2021

Electronic
nic Principles and Devices (UE21EC14
(UE21EC1411A)
Lecture Notes
UNIT-1 Introduction to Electronics & Semiconductor Diodes
Diode
CONTENTS

Sl. No. Titles of the Topic

1. VI – Characteristics of a Semiconductor Diode

2. Shockley’s Diode Current Equation

3. Temperature Effects on VI – Characteristics of a Diode

4. Ideal vs Practical Diode

5. Diode Approximations/ Diode Equivalent circuits

6. Diode resistances

7. Series diode Configurations

8. Zenerr Diode: Construction, Symbol & VI – Characteristics

9. Types of Breakdown in diodes

10. Logic Operations Using Diode

11. Additional Information To Understa

Understand
nd The Concept Of Semiconductor

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V-II Characteristics of PN Junction Diode

Volt-ampere (V-I) I) characteristics of a pn junction or semiconductor diode is the curve between

voltage across the junction and the current through the circuit. Normally the voltage is taken
along the x-axis
axis and current along yy-axis.
axis. The circuit connection for determining the V-I
V
characteristics of a pn junction is shown in the figure below.

Circuit Connection for V-I characteristics of a pn junction

The characteristics can be explained under three cases, such as: i) Zero bias ii) Forward bias &
iii) Reverse bias

V-II characteristics of a pn junction

Case-1: Zero Bias

In zero bias condition, no external voltage is applied to the pn junction i.e the circuit is open at K.
Hence, the potential barrier (ref: pn junction tutorial for better understanding) at the junction does
not permit current flow. Therefore, the circuit current is zero at V=0 V, as indicated
indicate by point O in
above graph.

Case-2: Forward Bias

In forward biased condition, p-type

type of the pn junction is connected to the positive terminal and n-
n
type is connected to the negative terminal of the external voltage. This results in reduced potential
barrier. At some forward voltage i.e 0.7 V for Si and 0.3 V for Ge, the potential barrier is almost
eliminated and the current starts flowing in the circuit. Form this instant onwards the current

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increases with the increase
ase in forward voltage. Hence a curvee OB is obtained with forward bias as
shown in figure above.

From the forward characteristics, it can be noted that at first i.e. region OA, the current increases
very slowly and the curve is non--linear.
linear. It is because in this region the external voltage applied
a to
the pn junction is used in overcoming the potential barrier. However, once the external voltage
exceeds the potential barrier voltage, the potential barrier is eliminated and the pn junction
behaves as an ordinary conductor. Hence, the curve AB raises very sharply with the increase in
external voltage and the curve are almost linear.

Case-3: Reverse Bias

In reverse bias condition, the p-type

type of the pn junction is connected to the negative terminal and
n-type
type is connected to the positive terminal oof the external voltage. This results in increased
potential barrier at the junction. Hence, the junction resistance becomes very high and as a result
practically no current flows through the circuit. However, a very small current of the order of μA,
flows through the circuit in practice. This is knows as reverse saturation current (IS)
( and it is due
to the minority carriers in the junction. As we already know, there are few free electrons in p-type
p
material and few holes in n-type
type material. These free electrons in p-type
type and holes in n-type
n are
called minority carriers.

The reverse bias applied to the pn junction acts as forward bias to their minority carriers and
hence, small current flows in the reverse direction. If the applied reverse voltage is increased
inc
continuously, the kinetic energy of the minority carriers may become high enough to knock out
electrons from the semiconductor atom. At this stage breakdown of the junction may occur. This
is characterized by a sudden increase of reverse current and a sudden fall of the resistance of
barrier region. This may destroy the junction permanently.

Diode Current Equation

Diode current equation expresses the relationship between the current flowing through the diode
as a function of the voltage applied across it. Mathematically it is given as

where,

I is the current flowing through the diode

Io is the dark saturation current,
q is the charge on the electron,
V is the voltage applied across the diode,
η is the (exponential) ideality factor.
k is the Boltzmann constant & T is the absolute temperature in Kelvin

In this equation, two parameters require to be discussed in quite detail. They are I0, the Dark
Saturation Current Dark saturatio
saturation current indicates the leakage current density flowing through
the diode in the absence of light (hence, ‘dark’). This parameter is the charact
characteristic
eristic of the diode

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under consideration and indicates the amount of recombination which occurs within it. That is, I0
will be larger for a diode in which recombination rate is higher and vice versa. Further, its value is
also seen to be directly proportional to the absolute temperature and inversely proportional to the
material quality. η, the (exponential) Ideality Factor Ideality factor indicates the nearness with
which they considered diode behaves with respect to the ideal diode.. That is, if the diode under
consideration behaves exactly
ctly as that of an ideal diode, then η will be 1. Its value increases from 1
as the difference between the behaviors of the ideal diode and diode under consideration
increases: greater is the deviation; greater is the value of η.

