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Collection Highlights

Sports Law and Regulation Cases Materials and Problems

Matthew J. Mitten

Managing Hybrid Organizations: Governance, Professionalism

and Regulation Susanna Alexius

Telecommunications Law and Regulation Ian Walden (Editor)

Sports Marketing A Strategic Perspective 5th Edition

Matthew D. Shank
Athletic Footwear and Orthoses in Sports Medicine 2nd
Edition Matthew B. Werd

Smart Urban Mobility: Law, Regulation, and Policy Michèle

Finck

Future Law Emerging Technology, Regulation And Ethics

Lilian Edwards

Business law and the regulation of business Twelfth

Edition Mann

Sports Law in a Nutshell Fifth Edition Champion

2
3
Copyright © 2016 CCH Incorporated.

Published by Wolters Kluwer in New York.

Wolters Kluwer Legal & Regulatory Solutions U.S. serves customers worldwide with CCH, Aspen Publishers, and
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eISBN 978-1-4548-7481-2

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Mitten, Matthew J., 1959- author. | Davis, Timothy, 1954- author. | Smith, Rodney K., author. | Shropshire,
Kenneth L., author. | Osborne, Barbara, author.
Title: Sports law / Matthew J. Mitten, Professor of Law and Director, National Sports Law Institute Marquette
University Law School; Timothy Davis, John W. & Ruth H. Turnage Professor of Law Wake Forest University
School of Law; Rodney K. Smith, Professor of Practice and Director, Center for Sports Law and Policy Thomas
Jefferson School of Law; Kenneth L. Shropshire, David W. Hauck Professor Wharton School, University of
Pennsylvania; Barbara Osborne, Associate Professor University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill;.
Description: Second edition. | New York : Wolters Kluwer, 2016. | Series: Aspen college series | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2015046483 | ISBN 9781454869788 (alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Sports--Law and legislation--United States. | LCGFT: Casebooks.
Classification: LCC KF3989 .M58 2016 | DDC 344.73/099–dc23 LC record available at
http://lccn.loc.gov/2015046483

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About Wolters Kluwer Legal & Regulatory Solutions U.S.

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 To Bob Berry,
our friend and colleague

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 Summary of Contents

Contents
Preface

CHAPTER 1: An Introduction to the Study of Sports Law

CHAPTER 2: Regulating Interscholastic (High School) and Youth Athletics
CHAPTER 3: NCAA Internal Governance of Intercollegiate Athletics and Legal Limits
CHAPTER 4: Legal Relationships Between the University and Student-Athletes
CHAPTER 5: Gender Equity Issues in Athletics
CHAPTER 6: Racial Equity Issues in Athletics
CHAPTER 7: Health, Safety, and Risk Management Issues in Sports
CHAPTER 8: Sports Medicine, Concussions, Compensation, and Impairment In
Sports
CHAPTER 9: Intellectual Property Issues in Sports
CHAPTER 10: Coaches’ Contracts and Related Issues
CHAPTER 11: Professional Sports League Governance and Legal Regulation
CHAPTER 12: Professional Sports Labor Law and Labor Relations
CHAPTER 13: Representing Players and Teams:The Athlete-Agent Industry
CHAPTER 14: Olympic and International Sports Issues

Glossary
Table of Cases
Index

7
 Contents

Preface

Chapter 1: An Introduction to the Study of Sports Law

What Is Sports Law?

A. The Traditional View: “Sports Law” Does Not Exist
B. The Moderate Position: “Sports Law” May Develop into a Field of Law
C. “Sports Law”: A Separate Field of Law
Fundamentals of the Legal System
Jurisdiction and the Federal and State Court Systems
A. Federal Courts
B. State Courts
C. Tax and Other Specialized Courts
Civil Procedure
Using the Case Method to Study Law
A. Common Law
1. Precedent
2. How to Brief a Case
Savino v. Robertson
Questions

Chapter 2: Regulating Interscholastic (High School) and Youth Athletics

Introduction: The Rise of the Regulation of Interscholastic and Youth Athletics at the
State, National, and International Levels
A. Historical Overview
B. Interscholastic and Youth Athletics Regulatory Structure, Governance, and
Administrative Processes
Judicial Regulation of Interscholastic and Youth Athletics
A. State Action
Brentwood Academy v. Tennessee Secondary School Athletic Association
Questions

