TOPIC 7
CROSS-CULTURAL COMPARISON OF SOCIETIES & SCHOOLS
Key Definitions:
a) Culture – these are the values, beliefs, systems of language, communication, and practices
that people share in common and that can be used to define them as a collective.
b) Society – is a group of people who live in a definable community and share the same cultural
components. On a broader scale, society consists of the people and institutions around us, our
shared beliefs, and our cultural ideas.
c) School – this refers to any institution at which instruction is given in a particular discipline.
d) Cross – cultural Comparison – this is a comparison of two or more different cultural
factors in individuals to assess the psychological, sociological, or cultural similarities or
differences in various cultures or societies.
Relations Of Societies And Schools
The relation between school and society is complex and interconnected. Schools are a reflection
of the broader society in which they are situated, and they play a vital role in shaping and
influencing the values, knowledge, skills, and socialization of individuals.
Here are some key aspects of the relationship between school and society:
a) Socialization and Cultural Transmission: Schools serve as institutions of socialization,
where individuals learn and internalize societal norms, values, and expectations. They
play a significant role in transmitting cultural heritage, knowledge, and traditions across
generations. Schools contribute to shaping the identity, beliefs, and social behaviors of
students, preparing them to participate in society.
b) Education and Human Capital Development: Schools are crucial for the development
of human capital, which is essential for the progress and advancement of society.
Education equips individuals with knowledge, skills, and competencies necessary for
their personal and professional growth. Well-educated individuals contribute to economic
productivity, innovation, and social development.
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c) Social Mobility and Equality: Schools provide opportunities for social mobility,
allowing individuals to improve their socioeconomic status and break free from social
barriers. Education can bridge inequalities by offering equal access to knowledge and
opportunities, regardless of background or social status. Schools play a crucial role in
promoting social justice and creating a more equitable society.
d) Social Integration and Cohesion: Schools bring together students from diverse
backgrounds and experiences, fostering social integration and cohesion. They provide a
space for interaction, collaboration, and the development of social relationships among
individuals with different cultural, ethnic, and socioeconomic backgrounds. Schools
contribute to building a sense of community and shared values.
e) Preparation for Citizenship: Schools prepare individuals to be active and responsible
citizens. They provide civic education, teaching students about their rights,
responsibilities, and the functioning of democratic institutions. Schools promote
democratic values, critical thinking, and social awareness, preparing individuals to
participate in civic life and contribute to the betterment of society.
f) Socialization of Norms and Values: Schools play a crucial role in socializing students
into societal norms, values, and ethical standards. They teach students about acceptable
behaviors, moral principles, and social responsibilities. Schools promote ethical conduct,
empathy, respect for diversity, and responsible citizenship, shaping the moral fabric of
society.
g) Influence on Social Change: Schools can be agents of social change by challenging
existing norms, biases, and inequalities. They can promote awareness, critical thinking,
and activism among students, encouraging them to question social injustices and work
towards positive transformation. Schools can foster a sense of agency and empower
individuals to contribute to a more just and inclusive society.
It is important to recognize that the relationship between school and society is dynamic and
constantly evolving. Schools both reflect and shape the values, aspirations, and challenges of the
societies they serve. The quality of education and the values upheld by schools significantly
impact the well-being of individuals and the overall progress of society.
Work Ideologies
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An ideology is a system of values, ideas and ideals, and a world-view especially one which
forms the basis of economic or political theory and policy. According to Karl Marx, an ideology
is a set of ideas and beliefs that are manipulative and convincing on the surface level, but are not
actually true - what he called false consciousness. Ideology can shape the thoughts and actions
of individuals and wider society. It has an influence on social structures, economics, and politics.
On the other hand, work can be defined as the carrying out of tasks, which involves the
expenditure of mental and physical effort, and its objective is the production of goods and
services that cater to human needs. An occupation, or job, is work that is done in exchange for a
regular wage or salary. The other relevant term here is economy, which refers to the social
institutions through which a society's resources (goods and services) are managed.