The value of η is typically considered to be 1 for germanium nium diodes and 2 for silicon diodes.
However, its exact value for the given diode depends on various factors like electron drift,
diffusion, carrier recombination which occurs within the depletion region, its doping level,
manufacturing technique and the purity of its materials.
In addition, its value is also seen to vary with the value of current and voltage levels. In most of
the cases, its value is found to be within the range 1 to 2.

In forward biased condition, there will a large amount of current flow through the diode. Thus the
diode current equation (equation 1) becomes

On the other hand, if the diode is reverse biased, and then the exponential term in equation (1)
becomes negligible. Thus we have

the diode current equation takes its form when we have the diode operating at room
temperature. In this case, T = 300 K, also, and . Thus

By reciprocating, one gets, 25.87 mV which is called thermal voltage. Thus the diode equation at
room temperature becomes

Temperature Effects on VI
VI-Characteristics
Characteristics of Diode
PN junction diode parameters like reverse saturation current, bias current
current,, reverse breakdown
voltage and barrier
arrier voltage are dependent on temperature. Rise in temperature generates more
electron-hole
hole pair thus conductivity increases and thus increases in current

Increase in reverse saturation current with temperature offsets th

thee effect of rise in temperature.
Reverse saturation current (IS) of diode increases with increase in the temperature the rise is
7%/ºC for both germanium and silicon and approximately doubles for every 10ºC rise in
temperature.

Thus if keep the voltage constant,

stant, as increase temperature the current increases. Barrier voltage is
also dependent on temperature it decreases by 2.5mV/ºC for germanium and silicon. Reverse
breakdown voltage (VR) also increases as we increase the temperature.

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Junction Diode Ideal and Real Character

Ideal and Practical Diode Character

Characteristics:

Ideal Diode: When an ideal diode is forward biased

biased, it offers no resistance & acts like an open
switch. Likewise the ideal under reverse bias offers infinite resistance hence, it acts like open
switch.
Practical Diode: A diode which is said to be forward biased it starts conducting at knee voltage
& under reverse bias no current ddue
ue to majority charges hence a practical diode is considered to
be open switch (minority
minority charges current ignored
ignored).

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Threshold Voltage: Ideal diodes do not have a threshold voltage. Once any forward voltage is
applied across the diode, it will conduct current instantly across its junctions.
Forward Current: Ideal diodes include unlimited forward current when any forward voltage is
applied across their terminals. This is due to the ideal condition; the inner resistance of the diode
would be zero. The idealal diode would have no inside resistance at all. Since current (Ohms Law
I=V/R), an unlimited amount of current would be performed and supplied to an electrical circuit
with an ideal diode.
Breakdown Voltage: Ideal diodes do not have a breakdown voltage. T This
his is because, the diode
has unlimited resistance to reverse voltage. It will not perform any current at all when voltage is
applied in reverse.
Reverse (leakage) Current: As an ideal diode does not contain a breakdown end, it never
performs any reverse current
urrent termed leakage current. It is an ideal insulator when voltage is
applied in reverse.
Peak Inverse Voltage: The Peak Inverse Voltage (PI(PIV)
V) or Maximum Reverse Voltage (VR(max)),
is the maximum allowable Reverse operating voltage that can be applied across the diode without
reverse breakdown and damage occurring to the device. This rating therefore, is usually less than
the “avalanche breakdown” level on the reverse bias charact
characteristic
eristic curve. Typical values of
VR(max)), range from a few volts to thousands of volts and must be considered when replacing a
diode.
The peak inverse voltage is an important parameter and is mainly used for rectifying diodes in AC
rectifier circuits with reference to the amplitude of the voltage were the sinusoidal waveform
changes from a positive to a negative value on each and every cycle.
Total Power Dissipation: Signal diodes have a Total Power Dissipation, (PD(max) ) rating. This
rating is the maximum possible power dissipation of the diode when it is forward biased
(conducting). When current flows through the signal diode the biasing of the PN junction is not
perfect and offers some resistance to the flow of current resulting in power being dissipated
dis (lost)
in the diode in the form of heat.
As small signal diodes are non-linear
linear devices the resistance of the PN junction is not constant, it
is a dynamic property then we cannot use Ohms Law to define the power in terms of current and
resistance or voltage and resistance as we can for resistors. Then to find the power that will be
dissipated by the diode we must multiply the voltage drop across it times the current flowing
through it: PD = V*I