8
 Notes
Tennessee Secondary School Athletic Association v. Brentwood Academy (Brentwood II)
Questions
B. Eligibility Issues
1. Transfer Rules
Indiana High School Athletic Association v. Carlberg
Notes
Problem 2-1
2. Outside Competition Rules
Question
3. Good Conduct Rules
Brands v. Sheldon Community School
Questions
Notes
4. Age Rules
Cruz v. Pennsylvania Interscholastic Athletic Association, Inc.
Questions
Problem 2-2
5. Grooming Rules
6. No-Pass, No Play Rules
Questions
7. Exclusion of Homeschooled Students from Athletic Participation
Questions
Note
C. First and Fourth Amendment Issues
1. Drug Testing
Vernonia School District 47J v. Acton
Questions
Notes
Problem 2-3
2. Freedom of Speech and Association
Wildman v. Marshalltown School District
Questions
3. Freedom of Religion
a. Free Exercise Issues
Questions

9
 Note
Problem 2-4
b. Establishment Clause Issues
Questions
Problem 2-5
D. Review of Game Results
Questions
E. Health and Safety Issues in Youth and Interscholastic Sports
Questions

Chapter 3: NCAA Internal Governance of Intercollegiate Athletics and Legal Limits

Introduction
A Brief History: NCAA Governance of Intercollegiate Athletics
Questions
NCAA Regulatory Authority and Processes
A. NCAA: History of Regulation and the Rules Infractions Process
B. Institutional Violations of NCAA Rules and Sanctions
University of Southern California Infractions Appeals Committee Report No. 323
Questions
The Penn State University Case
Questions
The University of Miami Case
Questions
The University of North Carolina Case
Questions
C. Individual Responsibility for NCAA Rules Violations and Sanctions
Former Head Men’s Basketball Coach University of Minnesota, Twin Cities Public
Infractions Appeals Committee Report
Questions
Other Cases Involving Coaches
Questions
Notes
Problem 3-1
Legal Limits on NCAA Regulatory Authority
A. Federal and State Civil Rights Law

10
 NCAA v. Smith
Question
B. Drug Testing and Privacy
Questions
C. Contract and Private Association Laws
Bloom v. NCAA
Questions
D. Federal Antitrust Law
1. Nature and Scope of Antitrust Limits on NCAA Regulatory Authority
2. Case Law
NCAA v. Board of Regents of the University of Oklahoma
Questions
Smith v. NCAA
Notes
O’Bannon v. NCAA
Questions

Chapter 4: Legal Relationships Between the University and Student-Athletes

Contractual and NCAA Regulatory Dimensions

A. Introduction
1. Contract Formation and Consideration
a. Mutual Assent
b. Consideration and Promissory Estoppel
2. Modification
3. Express and Implied Contracts
4. Performance, Breach, and Remedies
a. Breach
b. Excuses for Nonperformance
5. Damages
B. Contractual Aspects of the Student-Athlete and University Relationship
1. Statement of Financial Assistance
2. National Letter of Intent
Questions
C. Student-Athlete Financial Aid and Other Benefits
1. NCAA Regulations Governing Contracts and Scholarships
Questions

11
 Note 122
D. Defining the Scope of Institutional Obligations to Student-Athletes
Taylor v. Wake Forest University
Questions
Ross v. Creighton University
Questions
Notes
E. NCAA Academic Reform Initiatives
1. NCAA Academic Reform Legislation
2. Academic Progress Rate
Questions
F. Limited Scope of Constitutional Protections
1. General Principles: What Is a Property Interest?
2. A Property Interest in Athletic Participation?
Hysaw v. Washburn University of Topeka
Question
Notes
Problem 4-1
G. Student-Athletes as Employees: Workers’ Compensation
1. Workers’ Compensation: General Principles
2. Student-Athletes and Workers’ Compensation: Waldrep v. Texas Employers Insurance
Association
Questions
Note
3. Student-Athlete Unionization
Questions
Note
First Amendment Rights in Intercollegiate Athletics
A. Introduction
B. The First Amendment and the Media
Questions
C. Religious Liberty Issues
Questions
Problem 4-2