In all cultures, work is the basis of the economy or economic system. The economic system for
any given culture is made up of the institutions that provide for the production and distribution of
goods and services. These institutions may vary from culture to culture, particularly in traditional
societies versus modern societies. In traditional cultures, food gathering and food production is
the type of work occupied by the majority of the population. In larger traditional societies,
carpentry, stonemasonry, and shipbuilding are also prominent. In modern societies where
industrial development exists, people work in a much wider variety of occupations.
Sociological Theory
The study of work, industry, and economic institutions is a major part of sociology because the
economy influences all other parts of society and therefore social reproduction in general. It
doesn’t matter if we are talking about a hunter-gatherer society, pastoral society, agricultural
society, or industrial society; all are centered around an economic system that affects all parts of
society, not just personal identities and daily activities. Work is closely intertwined with social
structures, social processes, and especially social inequality. The sociology of work goes back to
the classical sociological theorists such as Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, and Max Weber all
considered the analysis of modern work to be central to the field of sociology.
a) Karl Marx (1818-1883)
Marx was the first social theorist to really examine the conditions of work in factories that were
popping up during the industrial revolution, looking at how the transition from independent
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craftwork to working for a boss in a factory resulted in alienation and deskilling. He is credited
with developing an approach known as Historical materialism which applies the logic of
dialectical materialism to human civilization. This theory has three parts;
Work and exploitation: He argued that all human beings must engage in economic
activity for the necessities of life. In the aggregate, this requirement means that every
society relies on its mode of production. However, he argued that not all workers benefit
from their profits since capitalists retain dividends and profits. The source of this money
is the work undertaken by workers and Marx calls this an exploitative situation.
Alienation: Marx argued that since workers are not paid the full value of their work, the
goods that they produce are too expensive for them to afford. They are therefore alienated
from their own goods. to Marx, religion is man’s attempt to ease the misery in life caused
by alienation. To achieve peace of mind, man creates a false god that he connects with.
Class conflict: According to Marx, both alienation and exploitation will eventually result
in a class conflict between the workers and their employers, the capitalists. He therefore
argued that capitalism contains its own grave digger – the workers.
b) Emile Durkheim (1858 – 1917)
Durkheim, on the other hand, was concerned with how societies achieved stability through
norms, customs, and traditions as work and industry changed during the industrial revolution. He
developed the division of labour principle, arguing that;
No one can be totally self sufficient and therefore workers ought to practice “division of
labour” - the division of work into a series of tasks assigned to different people or groups
- is a useful principle because it reduces unnecessary movements and tool usage
According to Durkheim, it also fosters a sense of community among those who share
those jobs. Social solidarity means that society is a group where everyone does the same
things and has the same beliefs.
Durkheim stated that as parts of society become more complicated, individuality grows
c) Max Weber (1864-1920)
Weber focused on the development of new types of authority that emerged in modern
bureaucratic organizations.
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Weber both coined and defined the term bureaucracy; and detailed ways that bureaucratic
management can be used to treat all members of an organization equally with a clearly-
defined division of labor.
Bureaucracy, as defined by Weber, is an organizational structure characterized by many
rules, standardized processes, procedures, and requirements, as well as a clear and
meticulous division of labor, clear hierarchies and professional and almost impersonal
interactions between employees.
These bureaucracies have six major components: task specialization, formal selection,
impersonality, hierarchy, rules, and career orientation.
Work and non work
Work can be understood as the sphere of paid employment including all related and supporting
activities such as tasks, projects, travel, meetings, and client demands. Non-work on the other
hand, will refer to the sphere of activities outside of paid employment, and not directly related to
it, such as family and friends interactions, housework, community activities and leisure.
However, in a Pre-industrial Era, these two separate spheres did not exist. The workplace at that
time was typically the individual’s home and the working time was determined by the length of
the day: Most families worked together from dawn until dusk, intermingling work and family
responsibilities.
The advent of the Industrial Revolution, especially in capitalist societies, brought a shift at the
workplace from the home space to factories, from agricultural to manufacturing industries. In
this period, the world witnessed a change in the economic and social structures. At this point, the
boundary between work and non-work becomes clear. Employees also went through a change in
the working time, now regulated by supervisors and the clock (8am to 5pm), demarcating also a
time boundary.