Diode Approximation/Equivalent Diagrams:

Diode approximation
tion is a mathematical method used to approximate the nonlinear behavior of
real diodes to enable calculations and circuit analysis. There are three different approximations
used to analyze the diode circuits.

i) First Diode Approximation

In the first approximation method, the diode is considered as a forward
forward-biased
biased diode and as a
closed switch with zero voltage drops. It is not apt to use in real
real-life
life circumstances but used only
for general approximations where preciseness is not required.

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ii) Second Diode Approximation

In the second approximation, the diode is considered as a forward
forward-biased
biased diode in series with a
battery to turn on the device. For a silicon diode to turn on, it needs 0.7V. A voltage of 0.7V or
greater is fed to turn on the forward
forward-biased diode. The diode turns off if the voltage is less than
0.7V.

iii) Third Diode Approximation

The third approximation of a diode includes voltage across the diode and voltage across bulk
resistance, RB. The bulk resistance is low, such as less than 1 ohm and always less than 10 ohms.
The bulk resistance, RB corresponds to the resist
resistance of p and n materials. The resistance changes
based on the amount of forward voltage and the current flowing through ugh the diode at any given
time
The voltage drop across the diode is calculated using the formula
Vd = 0.7V + Id *RB

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Resistance of a Diode:
In practice, no diode is an Ideal diode, this means neither it acts as a perfect conductor when
forward biased nor it acts as an insulator when it is reverse biased. In other words an actual diode
offers a very small resistance (not zero) when forward biased and is ca called
lled a forward resistance.
Whereas, it offers a very high resistance (not infinite) when reverse biased and is called as a
reverse resistance.
The various resistances of a diode are as follows.

Forward Resistance
Under the Forward biased condition, the opposition offered by a diode to the forward current is
known as Forward Resistance. The forward current flowing through a diode may be constant, i.e.,
direct current or changing i.e., alternating current. The forward resistance is classified
classifie as Static
Forward Resistance and Dynamic Forward Resistance.

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Static or DC Forward Resistance: The opposition offered by a diode to the direct current
flowing forward bias condition is known as its DC forward resistance or Static Resistance. It is
measuredd by taking the ratio of DC voltage across the diode to the DC current flowing through it.
The forward characteristic of a diode is shown below.

It is clear from the graph that for the operating point P, the forward voltage is OA and the
corresponding forward current is OB. Therefore, the static forward resistance of the diode is given
as

Dynamic or AC Forward Resistance

The opposition offered by a diode to the changing current flow I forward bias condition is known
as its AC Forward Resistance. It is measured by a ratio of change in voltage across the diode to
the resulting change in current through it. From the figure A above it is clear that for an operating
point P the AC forward resistance is determined by varying the forward voltage (CE) on both the
sides of the operating point equally and measuring the corresponding forward current (DF). The
Dynamic or AC Forward Resistance is represented as shown below.
The value of the forward resistance of a diode is very small, ranging from 1 to 25 Ohms.

Reverse Resistance (RR)

Under the Reverse biasing condition, the opposition offered by the diode to the reverse current is
known as Reverse Resistance. Ideally, the reverse resistance of a diode is considered to be
infinite. However, in actual practice the reverse resistance is not infinite because diode conducts a
small leakage current (due to minority carriers) when reverse biased.

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The value of reverse resistance is very large as compared to forward resistance. The ratio of
reverse to forward resistance iss 100000:1 for silicon diodes, whereas it is 40000:1 for germanium
diode.

Series Diode Configuration with a Resistor:

• It’s assumed that the forward resistance of the diode is usually so small compared to the other
series elements of the network that it can be ignored.
• In general, a diode is in the “on” state if the current established by the applied sources is such
that its direction matches that of the arrow in the diode symbol, and VD ≥ 0.7V for silicon, VD ≥
0.3V for germanium.