Chapter 5: Gender Equity Issues in Athletics

12
Introduction
Historical Perspective
Gender-Based Exclusion from a Particular Sport
Force v. Pierce City R-VI School District
Questions
Problem 5-1
Equal Athletic Participation Opportunities, Benefits, and Treatment
A. Accommodation
Cohen v. Brown University
Questions
Problem 5-2
B. Equal Benefits and Treatment
Questions
Reverse Discrimination Claims and Title IX
Neal v. Board of Trustees of the California State Universities
Questions
Title IX and Sexual Harassment
A. Coach-Athlete Sexual Harassment
B. Peer Sexual Harassment
Questions
Gender-Based Employment Discrimination in Athletics
A. Employment Discrimination
Deli v. University of Minnesota
Questions
B. Retaliatory Discharge or Punitive Action

Chapter 6: Racial Equity Issues in Athletics

Introduction
Historical Perspective
A. Racial Segregation: Intercollegiate Athletics
1. Formal Rules of Exclusion
2. Informal Rules of Discrimination
B. Racial Segregation: Professional Sports
C. The Reintegration of Professional and Amateur Sports
Race and Racial Equity in Modern Sports: An Evolving Debate

13
A. College Sports Coaching and Administrative Opportunities
1. Coaching
2. Athletic Administration
B. Professional Sports
C. Intersections
1. Race and Gender
2. Race and Economic Exploitation
3. Race and Globalization
Questions
Case Law
A. Academic Racism and Marginalization: NCAA Initial Eligibility Rules
Questions
Problem 6-1
B. Employment Discrimination
Jackson v. University of New Haven
Questions
Problem 6-2
C. Stereotypes Racially Stereotyped Mascots—Racism or Pride?
Questions
Problem 6-3
D. Racially Hostile Environments and Conduct
Problem 6-4

Chapter 7: Health, Safety, and Risk Management Issues in Sports

Introduction
Liability for Athletics-Related Injuries
A. Injury to Athletes
1. Co-Participant Tort Liability
Shin v. Ahn
Questions
Note
Problem 7-1
2. Co-Participant Criminal Liability
People v. Schacker
Regina v. McSorley

14
 People v. Hall
Questions
Note
Problem 7-2
Liability of Educational Institutions (and Organizations)
A. High School
Kahn v. East Side Union High School District
Questions
Notes
B. Colleges and Universities
Orr v. Brigham Young University
Question
Notes
Problem 7-3
C. Injury to Spectators
Thurmond v. Prince William Professional Baseball Club, Inc.
Questions
Notes
Problem 7-4
Tort Immunities
Question
Problem 7-5
Validity of Liability Waivers
Wagenblast v. Odessa School District No. 105-157-166J
Sharon v. City of Newton
Questions

Chapter 8: Sports Medicine, Concussions, Compensation, and Impairment in Sports

Introduction
Sports Medicine Malpractice Liability
A. Team Physicians
B. Athletic Trainers
C. Athlete's Contributory Negligence
D. Concussion
Injury Compensation for Professional Athletes
Pro-Football, Inc. v. Uhlenhake

15
 Question
Note
DePiano v. Montreal Baseball Club, Ltd.
Participation Rights of Athletes with Physical or Mental Impairments
A. Rehabilitation Act of 1973
B. Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990
Questions
Notes
Problem 8-1

Chapter 9: Intellectual Property Issues in Sports

Introduction
Trademarks, Logos, and Other Identifying Sports Insignia
A. Trademark Infringement and Unfair Competition
1. Name of Sports Team or Event
2. Unauthorized Affixation of Sports Team Mark to Merchandise
National Football League Properties, Inc. v. New Jersey Giants, Inc.
Question
Notes
B. Trademark Dilution
C. Anticybersquatting Consumer Protection Act of 1999
D. Olympic Marks
Problem 9-1
Ambush Marketing
Problem 9-2
Real-Time Game Accounts and Broadcasting Rights
A. Historical Background
B. Nature and Scope of Copyright Law Protection
C. Copyright Infringement of a Sports Broadcast
NFL v. TVRadioNow Corp.
Question
Note
D. Misappropriation of Real-Time Game Accounts and Scores
Problem 9-3
Athletes’ Lanham Act and State Law Privacy, Reputation, and Publicity Rights

