socioeconomic disequilibrium among regions, in which
some factors operate primarily by “pushing” a person out of a given place
or, on the contrary, by “pulling” him/her to another one … additional
variables (intervening opportunities and barriers – Stouffer 1940)

Migration has also been viewed as a flow of manpower from regions with a lack
of capital and a surplus of manpower to regions with a lack of manpower
and a surplus of capital, where salaries and wages are higher … this
translates to a redistribution of human capital, migration is a “development
fostering process” … According to this theory, workers do not migrate if
there are no differences in earnings or employment rates between
countries…
 Economic-theoretical perspective and
migration (neoclassical economic approach)
Sjaastad (1962) in his human capital model first realized and
“suggested that the individual migrates in the expectation of being
better off … and an individual moves if she/he believes that the
benefits will exceed the costs”
- time aspect and expected, rather than actual, earnings taken
into account

Todaro (1969), in particular, included the possibility of migrants being

unemployed … the individual must balance this risk against a
positive real income …

Variations of the basic models – simultaneous-equation model,

sequential decision-making framework etc. …
 Economic-theoretical perspective and
migration (neoclassical economic approach)
The common element of the models mentioned (applied at the micro level) is
their focus on the individual activity involved …
- Shortcomings of this perspective:
- Questionable use in terms of hierarchical levels (regional and “structural”)
…
- When using microdata – tendency to neglect spatial characteristics
- Danger of generalizing individual-level phenomena from aggregated data
analyses
- So many genuine assumptions are inserted into the models, such as:
homogeneity, substitutability, rationality, maximizing of profit, minimizing of
discomfort, perfect information, flexibility of prices, market equilibrium
- “All is based” on two variables: the effects of income and unemployment
- The models deal only with labour migration – they omit social and political
structures, overlook nonmonetary costs generally, say nothing about the
assimilation of information, values and preferences …, only the capitalist
historical period is taken into account
 Economic-theoretical perspective and
migration (neoclassical economic approach)
- Economic models – either too simple and static or methodologically
sophisticated, but theoretically primitive, bottom line – confusing

- Scarcity of empirical testing

- Labour market theories do not explain the beginning or ending of

movements, they are not unable to manage specific conditions
within given countries … why movements do not involve all people?
why labour migration also exists between countries with a relatively
similar high stage of development (including the brain exchange
phenomenon, etc.)?
 Economic-theoretical perspective and
migration (neoclassical economic approach)

Advantages:
- explanatory models in nature
- Some researchers expand the human capital model to
include noneconomic variables as well (.. Da Vanzo)
 Historical-structural (conflict, Marxist, neo-
Marxist) perspective and migration
To a certain extent, this is a response to the individualistic, neoclassical economic
approach … many concepts/subconcepts – “world system theory”, “dependency
theory”, “internal colonialism”, “centre-periphery” framework or “global accumulation”
concept

It is based upon Marx‟s ideas and work on historical materialism with a fundamental
postulate that classes are defined by social relations concerning production …

The perspective “treats development and underdevelopment as parts of a single integral

totality (the world capitalist economy) which simultaneously depends on, and re-
creates conditions for worldwide economic inequality” (Papademetriou 1988); “These
theories emphasize the peripheral status of poor countries in an international system
in which the rich countries are at the centre. The rich central countries serve as a
vacuum drawing wealth out of the periphery to such an extent that the periphery is
impoverished” (Stahl 1988) … capital, commodities and labour move across national
boundaries as part of a developing process that creates complex inescapable ties of
interdependence between countries… labour migration is explained by the
economies over the peripheral and the specific effects of differences in real and
social wage levels in the core and the periphery which leads to recruitment across
national boundaries from what is, in effect, an international pool of reserve labour …
 Historical-structural (conflict, Marxist, neo-
Marxist) perspective and migration
- Focus on the exploitation of migrants in rich, destination countries …
and their exposure to various constraints, limits and barriers …
- migrants are mere agents of social change, carrying the necessary attributes
of labour to satisfy the abstract requirements of the general law of capitalist
accumulation

- Decreasing or freezing wages and prices

- Selectivity in choosing only young and healthy workers
- Inaccessibility to many social achievements
- Vague legal status, limited geographical and social mobility
- Regional and spatial concentration of immigrants (“ghettoization”)