Zener Diode:
When the reverse bias voltage on a normal crystal diode is increased, a point known as Knee
point is reached at a voltage known as breakdown voltage, when the reverse current increases
sharply to a high value. This breakdown voltage is also known as Zener Voltage
Volta and the sharp
increase in current is known as Zener current.

The breakdown voltage of a diode depends on the amount of doping. In a heavily doped diode,
the depletion layer is thin, so the breakdown of the junction occurs at a lower reverse bias voltage.
voltag
On the other hand, a lightly doped diode has a higher breakdown voltage. When an ordinary
crystal diode is properly doped so as to have a sharp breakdown voltage, it is known as Zener
diode. Below figure shows the symbol & Structure of a Zener diode.

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VI--Characteristics of Zener Diode:

The graphical representation can give basic characteristics. These are normally termed as V-I
V
characteristics.

As per the above analysis, it is evident that during forwarding bias Zener diode characteristics
will remain the same as that of the normal diode. When the applied voltage crosses the value of
Zener voltage (Vz) the Zener breakdown takes place. After the breakdown, the flow of the current
in the circuit tends to increase immediately.

Applications of Zener Diode:

 As it has the property of maintaining th

the low voltages even though high voltages are applied.
These are preferably applicable in voltage regulators.
 It is preferably used in ammeters, voltmeters, and ohmmeters because here the reference
voltage is required.

Power Dissipation of Zener Diode:

As the points discussed till now make it very clear that Zener diode will be conducting in reverse
bias. Generally, the power dissipated is the multiplication of overall current and voltage values.
In Zener diode, it is determined as P = VZ X IR
Where VZ stands for Zener voltage and IZ represents the reverse current.

Avalanche Breakdown & Zener breakdown

Avalanche Breakdown: As the functionality of the basic diode is already known in reverse bias
condition the diode gets affected as it is non
non-conducting
conducting mode. But still there is the movement
noticed and that is due to minority carriers. The current generated because of the minority
min charge
is referred to as reverse saturation current and this is responsible for the occurrence of avalanche
breakdown.

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In the case of the reverse bias, the width of the region will be more. This can affect the working
condition of the diode. But in this
his condition, the minority charges get sufficient kinetic velocity so
that it can overcome the barrier of the junction.
Due to this, collisions in between occurs. These are responsible for the generation of free charges.
As this process goes on the furthe
furtherr generation of carriers takes place resulting in the formation of
more number of free carriers. This phenomenon is referred to as carrier multiplication. Hence the
flow of reverse current is noticed. This leads to the condition in the diode breakdown referred
refe to
an avalanche breakdown. This can damage the junction completely and it is non non-refundable.
refundable.
Zener breakdown: In the basic diode, a junction is formed due to the interaction of p-type
p and n-
type. This has the depletion region at the junction. The widt
widthh of this region is also the factor of the
doping concentration. The doping at the junction can be done lightly or heavily. The width of the
depletion and the doping levels are inversely related to each other. It means if the junction is
heavily doped then the width will be minimum and vice vice-versa. If the considered junction is of
high doping value then undergoes the phenomena of Zener breakdown.
If it has a minimum width of depletion region it suggests that it has the number of free charges
present. These tend to cross the junction. Because it has the highest electric intensity of the field
the rapid movement in the carriers is noticed. Hence it results in the formation of free carriers and
the flow of reverse current can be seen. This eliminates the deplet depletion
ion region. This type of
phenomena is known as Zener breakdown.
But in Zener breakdown, the depletion region will retain back once the reverse voltage has been
removed.

LOGIC GATES BY USING DIODES

Logic gates are the basic building blocks of any digital sy
system.
stem. It is an electronic circuit having
one or more than one input and only one output. The relationship between the input and the
output is based on certain logic. Based on this, logic gates ar
aree named as AND gate, OR gate and
NOT gate.

OR GATE:
The OR gate
ate performs logic addition, more commonly known as the OR function.

An OR gate has two or more input signals with only one output signal.
In OR gate, output voltage is high if any or all of the input voltages are high.

OR Gate Symbol
The symbols used for OR gates with 2, 3 and N inputs are shown in Fig 1 (a), (b) and (c)
respectively.

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Fig 1 (a) Fig 1 (b) Fig 1 (c)
The inputs A, B, C…N are logic voltage levels and the output Z is a logic voltage level whose
values is the result of the OR operation on A, B, C ….and N.
In other words, the OR gate operates in such a way that its output is high (logic 1) if and only if
one or more inputs are high.. The OR gate output will be low (logic 0) only if all inputs are low or
at logic o.
Its logic equation is given as:
Z = A OR B OR C ….OR N
Z = A + B + C +…………..+N
The above equation is known as Boolean equation or the logical equation of the OR gate.