16
A. Lanham Act
B. State Laws
1. Defamation
2. Right of Privacy
3. Right of Publicity
a. Nature and Scope of the Right of Publicity
b. First Amendment Limitations
Problem 9-4

Chapter 10: Coaches’ Contracts and Related Issues

Introduction
Is There a Property Interest in Athletic Employment?
Questions
Problem 10-1
A. Termination
1. Constitutes Termination for “Cause”?
Questions
2. Termination for Rules Violations and Non-Sports-Related Indiscretions
Questions
Problem 10-2
3. Termination for Abusive Conduct
Question
Problem 10-3
4. Free Speech and Retaliation Issues
B. Compensation and Other Financial Matters
Question
Questions
Termination, Breach, and Liquidated Damages
Vanderbilt University v. DiNardo
Questions
Note
Exploring Other Contractual Relationships
A. Sponsorship Agreements
B. Venue Agreements

Chapter 11: Professional Sports League Governance and Legal Regulation

17
Introduction
Origin and Evolution of Modern North American Professional Sports Industries
A. Evolution of Sports into a Business and Profession
B. Unique Features of Professional Team Sports
C. The Principal “Players” in the Professional Sports Industries
1. Leagues
2. Clubs or Teams
3. Commissioners
4. Players
5. Players Associations
6. Player Agents
7. Other Industries Integral to Modern Professional Sports
Internal League Governance and Commissioner Authority
A. Legal Limits on Internal League Governance
B. League Commissioner’s “Best Interests of the Game” Authority and Legal Limits
Charles O. Finley & Co., Inc. v. Kuhn
Note
Problem 11-1
Federal Antitrust Law Limits on League Rules and Governance
A. Overview
B. Baseball’s Antitrust Exemption
Flood v. Kuhn
Question
Note
C. Application of Sherman Act §1
1. Concerted Action Requirement
2. Unreasonable Restraint of Trade
a. Acquisition, Ownership, and Sale of a Franchise
Levin v. NBA
Note
b. Franchise Relocation
c. Restrictions on Intellectual Property Rights Licensing and Sales
D. Application of Sherman Act §2
Problem 11-2

Chapter 12: Professional Sports Labor Law and Labor Relations

18
Introduction
Contract Law
Questions
Problem 12-1
Labor Law
A. Collective Bargaining in the Professional Sports Industries
B. Professional Team Sports Drug-Testing Programs
Questions
Problem 12-2
C. Unfair Labor Practices
1. League Interference with Players’ Rights to Unionize
2. League Refusal to Recognize Union as Exclusive Bargaining Representative
3. Retaliation Against Union Activists
4. Breach of Duty to Bargain in Good Faith or Provide Relevant Information
Concerning Mandatory Subjects of Collective Bargaining
Silverman v. Major League Baseball Player Relations Committee, Inc. (Silverman I)
Note
5. Discrimination Against Striking Players
Questions
D. Union’s Duty of Fair Representation
E. Labor Arbitration
National & American League Professional Baseball Clubs v. Major League Baseball
Players Association
Notes
The Intersection of Antitrust and Labor Law
Questions

Chapter 13: Representing Players and Teams: The Athlete-Agent Industry

The Nature of the Athlete-Agent Relationship

A. The Agent’s Basic Duties
B. The Agent’s Standard of Care
Zinn v. Parrish
Questions
C. Agent Financial Improprieties
Questions

19
 Problem 13-1
D. Agent Conflicts of Interest with Athletes
The Detroit Lions, Inc. v. Argovitz
Questions
Problem 13-2
Competition for Clients: Conflicts Between Agents
A. Introduction
B. Consolidation
C. Termination
NFLPA Standard Representation Agreement
D. Disparagement
E. What Is Permissible Competition?
Questions
F. The Issue of Race
Question
An International Perspective
External Regulation and Legislation
A. Federal Legislation
1. SPARTA
2. General Federal Laws
Questions
B. State Regulation: The UAAA
Uniform Athlete Agents Act (2000)
Problem 13-3
C. Players Associations
1. Authority to Regulate
Question
2. Regulating the Athlete-Agent Relationship
a. Sanctions: Suspensions and Decertification
b. Fees/Agent Compensation
c. NFLPA Amendments
d. MLBPA Amendments
e. Excerpts of Players Association and NCAA Regulations
NFLPA Regulations Governing Contract Advisors
Questions
NCAA Bylaw, Article 12