Economic Ideologies
Various economic ideologies (and sub-ideologies) have arisen over the years. The major ones
include;
a) Capitalism
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Capitalism is characterized by private ownership, where owners control the factors of production
and derive their income from it. Owners compete against others in their industries to sell goods
at the highest possible price while keeping costs as low as possible. This competition stabilizes
prices while keeping production efficient. By nature, capitalism works best in a free market
economy; however, this system would naturally suffer the drawbacks of such an economy-
namely, the inability of those at a competitive disadvantage to get ahead.
b) Communism
A communist society allows the factors of production to rest in the hands of the people.
However, in such a society, the economic output is distributed to each according to their need
(whereas in a socialist society, it is distributed to each according to their ability or contribution).
Communism eliminates income inequality and poverty this way, but suffers from the
disadvantages of a command economy—the needs of the consumer are easily ignored or
forgotten, leading to decreased innovation, slowed economic growth, and potential economic
instability through the creation of black markets.
c) Socialism
In a socialist economy, every member of society theoretically has equal ownership of the factors
of production—natural resources, labor, capital goods, and entrepreneurship—as well as an equal
share of the economic output. Based on the belief that human nature is inherently cooperative
(rather than competitive), everyone in a socialist society receives a share of profit based on their
own contribution, after a portion has been deducted for the common good. Meanwhile, those
who cannot contribute are provided for. To facilitate the system, the government controls
resources and allocates them where necessary, as in a command economy. Socialism thus
eliminates poverty and provides equal access to services like health care and education, but
opens itself up to the disadvantages of a command system—total government control over the
economy that leads to decreased growth, little innovation, and potential economic instability.
Moral Instruction/Education
The term moral comes from the Latin mos, meaning custom or habit, and is the translation of the
Greek ethos, which means roughly the same thing and is the origin of the term ethics. For many
countries and religions around the world, “moral education” refers to character education or
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moral education. Moral values include respect, honesty, hard work, compassion, kindness,
generosity, etc. Most thinkers, educators and parents acknowledge the fact that children are born
into this defenseless world and need nurturing and guidance for their future careers. In particular,
children must learn to live harmoniously in society.
Historically, the task of school has been to develop the intellectual and moral virtues of the
youth. Moral virtues such as honesty, responsibility and respect for others fall within the domain
of moral education. Moral education helps children learn moral virtues or habits to live a better
life while becoming productive and contributing members of their communities. Moral education
must serve not only the individual, but the whole human community. According to Durkheim,
moral education plays a major role in transmitting one's cultural tradition through norms and
values in society from generation to generation.
A Brief History of Moral Education/training
Every established community has a moral code, and it is the responsibility of adults to instill that
code in the hearts and minds of their young people. Every society expects schools to make a
positive contribution. Every existing community has a moral code and this serves the moral
education of children. This was the main concern of the school in the face of this new digital
world. For Christians, the moral code they believe in is the Bible, so it is imperative that children
learn to read the Bible. They believe that the inability to read the scriptures would lead children
to fall prey to Satan's snares.
During the colonial period, religion played the major role in moral education. The 19th century
School favored both secular and moral education. During this time, there was also a growing
backlash against organized religion. Intellectual leaders and writers were strongly influenced by
the ideas of Charles Darwin, Karl Marx, Sigmund Freud and Friedrich Nietzsche. They tried to
separate morality from religion and the state. Karl Marx saw religion as an enemy of a socialist
revolutionary state and opium for the people. This trend intensified after World War II and was
further reinforced by what appeared to be major cracks in the nation's moral conscience in the
late 1960s. For adults to instill this code in the hearts and minds of its youth, every society
expected the school to make a positive contribution
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Moral Education and Durkheim
In his book, “Moral Education”, he considers education as an art made of habits, practices and
organized know-how. According to him, morality is a social phenomenon related to the needs of
the structures of particular societies and can be observed systematically. The internalization of
social morality through education and socialization is at the forefront of his work. It explains the
discipline to curb passion, a sense of autonomy to allow for action, and a sense of obligation or
commitment to society. Durkheim believes that society is not only the source of morality, but
that the society itself could be reformed through the same moral education.
Durkheim further posits that morality has two components:
a) Discipline: a sense of authority that resist egoistic impulses.
b) Attachment: to society since society is the source of morality.