OR Gate Truth Table

The logical operation of two-input
input and three
three-input
input OR gate is described in truth table shown in
table 1 and table 2 respectively.

Table 1: Truth table of 2-input

input OR gate

Table 2: Truth table of 2-input

input OR gate
The truth table can be expanded for any number of inputs; but regardless of the number of inputs,
the output is high when any one or more of the inputs are high.

OR Gate can be realized using Diodes as discussed below.

DIODE OR GATE:
Diodes may be used to build an OR gate, as shown in the Fig 2.

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Figure 2
If input voltages at points A, B are low then all diode are non-conducting
conducting so output voltage,
Vout is low.. But if any of the input terminals is at high voltage, then diode connected with that
particular terminal is forward biased and current flows through the resistance R. The result is that
Vout is at high level.

AND GATE:
The
he AND gate performs logical multiplication, more commonly known as AND function. The
AND gate provides high output only when all inputs are high.
The AND gate has two or more inputs and a single output, as shown in the standard logic symbols
in fig 1 (a, b & c).

Fig 1 (a), Fig 1 (b) Fig 1 (c)

The input A, B, C….and N are logic voltage levels and output Z is a logic voltage level whose
value is the result of the AND operation on A, B, C….and N.
The operation of the AND gate is such that the output is high or 1 if and only if all the inputs are
high or 1. Mathematically it is written as
as:
Z = A AND B AND C …AND n = A.B.C…….n = ABC….n …. (1)
Where A, B, C…..N are input variables and Z is the output variable.

Truth Table of AND Gate

The logical operation of the 2-input
input and 33-input
input AND gate is described in truth table shown in
table 1 and table 2 respectively.

Table 1: Truth table of 2 -input

input AND Gate

Table 2: Truth Table of 3-input

input AND Gate

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AND Gate can be realized using Diodes as discussed below.
DIODE AND GATE:
The fig.2 shows one way to build a 22-input AND gate using diodes.

Figure 2
The input voltages are labeled A and B, while the output voltage Z.
When voltages of both inputs are high, both the diodes are non
non-conducting
conducting because the diodes are
reverse-biased.
biased. Since the diodes are off, no current flows through resistor R, and the output is
pulled up to the supply voltage VCC (+5). Thus for both inputs high, output is high.
But when input voltage of either or both terminals are low, cathode(s) of the diode(s) connected to
low input terminal(s) is/are grounded and the diode(s) become(s) forwardforward-biased,
biased, resulting in
flow of current through resistor R. So in such a conditi
condition,
on, voltage of the output terminal becomes
low.

ADDITIONAL
DDITIONAL INFORMATION TO UNDERSTAND THE CONCEPT OF
SEMICONDUCTOR:
Introduction to Semiconductors:
Semiconductors are having property of conduction between insulators and conductors; at absolute
zero temperature, semiconductors exhibit the property of insulators but at high temperature
semiconductors behaves as controlled conductors.
There are two typess of semiconductors visually, Intrinsic semiconductors & Extrinsic
Semiconductors. Let us now follow each types of semiconductor study as below.

i) Intrinsic Semiconductor:
A semiconductor in an extremely pure form is known as an intrinsic semiconductor. In I an
intrinsic semiconductor, even at room temperature, hole
hole-electron
electron pairs are created.
When the electric field is applied across an intrinsic semiconductor the current conduction takes
place by free electrons and holes as shown in fig.1.

Fig. 1

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The free electrons are produced due to the breaking up of some co co-valent
valent bonds by thermal
energy. At the same time holes are created in the covalent
covalent-bonds.
bonds. Under the influence of electric
field, conduction takes place by both free electrons and hole
holes.
s. Therefore, the total current inside
the semiconductor is the sum of currents due to free electrons and holes.

ii) Extrinsic Semiconductor:

The conducting properties of an intrinsic semiconductor can be increased by adding small amount
of suitable impurities to it. It is then called impure or extrinsic semiconductor.
The process of adding impurities to a semiconductor is known as doping. Generally for every
108 atoms of semiconductor, one impurity atom is added. Depending upon the type of impurity
added
dded extrinsic semiconductor is classified into two types, such as:
(a) n-type
type semiconductor & (b) pp-type semiconductor

N-type Semiconductor
When a small amount of penta-valent
valent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor, it is known as n-
n
type semiconductor.