20
 Problem 13-4

Chapter 14: Olympic and International Sports Issues

Introduction
A. Origin, History, and Objectives of the Olympic Games
B. Organization, Governance, and Structure of the Olympic Movement
Regulation of Olympic Sports Within the United States
Question
Limits on the Use of National Law to Regulate Olympic and International Athletic
Competition
Question
Problem 14-1
Court of Arbitration for Sport
A. Overview
B. Disputed Competition Results
Yang Tae Young v. International Gymnastics Federation
Note
Problem 14-2
C. Doping Violations and Sanctions
1. Strict Liability Standard, Clear Notice Requirements, and Proportionate Sanctions
Question
2. Interpretation and Application of the World Anti-Doping Code
Guillermo Cañas v. ATP Tour
Questions
Notes
Developing International Issues
Notes

Glossary
Table of Cases
Index

21
 Preface

Second Edition

To provide users of our book with the most current and comprehensive sports law and
governance text available, we have revised and updated the second edition of our book to
include discussions of the most recent legal and governance developments affecting youth,
interscholastic, intercollegiate, Olympic, and professional sports that have occurred since
our first edition was published in 2012. The sports industry, at all levels, has experienced
significant and rapid change in that time period. That change is captured in this text. This
edition includes a number of recent legal decisions and new materials regarding
developments in governance that reflect the increasing complexity of problems arising in
the sports industry. This edition, therefore, includes materials reflecting changes in
governance at the professional level (e.g., issues like “Deflategate” and governance within
the National Football League (NFL)) and the new governance structure of the National
Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). We have updated historical sections of the book as
well, to give students a feel for the magnitude of those changes. The Second Edition also
includes refined problems and notes that are designed to encourage students to wrestle with
the kinds of legal and governance problems that are arising and will hereafter arise within
the industry. With input from thoughtful users of the First Edition, we have been able to
add new material without unduly expanding the length of the text. As such, the text can
still be effectively used in either a two- or three-credit course. With users’ comments and
based on our own use of the text, we have reorganized and, where necessary, consolidated
materials. We trust that you will find this Second Edition to be an excellent text for the
study of sports law and governance. We welcome your continuing comments regarding the
text. Please feel free to contact any of us with your comments and suggestions for
improving the book: Matt Mitten ([email protected]), Tim Davis
([email protected]), Barbara Osborne ([email protected]), Ken Shropshire
([email protected]), and Rod Smith ([email protected]).

First Edition

This book, which is adapted from three of the authors’ widely used law school text, is
designed to introduce undergraduate and graduate students to the various and often
differing legal frameworks regulating high school, college, professional, and Olympic sports
competition along with important, contemporary topics such as gender and racial equity;
health, safety, and risk management; and intellectual property issues in sports. It provides
an overview of the significant historical, economic, and sociological issues affecting the