According to Durkheim, there are two phases of socialization that take place during childhood:
the first takes place within the family and later, primary school, when the child begins to leave
the family. The second stage is the critical moment in the formation of moral education, of the
socialized citizen, so to speak.
Importance of moral instruction
a) Enables a comprehensive world view of issues i.e. a student is able to appreciate or
understand core issues e.g. why forests have to be cleared for industries.
a) Explains ones role in any given situation e.g. the teacher making a grade four student
understand why protection of the environment is important.
b) Explains why one should not make compromises on values e.g. a child should being
taught that honesty is always the best policy.
c) Helps provide enough information on choices and possibilities e.g. the effects of
corruption to a country’s social fabric and economy.
In conclusion, it’s safe to say that socialization takes place in the smallest organization called the
family. The child, while growing up, tries to capture the moral values of his immediate society.
This is not only a responsibility in the educational field, but also in the family field. Adults can
also learn these moral tools by joining professional organizations, not just children in schools or
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colleges. Finally, religion is a social institution that inculcates morals and values and nurtures the
normative societal order.
Vocational Training
Vocational education is an alternative to academic education and focuses on preparing trainees
with flexible, transferable skills that can be used in a variety of low skilled occupations which
are required because of a change in industrial production i.e. the emergence of the so called
second industrial revolution where the world is moving from the manufacturing industry and
manual workers to one where the service industry (e.g. banking, hotel work or cleaning) and non
manual workers dominate. Vocational training mainly concentrates on subject areas such as
bricklaying, hairdressing, childcare or travel and tourism.
The foundation of vocational technical education is based on philosophy which was mainly
established for self- employment and self-reliance of the individual(s) who partake in it.
Stereotypically however, this form of education is seen as being of lesser value compared with
academic qualifications. To counter this, many governments have pushed for vocational
education to be seen as an alternative to university based education by offering apprenticeships
to job sectors which may not be accessible without a degree. For example; there are
apprenticeships in engineering, accountancy and software engineering.
Vocational training originated in the United Kingdom in the 1980s under what was then
referred to as “The New Right”. At the time, it was argued that Britain needed job-related
training in order to combat high levels of unemployment at that time, and in order to prepare
young people for a range of new jobs emerging with new technologies, and to make them more
competitive in a globalizing economy. In Kenya, the introduction of vocational training was
concretized with the passage of the Technical and Vocational Education and Training Act in
2013 to, among other things, provide for the establishment of a technical and vocational
education and training system in the country.
From a sociological point of view, technical training has been hailed as a solution to societal
challenges like unemployment, juvenile delinquency, adult crime, youth alienation, unstable and
unsatisfactory homes, and lack of respect for social institutions, among others. Some social
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reformers, professional sociologists, educators and writers are convinced that vocational
technical education is the answer to these ills and as such, the salvation of civilization. Some of
its advantages include;
a) These schools focus solely on the training that one needs for the job.
b) They tend to have lower faculty-to-student ratios than traditional colleges, allowing each
student direct supervision and guidance.
c) Generally, students who attend vocational programs benefit from higher employment
levels, increased wages, and increased job satisfaction rates.
d) Most vocational schools’ programs offer flexible full-time, part-time, or online schedules,
allowing students to work around their work schedule or family needs.
e) These schools built relationships with local companies and business leaders to offer
internships and practicums to students thus help them built necessary skills.
f) Because of the practical, hands-on training, graduates from such schools are highly
appealing to the employers.
In conclusion, the fact that Vocational Education has gradually been extended over the years
suggests that successive governments see it as playing an important role in our society,
especially in getting children ready for work and providing them with the type of skills our
economy needs. It is also clear that a number of children simply are not suited to a purely
academic education, so in an increasingly diverse society, it is likely to have a continued role to
play. However, according to Calhoun and Finch (2001), some analysts argue that it is
undemocratic to teach a boy to become a carpenter because by doing so, he may be prevented
from becoming a lawyer, a doctor, a computer analyst, an engineer etc. Such individuals contend
that it is more democratic and productive to provide each person with broad general education
and leave him to his own devices in the matter of vocational preparation.