The addition of pentavalent impurity provides a large number of free electrons in the
semiconductor crystal. Typical examples of pentavalent impurities are arsenic (As), and antimony
(Sb).

Such impurities which produce nn-type semiconductor are known as donor impurities as they
donate free electrons to the semiconductor crystal.

To explain the formation of n-type

type semiconductor, consider a pure germanium crystal. We know
that germanium atom has four valence electrons. When a small amount of pentavalent impurity
like arsenic is added to germanium crystal, a large number of free electrons become available in
the crystal. The reason is explained below.

Arsenic is pentavalent i.e. its atom has five valence electrons. An arsenic atom fits in the
germanium crystal in such a way that its four valence electrons form covalent bonds with four
germanium atoms. The fifth valence electron of arsenic atom finds no place in co-valent
co bonds
and thus remains free as shown in fig.2.

Therefore, for each arsenic atom added, one fr

free
ee electron will be available in the germanium
crystal.

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Fig. 2 Fig. 3

Fig.3 shows the energy band description of nn-type semiconductor.

The addition of pentavalent impurity has produced a number of conduction band electrons i.e.
free electrons.

The four valence electrons of pentavalent atom form co co-valent

valent bonds with four neighboring
germanium atoms. The fifth left over valence electron of the pentavalent atom cannot be
accommodated
ted in the valence band and travels to the conduction band.

The following points may be noted carefully:

(i) Many new free electrons are produced by the addition of pentavalent impurity.

(ii) Thermal energy of room temperature still generated a few hole-electron

hole pairs.
However, the number of free electrons provided by the pentavalent impurity far
exceeds the number of holes. Hence it is called nn-type
type semiconductor (n stands for
negative).

(iii) The current conduction in an nn-type

type semiconductor is predominantly by free electrons
ele
i.e. negative charges and is called nn-type
type or electron type conductivity.

P-type Semiconductor
When a small amount of trivalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor, it is called p-type
p
semiconductor.

The addition of trivalent impurity provides a large number of holes in the semiconductor. Typical
examples of trivalent impurities are gallium (Ga) and indium (In).

Such impurities which produce pp-type

type semiconductor are known as acceptor impurities as the
holes created can accept electrons.

To explain the formation of p-type

type semiconductor, consider a pure germanium crystal.

When a small amount of trivalent impurity like gallium is added to germanium crystal, there exist
a large number of holes in the crystal. The reason is explained below:

Gallium iss trivalent i.e. its atom as three valence electrons. Each atom of gallium fits into the
germanium crystal but now only three co co-valent
valent bonds can be formed. It is because three valence
electrons of gallium atom can form only three single co
co-valent bonds with
th three germanium atoms
as shown in fig. 4.

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Fig. 4 Fig. 5

In the fourth co-valent

valent bond only germanium atom contributes one valence electron while gallium
has no valence electron to contribute as its three valence electrons are already engaged in the co-
co
valent bonds with neighboring germanium atoms.

In other word, fourth bond is incomplete; being short of one electron. This missing electron is
called a hole. Therefore, for each gallium atom added, one hole is created. Fig.5 shows the energy
band diagram of p-type
type semiconductor. The addition of trivalent impurity has produced a large
number of holes. However, there are a few conduction band electrons ddue ue to thermal energy at
room temperature. But the number of holes far exceeds the number of conduction band electrons.

It is due to the predominance of holes over free electrons that it is called pp-type
type semiconductor (p
stands for positive). The current co conduction in p-type
type semiconductor is predominantly by holes
i.e. Positive charges and is called pp-type or hole-type conductivity.

When a p-type
type semiconductor is suitably joined to an nn-type
type semiconductor, the contact surface is
called pn junction. Most semiconductor
conductor devices contain one or more pn junctions. The pn
junction is of great importance as it is the main control element for the semiconductor devices.

Formation of pn Junction

In actual practice, a pn junction will not be formed if a pp-type block is just

ust brought in contact with
n-type
type block. In fact, pn junction is fabricated by special techniques.