22
development of the laws regulating sports at each level of competition, as well as common
sports-related legal issues. The book, which is intended for use as the text in either a two- or
three-credit-hour undergraduate or graduate sports law course in sports management or
other program, covers a wide variety of contemporary sports law issues of interest to future
sports administrators, executives, and business managers, as well as coaches and other sports
industry personnel. It has been carefully designed and written to provide undergraduate
and graduate professors and students with a comprehensive, multipurpose text that gives a
balanced perspective regarding a multitude of legal and regulatory issues that frequently
arise in interscholastic, intercollegiate, professional, and Olympic sports industries.
This book begins by providing an introduction to the study of sports law and a brief
overview of the U.S. legal system, as well as guidance on how to effectively use the case
method to facilitate and enhance learning. In Chapters 2–4, 11–12, and 14, the book
covers the internal governance systems for high school, college, professional, and Olympic
sports, respectively. These chapters also cover the primary bodies of public law (e.g., private
association, constitutional, antitrust, and labor law) that shape, regulate, and constrain each
internal governance system. The remaining chapters cover various topics raising legal issues
of significance in more than one of the amateur or professional sports industries: coaches’
contracts (Chapter 10); gender equity (Chapter 5); racial equity (Chapter 6); health, safety,
and risk management (Chapter 7); and intellectual property (Chapter 9).
This text uses the case method, which involves the study of illustrative legal disputes
resolved by courts through the litigation process, and establishes a body of legal precedent
regulating various aspects of the sports industry. This method of learning is designed to
encourage students to engage in critical thinking by identifying the legal issues in each case,
the parties’ respective arguments, and the court’s ruling and rationale for its decision. It
stimulates the development of a dialogue between the professor and students (and
frequently among students as well). It also facilitates students’ understanding of the laws
regulating the sports industry. In addition to the illustrative cases (which have been edited
substantially), each chapter provides explanatory material, notes, questions, and review
problems designed to enable students to understand how basic legal doctrines apply to
problems arising in the sports context. Ideally, students can then use this knowledge to
identify sports industry legal issues and to understand how they are likely to be resolved.
In addition to helping students develop an understanding of the legal framework
regulating high school, college, professional, and Olympic sports and other sports-related
legal issues, a sports law course provides several important educational benefits. It exposes
students (some of whom may be considering law school) to several different bodies of law
and provides them with a general understanding of numerous laws—knowledge that may
be useful in future careers other than in the sports industry. In addition, sports law deals
with broader issues that merit deeper study and reflection, such as the role of sports in our
culture and whether current laws effectively promote appropriate, ethical, and just practices
and behavior in the amateur and professional sports industries. We hope that our book
encourages thoughtful consideration of these and other important sports-related issues.

23
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Second Edition

Professor Mitten thanks Lori Shaw (Marquette Law School Class of 2016) for her helpful
review of and comments on various chapters and the glossary.
Professor Davis thanks Wake Forest University School of Law for its generous research
support and Alan Bowie (Wake Forest School of Law Class of 2017) for his assistance.
Professor Osborne thanks the University of North Carolina Law School for providing
research support and UNC law students Tyler O’Hara and Anna Finger for their research
assistance.
Professor Smith thanks Dean Douglas Sylvester for his continuing support, and Devin
Tarwater (Sandra Day O’Connor College of Law at Arizona State University 2015) and
Krizia Verplancke and Blake Wilkie (Sandra Day O’Connor College of Law 2016 and
2017, respectively). He also thanks students J. Leigh Hawley and Jon Drago for their
helpful review during the production process.

First Edition

Professor Mitten thanks Erica Reib (Marquette Law 2011) for her helpful review of and
comments on various draft chapters and Chris Kaminski (Marquette Law 2013) for his
assistance in preparing the glossary.
Professor Davis thanks Wake Forest University School of Law for its generous research
support and the following Wake Forest students for their research assistance: Justin Bell,
Thailer Buari, and Nathan Harrill.
Professor Shropshire wishes to thank students who recently participated in his sports
law course at Penn for their helpful comments.
Professor Osborne thanks the University of North Carolina Law School for providing
research support and UNC law student Scott Holder for his research assistance.
Professor Smith appreciates the support offered by Dean Rudy Hasl and Associate
Dean Eric J. Mitnik.
We also thank the following reviewers, whose insightful comments helped shape this
text: Jan Blade, Delaware State University; Sandra Defebaugh, Eastern Michigan
University; Gil Fried, University of New Haven; Michael Gentile, Niagara University;
Richard Hunter, Seton Hall University; Paul Klein, Duquesne University; William
Nowlan, Lasell College; Marissa Pollick, University of Michigan; Jessie C. Roberson, Ohio
University; and Ellen M. Zavian, George Washington University.

Matthew J. Mitten
Timothy Davis

24
 Rodney K. Smith
Kenneth L. Shropshire
Barbara Osborne
December 2015

25
Should sports law be recognized as an independent substantive area of the law such as torts,
contracts, or employment law? As the following excerpt reveals, scholars have debated this
question.

WHAT IS SPORTS LAW?1

A. The Traditional View: “Sports Law’’ Does Not Exist

The traditional view is that sports law represents nothing more than an amalgamation of
various substantive areas of the law that are relevant in the sports context. According to this
perspective, the term sports law is a misnomer, given that sport represents a form of activity
and entertainment that is governed by the legal system in its entirety. Adherents to the
traditional perspective argue that ‘‘sports law simply entails the application of basic legal
precepts to a specific industry’’ that are drawn from other substantive areas of the law.
Consequently, no separately identifiable body of law exists that can be characterized as
sports law.