Cross Cultural Difference in Achievement
Educational achievement in sociology refers to the extent to which a learner has successfully
completed their education and attained the expected level of knowledge and skills in a particular
subject or field. It is usually measured through assessments, such as tests, exams, and projects,
and is often used to evaluate the effectiveness of educational programs and policies. Academic
achievement is often used as the key for evaluating the success of educational policies and
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programs. Policymakers may use educational achievement data to identify areas of improvement,
allocate resources more effectively, and develop targeted interventions to support students who
are struggling.
There are many factors that can influence educational achievement, including the quality of
teaching, the resources available to students, the socioeconomic status of the student’s family,
and the student’s own motivation and commitment to learning. Research has shown that learners
who come from disadvantaged backgrounds, such as low-income families or those with limited
access to educational resources may face significant barriers to achieving academic success.
However, there are also many strategies that can help improve academic achievement, for
example, providing high-quality instruction, offering additional resources and support, and
implementing evidence-based practices can all have a positive impact on student learning
outcomes. Additionally, promoting a positive school culture, emphasizing the importance of
education, and engaging parents and families in the learning process can also contribute to
improved educational achievement.
Factors that impact educational achievement include the following;
a) The family.
This is the main building block for the existence of society and for maintaining that existence
and therefore very important for the education system. An individual receives his/her first
education in the family, making the family the first teacher of the individual. The education
level that the family possesses can have an impact on the student’s way of thinking,
viewpoint, belief in democracy and academic achievement. The family fosters love,
responsibility, social roles, decision-making and use of creativity behaviors in the individual.
Family participation, participation in children’s activities carried out at home, and more
productive and better-quality family communication contribute towards shaping the child’s
future. The attitude of the family towards school plays an important role in the maturation of
the students’ emotions and behaviors, and the recognition, orientation and skills development
of the student.
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The most important factor that distinguishes students with low academic achievement and
having to repeat the class from other students is little or complete absence of family support
and concern. It is to be expected that individuals who are raised in a family environment in
which the family shows concern, approaches problems equably, prepares the study
environment, makes plans and believes in success, will be more successful academically.
Children with an expectation for academic achievement will expect their families to show an
interest in the school and themselves and to give them affective support. The family’s
participation in school and cooperation with teachers contributes to students’ social,
emotional and behavioural development, their academic competences, and their socialization.
When the conducted studies are examined, it is seen that just as it does in all aspects, the
family also has an important effect on the child in an academic sense from the early years
onwards, and that children of families who are in communication with school, who improve
themselves, and who are educated and follow the education system closely, are more
successful than children of other families.
b) The school
The school’s physical conditions and infrastructure, practicability, favourable hygiene
conditions, attractiveness, planning suited to education, and orientation of the student for
school are important factors in the student’s academic achievement and development. In
addition, the adequacy of the physical conditions that make up the school, such as the sports
hall, information technology facilities, location, library and media facilities, hygiene, and
schoolyard are among the factors that play an important role in the student’s academic
achievement. Not to be left out is the administration, management structure and management
of the school
c) The teacher
Another factor that can have a significant effect on the student’s academic achievement and
is located at the centre of the education system is the teacher. The teacher can be described as
a building block that contributes to the student’s cognitive, affective and behavioural
development, provides careers, raises compatible individuals for society, fosters thinking
styles, perspectives on life and a broad worldview, and shapes the society of the future. The
teacher’s sympathetic approach, warm-hearted behaviours, and tolerance towards errors
made have a positive effect on relations between teacher and student. In the development of
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students’ academic achievements, teachers display behaviours aimed at enabling students to
grasp the subject of the lesson and reinforcing it with exercises, applying the correct
assessment methods, using time efficiently, keeping students active in class, and enabling
them to generate ideas
d) The school environment (neighbourhood)
Another factor that has an important effect on the academic success of the school is the
school environment. The school environment expresses families’ socio-economic and socio-
cultural values, their perspective on education, and the meaning and importance of the school
in terms of society. Furthermore, the environment where the school is located can be
expressed as transport facilities and activities that reinforce or inhibit teaching and learning.
Important environmental factors can be listed as adequacy of the infrastructure of the area
served, housing and heating, activities for personal development, facilities for social
activities, transport and safety, access to healthcare services, and hygiene training
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