Distinct and quite unambiguous unit of observation – a migration stream as

a whole
 Historical-structural (conflict, Marxist, neo-Marxist)
perspective and migration
• “The world systems theory emphasises structural factors that contribute to the
uneven development of sending and receiving countries and the structural disparities
and dependence between these economies. However, it also indirectly recognises
the role of individuals and families as agents of migration as they point to the function
of ideological and cultural links between developing and advanced countries”
(Triandafyllidou, Blair )

• Many queries in play:

– People only as a passive element … behaviour can be explained by an
individual‟s location within the larger system …
– The theory deals only with labour migration movements
– Ideology comes into play
– No specific economic/social/political climate in various nations/states is taken into
account …
– No possibility of improving social status for immigrants in host societies,
immigrants seen as being permanently excluded from the benefits of being
incorporated into a host society, having citizenship rights and receiving state
welfare benefits, immigrants enter the labour market at the lowest levels of
socioeconomic status…
– “Injuriousness” of labour emigration …
These statements are often in contradiction with reality …
 Historical-structural (conflict, Marxist, neo-
Marxist) perspective and migration
- Overestimation of macrostructural forces, ignoring
individual activity and abilities

- “How would world system advocates explain the famine-induced

Irish emigration to the United States in the 1840s, the migration
which resulted from political and religious persecution of the past
several centuries, or the forced migration of Africans to North
America? Alternatively, how can we explain the variations of
significant emigration flows from countries that are similarly
incorporated into the world capitalist economy?” (Papademetriou
1988)
 Systems approach

- Based on Mabogunje (1970) who applied General Systems Theory

to rural-urban migration in Africa

- …“contrary to a linear uni-directional, push-and-pull, cause-effect

movement, it enables us consideration of a movement as a circular,
independent, progressively complex, and self-modifying system in
which the effect of changes in one part can be traced through the
whole of the system” (Mabogunje 1970).

- He works with four components of a migration environment:

economic, social, technological and governmental elements; he
considers, inter alia, the relationship between social and spatial
mobility; he points out the role of aspirations and the importance of
information (and the feedback effect that became the core of later
work leading to development of the concept of social networks)
 Systems approach
- Other scholars highlight the regional approach in defining a migration system where
regional proximity is accompanied with close economic and political ties, a
comparable level of economic development, similar migration behaviour, cultural
background and “political proximity” …

- “Migration systems are spaces characterised by the relatively

stable association of a group of receiving countries with a number of
areas of origin. Such association does not only result from migration
flows, but is buttressed by connections and links of a varied nature” (Arango 2000).
- In the past – the concept of social networks or global economic, structuralist,
macro-level views of reality were considered to be “systems approach”

- Elements that define the existence of the migration system: relative structural
homogeneity, geographic contiguity or proximity, similarity of policies, and common
belonging to supranational organisations (Zlotnik 1992, accoding to Arango 2000)…

- Perhaps there might be key elements, typical of the systems approach, such as:
complexity – encompassing both the micro and macro factors, dynamism,
interrelations, interactions, interlinkages, openness and flexibility
 Systems approach

• What are the real principles upon which the systems approach to
international migration is based?

• The model “is as yet no more than a desideratum which has

never been fulfilled, at least as far as international migration is
concerned. It has hardly gone beyond the identification of
international migration systems, at a purely descriptive level”
(Arango 2000).

• The full potential of the approach still

remains at a stage of promise (Arango
2000)
Other important theories/concepts
- Network theory, Dual labour market theory, Institutional
theory, New economics of migration, Gravity models,
etc. …
 Theory of Societal Systems
Proposed by Hoffmann-Nowotny (1983) – one of the “real”,
more general and well-formulated migration theories

- It is based on the foundation of General Systems Theory

- It integrates well-known sociological, socio-psychological
and economic concepts from the areas of stratification,
mobility, social change, status crystallization, symbolic
interaction and marginal utility, or at least elements of
these …
- Basic terms: “structure” and “culture” versus “power” and
“prestige” – and the status line between them …
 Theory of Societal Systems
- Generally, movement and various types of tensions spring from the
discordance between power and prestige, and consequently,
society; as a result, people are, to some extent and in some way,
always on the move …

- Migration can be seen as a process of social interaction that results

in a reduction of tension in the emigration system. On the contrary,
immigration may contribute to the building of tension in a receiving
society.