B. The Moderate Position: ‘‘Sports Law’’ May Develop into a Field of Law

Other commentators have begun increasingly to question the traditional view that no
corpus of law exists that can be characterized as an independent field of law called “sports
law” .… [Some] have staked out what represents a middle ground. Professor Kenneth
Shropshire acknowledges that developments, such as state and federal legislation impacting
sports (for example, state statutes regulating sports agents, and federal statutes such as Title
IX), suggest a ‘‘growing sports-only corpus” of law.
Professor Burlette Carter argues that sports law is in the midst of an exciting, yet
challenging, transformative process. According to Professor Carter, this process parallels the
increased focus by law schools on sports and the growing significance of sports regulation to
participants, organizations, and communities. She believes that these developments will
better shape the contours of this emerging field of study. This, in turn, will eventually
transform sports law from ‘‘a course without a corpus’’ to a widely recognized independent

26
substantive area of law.

C. ‘‘Sports Law’’: A Separate Field of Law

Others argue that sports law currently exists as a field of law. Adherents to this view
emphasize the growing body of case and statutory law specific to the sports industry as
evidence of the existence of a separately identifiable body of law. Pointing to the increasing
body of judicial and legislative law specific to sports, Professor [Simone] Gardiner argues:
It is true to say that [sports law] is largely an amalgam of interrelated legal disciplines involving such areas as
contract, taxation, employment, competition and criminal law but dedicated legislation and case law has
developed and will continue to do so. As an area of academic study and extensive practitioner involvement,
the time is right to accept that a new legal area has been born—sports law.

Commentators also propose that references to sports law as merely an amalgamation

of various other substantive areas of the law ignore an important present-day reality—very
few substantive areas of the law fit into separate categories that are divorced from, and
independent of, other substantive areas of the law. Doctrinal overlap exists not only within
sports law, but within other areas of law as well. According to Professor Carter, ‘‘the field of
sports law has moved beyond the traditional antitrust and labor law boundaries into sports
representation and legal ethics, sports and corporate structure, sports and disability, sports
and race, sports and gender, sports and taxation, international issues in sports law, and
numerous other permutations.’’
Proponents of the sports law designation and those sympathetic to the view also argue
that reticence to recognize sports law as a specific body of law may reflect attitudes
regarding the intellectual seriousness of sports. In this regard, they emphasize the tendency
to marginalize the study of sports rather than treat it as any other form of business. The
intellectual marginalization of sport has been attributed, in part, to the belief that social
relations extant in sports were not deemed proper subjects for reconstruction into legal
relationships. Thus, private and public law were considered ‘‘inappropriate [mechanisms
for] controlling the social norms of sport.’’ The competing and increasingly predominant
view, however, casts sports as a significant economic activity suitable, like other big
businesses, to regulation, whether it be internal or external.
In the end, whether sports law is recognized as an independent field of law may turn
on the perceptions of those who practice, teach, and engage in scholarship related to sports
law. Professor Carter asks that we consider the following:
But what makes a field a field? The answer is that a field becomes a field not because it is inherently so but
because in our public legal dealings we shape it as such, defining the concepts and legal norms that will
prevail uniquely in that context. It becomes a field because enough people with power on all sides are so
affected by it to require some special treatment of it in the law.

Regardless of the position that is adopted regarding the ‘‘what is sports law’’ debate, most
would agree that matters arising in the sports law context implicate diverse substantive areas
of law. Whether or not sports law is a separate field of law, a reflection of substantive law
related to the sports industry, or some combination, the vast array of substantive legal

27
topics presented in a basic Sports Law course can sometimes prove surprisingly challenging.
To enjoy and ultimately excel in this area, it will be helpful for you to have an introduction
to legal basics.
Sports law involves both public and private law. Public law can be broadly described
as the law that governs the relationships between the government and individuals, as well as
the relationships between individuals that directly affect society. Constitutional law,
administrative law, and criminal law are areas of public law that intersect with sports law.
Private law governs the relationships between individuals (or corporations); sports law
applications include contracts, torts, and the law of private associations. However, you will
learn that distinctions in law are rarely clear. Public and private law often intersect in areas
such as labor and antitrust. For undergraduate and graduate students interested in working
in some capacity in the amateur or professional sports industries, this introduction will help
you better understand the legal landscape and will aid you in your work with lawyers, who
should be consulted whenever you deal with legal issues.