Properties of pn Junction

At the instant of pn-junction

junction formation, the free electrons near the junction in the n region begin
to diffuse across the junction into the p region where they combine with holes near the junction.
As a result n region loses free electrons and this creates a layer of positive charges (pentavalent
ions) near the junction. As the electrons move across the junction, the p region loses holes
h as the
electrons and holes combine. The result is that there is a layer of negative charges (trivalent ions)
near the junction. These two layer of positive and negative charges form the depletion region or
depletion layer. The term depletion is due to the fact that near the junction, the region is depleted
i.e emptied of charge carriers (free electrons and holes) due to diffusion across the junction.

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The depletion layer is formed very quickly and is very thin as compared to the n region and the p
region.
n. Once pn junction is formed and depletion layer is created, the diffusion of free electrons
stops. In other words, the depletion layer acts as a barrier to the further movement of free
electrons across the junction. The positive and negative charges set up an electric field which acts
as a barrier to the free electrons in the n region. This is shown in fig. 6.

Fig. 6 Fig. 7 Fig. 8

There exists a potential difference across the depletion layer known as barrier potential (V0). The
typical barrier potential is approximately: For silicon, V0= 0.7 V, for germanium, V0= 0.3 V.

Biasing a pn Junction

In electronics, the term bias refers to th

thee use of D.C. voltage to establish certain operating
conditions for an electronic device. In case of a pn junction, there are following two bias
conditions: Forward biasing & Reverse biasing

1. Forward Biasing

When external D.C. voltage applied to the jun junction

ction is in such a direction that it cancels the
potential barrier, thus permitting current flow, it is called forward biasing. To apply forward bias,
the positive terminal of the battery is connected to pp-type
type and negative terminal is connected to n-
n
type of the pn-junction
junction as shown in fig. 7.

The applied forward potential establishes an electric field which acts against the field due to
potential barrier. Therefore, the resultant field is weakened and the barrier height is reduced at the
junction as shown in fig. 7.

As potential barrier voltage is very small (0.1 to 0.3 V), therefore, a small forward voltage is
sufficient to completely eliminate the barrier. Once the barrier is eliminated by the forward
voltage, junction resistance becomes almost zero and a low resistance path is established for the
entire circuit. Therefore, current flows in the circuit. This is called forward current.

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2. Reverse Biasing

When the external D.C. voltage applied to the junction is in such a direction that potential barrier
is increased, it is called reverse biasing. To apply reverse bias, the positive terminal of the battery
is connected to n-type
type and negative terminal to pp-type
type of the pn junction as shown in fig. 8.

The applied reverse voltage establishes an electric field whiwhich

ch acts in the same direction as the
field due to potential barrier. Therefore, the resultant field at the junction is strengthened and the
barrier height is increased as shown in fig. 8. The increased potential barrier prevents the flow of
charge carriers across the junction. Thus, a high resistance path is established for the entire circuit
and hence the current does not flow.

Current Flow in a Forward Biased pn junction

Fig .9 shows a forward biased pn junction. Under the influence of forward voltage,voltag the free
electrons in n-type
type move towards the junction, leaving behind positively charged atoms.
However, more electrons arrive from the negative terminal of the battery and enter the n-region
n to
take up their places. As the free electrons reach the jun
junction,
ction, they become valence electron. As
valence electron, they move through the holes in the pp-region.
region. The valence electrons
electron move
towards left side in the p-region which is equivalent to holes moving to the right side of diode.
When the valence electron reaches the left end of the crystal, they flow into the positive terminal
of the battery.

Fig. 9

Summary: The free electrons from the negative terminal continue to pour into the n-region
n while
the free electrons in the n-region
region move towards the junction. The electrons travel through the n-
n
region as free electrons i.e current in nn-region is by free electrons.

When these electrons reach the junction, they combine with holes and become valence electrons.
The electrons travel through p-region
region as valence electrons i.e. current in the pp-region
region is by holes.
When these valence electrons reach the left end of the cryst
crystal,
al, they flow into the positive terminal
of the battery.

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References:

https://electronicspost.com/v-i-characteristics
characteristics-of-pn-junction-diode/
https://www.electrical4u.com/p-nn-junction-diode/
https://www.elprocus.com/diode-approximation
approximation-types-and-diode-models/
https://circuitglobe.com/resistance
https://circuitglobe.com/resistance-of-a-diode.html

https://www.slideshare.net/NaimKidwai/rec101
https://www.slideshare.net/NaimKidwai/rec101-unit-1-part-ii-pn-junction-diode

https://www.watelectronics.com/zener
https://www.watelectronics.com/zener-breakdown-avalanche-breakdown-differences/
differences/

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