- In fact, the theory deals with the complicated relationship between

social and spatial mobility, when stressing the system level including
the hierarchical principle …
 Value expectancy model
Based on work of psychologist Crawford (1973) –
developed and cultivated, in particular by de Jong and
Fawcett (e.g. 1981)

The main proposal – an action in certain ways depends on

the expectancy that the act will be followed by a given
consequence (or goal) and the value of that
consequence (or goal) to the individual …

This model assumes that people will usually behave in a

forward looking, positive way, making choices that they
believe will maximise their own well-being …
 Value expectancy model
It is necessary to get to know personally valued goals that might be met
by moving (or staying) and asses perceived linkages, in terms of
expectancy, between migration behaviour and its outcomes …

- The model deals with the subjective evaluation and weighing of

factors coming to play in achieving goals
- Seven main groups of values or goals, based on psychological and
socioeconomic elements, were formulated: wealth, status, comfort,
stimulation, autonomy, affiliation and morality –
- these essential attributes of migration motivation are enriched by
important factors describing the broader socioeconomic,
sociocultural and demographic environment: individual and
household characteristics, societal and cultural norms, personal
traits, opportunity structure between areas and information
 Value expectancy model
Migration behaviour is thus hypothesized to be the result of 1) the
strength of the value expectancy derived intentions to move, 2) the
indirect influences of background individual and aggregate factors
and 3) the potential modifying effects of often unanticipated
constraints and facilitators which may intervene between intentions
and behaviour …

Advantages of the model: it combines micro and macro elements of

reality – individual, household and societal-level migration
determinants; it is a simple model, easy to apply

Shortcomings – the model is based on assumptions – e.g. physical

and mental ability, rationality. It cannot explain forced migration …
 Grand theory on immigration –
Triandafyllidou, A., Blair, C.(2006) „Attempting the Impossible: Explaining the Greek Case from a New
Immigration Theory Perspective‟ in a conference on „Interdisciplinary Approaches to Minority and Migration Phenomena.
The Case of Greece after the end of the Cold War‟ organised by the Centre for the Study of Minority Groups (KEMO),
Panteion University, Athens, Greece, 15-17 December 2006.

They try to design a comprehensive theory on migration - they seek to

integrate the main theoretical perspectives outlined by Massey and his co-
authors (1993) into one model that brings them together and potentially
allows (if the necessary empirical data exist) for a comprehensive analysis
of migration phenomena.

They include network, institutional and cumulative causation perspectives

which offer an interesting combination of structural and individual factors
that contribute to the continuation, and often to the increase, of migratory
flows.

They come to the conclusion that migration results from comparing costs
and benefits, from government intervention and from general knowledge
and attitudes towards migration.
 Grand theory on immigration –
Triandafyllidou, Blair 2006
• … the formula has to be exponential (though the
gradient is unknown without empirical data).

Nevertheless, so far no empirical testing has

been done!!! – … it is now up to empirical
analysts to check this attempt against reality and
see whether the correlation could be true. It
might be difficult to quantify some of the aspects,
notably the social costs of moving or the
knowledge of the possibilities of moving …
 Grand theory on immigration –
Triandafyllidou, Blair 2006
• Such a theory could be useful to policy makers that seek to explain
existing flows or predict new migration at a general level.

• …it may be less helpful when policy makers seek to develop migrant
integration policies or to examine the impact of migration on a given
sector of the economy, or if they wish to know more about the
dynamics of a specific type of immigration, e.g. seasonal migration,
or understand the specific dynamics of a special feature of
immigrants, e.g. the impact of gender on immigration phenomena...

• However, it promise the potential to make general predictions and it

helps to uncover the interrelationship between different factors that
influence migration phenomena.
 D. Massey’s “Ethnic residential segregation
model” (1985) and its limits
• Drbohlav, D., Ying, K. (2003): Current
Post-Soviet Immigrants in West
Hollywood, California: Separated and
Segregated Seniors. Espace.
Populations. Societies., No. 1, 2003, pp.
137-152.

• West Hollywood, research into Post-

Soviet immigrants (N=94, seniors) of
Jewish origin, representative plus quota
sampling, problems of their integration in
West Hollywood (CA) …
• These immigrants cannot overcome their
“separatism” – as, indeed, the ethnic
residential segregation model dictates
them … It is an inevitable consequence
of their fate – heritage, age and social
position.

- No economic, cultural and spatial

assimilation is possible … they stay
together in one place …
Thank you for your attention