FUNDAMENTALS OF THE LEGAL SYSTEM

The United States has a federalist government, which means power is shared between the
national and state (and local) governments. The basic operating principles for the federal
and state governments are embodied in the Constitution. The federal Constitution
identifies the fundamental rights of citizens of the United States and delineates limits on
the government’s ability to interfere with those rights. The federal Constitution applies to
all states, and is preeminent; states may grant additional rights, but they may not limit
rights that the federal Constitution guarantees. Constitutional cases are based on the
interpretation of state constitutions or the federal Constitution. Federal laws that are
inconsistent with the U.S. Constitution are invalid—in our legal hierarchy, constitutional
provisions are the most significant. That is what is meant when it is said that the U.S.
Constitution is the law of the land. State laws that are inconsistent with the state or federal
constitutions are also held to be unconstitutional and invalid.
The foundation of the federal government is based upon a balance of power between
the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. Each of these branches is a source of law.
The executive branch is the President of the United States. The President is ultimately
responsible for implementing and enforcing federal laws, through executive orders and
through the regulations set forth by the administrative agencies. For example, the U.S.
Department of Education promulgates Title IX regulations dealing with gender
discrimination under the auspices of administrative legal authority that provides part of the
substantive basis of sports law. The President also appoints the heads of the federal
agencies, who also serve on the President’s cabinet.
The legislative branch is responsible for writing, debating, and passing bills.
Demonstrating balance of power, bills only become law when the President has signed
them. If the President vetoes a bill, Congress has the ability to vote to override the veto.

28
 The role of the judicial branch is to interpret the Constitution or legislation. Balance
of power is demonstrated through judicial interpretation of legislation (statutes) or
regulations (regulatory materials developed by administrative or regulatory bodies). In these
instances, judicial decisions often involve interpreting or determining the applicability and
reach of a given regulation or piece of legislation. The judiciary also creates law, known as
the common law, through the precedent established in case decisions. The concepts of
common law and precedent will be discussed later in this chapter.
State governments are organized similarly. The state constitution embodies the
principles upon which the state government operates. Balance of power exists within each
state, with the governor of each state representing the executive branch and enforcing the
law, state representatives to the legislature who enact the law, and the state (and local)
judiciary interprets the law.
There are also local and regulatory decision-making bodies that make law. County
governments and school districts, for example, regularly promulgate laws that may provide
the grist for a decision in the sports area. High school and collegiate athletic associations
may also pass and enforce regulations that provide the basis for decisions in the sports law
area.

JURISDICTION AND THE FEDERAL AND STATE COURT SYSTEMS

In the United States, there are two dominant court systems—the federal courts and the
state courts. Jurisdiction is the power of the court to hear and determine the outcome of a
case. A court establishes this power because of the subject matter of the case or the parties
who are involved. Subject matter jurisdiction refers to the particular category of the case,
for example, a dispute involving land or the right to use a corporate logo. Personal
jurisdiction refers to the court’s power over the various parties to the case. Cases in the
federal court system or the state courts may involve civil law or criminal law. Disputes
between public or private parties are civil law matters which are decided on a
preponderance of the evidence standard. Criminal law involves acts that are harmful to
society as a whole, so the government represents the people in putting forward a case
against a criminal defendant. The government must prove that the defendant committed
the crime beyond a reasonable doubt.
Broadly too, particularly in sports law-related cases, parties will seek remedies in “law”
or “equity.” A remedy at law is primarily one where money damages are sought as a means
of compensating the injured party. For example, if a coach feels that he or she is owed an
additional salary payment, money would resolve that issue and constitute a remedy at law.
However, if a team wanted to retain a coach with special skills or keep him or her from
coaching for another team, that would require an equitable remedy, including a court’s
issuance of an order of specific performance or an injunction. Specific performance would
be an order for the coach to continue coaching, and the injunction would bar the coach
from coaching another team.

29
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