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Contents

Preface xv
Acknowledgments xx
About the Author xxi

1 The Study of Gender 1

Headline: “The End of Men,” Atlantic Monthly, July/August, 2010 1
History of the Study of Sex Differences in Psychology 3
The Study of Individual Differences 4
Psychoanalysis 4
The Development of Women’s Studies 6
The History of Feminist Movements 6
Sex or Gender? 9
Women in Psychology 10
The Appearance of the Men’s Movement 12
Considering Diversity 15
Summary 17
Glossary 18
Suggested Readings 18
Suggested Websites 19
References 19

2 Researching Sex and Gender 22

Headline: “Does Gender Matter?” Nature, July 13, 2006 22
How Science Developed 22
Approaches to Research 24
Quantitative Research Methods 24
Experimental Designs 25
Ex Post Facto Studies 26
Surveys 27
Correlational Studies 28
Qualitative Research Methods 29
Interviews 29
Ethnography 30
Focus Groups 30
viii Contents
Researchers’ Choices 31
Gender Bias in Research 32
Sources of Bias 32
Ways to Deal with Bias in Science 37
Advocating Transformation 38
Decreasing Bias 39
Summary 40
Glossary 41
Suggested Readings 42
Suggested Websites 42
References 42

3 Gender Stereotypes: Masculinity and Femininity 46

Headline: “Gender Stereotypes Don’t Die Easily” Vancouver Sun, June 27, 2013 46
History of Stereotypes of Women and Men 46
The Cult of True Womanhood 47
Masculinities 48
Conceptualizing and Measuring Masculinity and Femininity 50
Explicit Measures of Stereotyping 50
Implicit Measures of Stereotyping 52
The Process and Implications of Stereotyping 53
Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination 53
Perceptions of Women and Men 54
Stereotypes over the Lifespan 59
Negative Effects of Stereotyping 61
Stereotype Threat 61
Benevolent Sexism 64
Considering Diversity 65
Summary 68
Glossary 69
Suggested Readings 69
Suggested Websites 70
References 70

4 Hormones and Chromosomes 77

Headline: “Venus and Mars Collide” New Scientist, March 5, 2011 77
The Endocrine System and Steroid Hormones 77
Sexual Differentiation 79
Chromosomes 79
Prenatal Development of Male and Female Physiology 79
The Reproductive Organs 79
The Nervous System 82
Changes during Puberty 83
Changes during Adulthood 85
Variations in Sexual Development 86
 Contents ix
Variations in Number of Sex Chromosomes 86
Problems Related to Prenatal Hormone Exposure 88
Hormones and Behavior Instability 90
Premenstrual Syndrome 90
Testosterone and Aggression 96
Considering Diversity 99
Summary 100
Glossary 102
Suggested Readings 103
Suggested Websites 103
References 103

5 Theories of Gender Development 109

Headline: “Code Pink” Mother Jones, September/October, 2009 109
The Psychodynamic Approach to Gender Development 110
Freud’s View of Gender Identity Development 110
Horney’s Theory of Gender 111
Contemporary Psychodynamic Theories of Gender Development 113
Chodorow’s Emphasis on Mothering 113
Kaschak’s Antigone Phase 115
Social Learning Theory and Gender 116
Cognitive Theories of Gender Development 123
Cognitive Developmental Theory 123
Gender Schema Theory 126
Which Theory is Best? 127
Summary 130
Glossary 131
Suggested Readings 131
Suggested Websites 132
References 132

6 Developing Gender Identity 136

Headline: “A Boy’s Life” The Atlantic, November 2008 136
Gender Identity Development 136
Development during Childhood 137
The Sequence of Childhood Gender Role Development 138
Differences between Girls and Boys 140
Later Development 141
Influences on Gender Identity Development 145
Biological Factors and Gender Development 145
Family Environment and Gender Development 148
Peers and Gender Development 151
The Media and Gender Development 152
Gender Bias in the Media 153
Children and Media 155
x Contents
Considering Diversity 157
Summary 159
Glossary 160
Suggested Readings 160
Suggested Websites 161
References 161

7 Intelligence and Cognitive Abilities 170

Headline: “Is the Female of the Species Really More Intelligent Than the Male?”
The Telegraph, July 17, 2012 170
Cognitive Abilities 170
Verbal Performance 173
Mathematical and Quantitative Performance 174
Spatial Performance 178
Other Cognitive Abilities 182
Source of the Differences 186
Biological Evidence for Gender Differences in Cognitive Abilities 186
Evidence for Other Sources of Gender Differences 188
Implications of Gender-Related Differences 189
Considering Diversity 191
Summary 192
Glossary 193
Suggested Readings 193
Suggested Websites 193
References 194

8 Emotion 201
Headline: “Do Get Mad” New Scientist, February 9, 2013 201
Gender in the Experience and Expression of Emotion 201
The Myth of Maternal Instinct 204
Maternal Deprivation and Its Consequences for Nurturing 204
Gender and Caring for Children 206
The Prominence of Male Aggression 209
Anger and Aggression 210
Developmental Gender Differences in Aggression 211
Gender and Aggression during Adulthood 214
Gender and Crime 215
Sexual Violence 219
Expressivity and Emotion 222
Considering Diversity 224
Summary 225
Glossary 226
Suggested Readings 227
Suggested Websites 227
References 227
 Contents xi
9 Relationships 235
Headline: “The New Rules of Dating” Men’s Fitness, February, 2013 235
Friendships 236
Development of Styles 236
Friendships over the Lifespan 239
Flexibility of Styles 242
Love Relationships 243
Dating 244
Marriage and Committed Relationships 247
Concepts of Love and Marriage 250
Communication between Partners 252
Balance of Power 253
Division of Household Labor 255
Conflict and Violence 257
Stability of Relationships 259
Dissolving Relationships 261
Considering Diversity 265
Summary 267
Glossary 268
Suggested Readings 268
Suggested Websites 269
References 269

10 Sexuality 280
Headline: “How to End to War over Sex Ed,” Time Atlantic, April 6, 2009 280
The Study of Sexuality 281
Sex Surveys 281
The Kinsey Surveys 281
Hunt’s Playboy Foundation Survey 284
The National Health and Social Life Survey 285
National Survey of Sexual Health and Behavior 285
Gender Differences (and Similarities) in Sexual Attitudes and Behavior 286
Masters and Johnson’s Approach 289
Childhood Sexuality: Exploration and Abuse 290
Heterosexuality 294
During Adolescence 295
During Adulthood 298
Homosexuality 303
During Adolescence 306
During Adulthood 308
Bisexuality 311
Considering Diversity 312
Summary 313
Glossary 315
Suggested Readings 315
xii Contents
Suggested Websites 316
References 316

11 School 324
Headline: “The Target,” Vanity Fair, April, 2013 324
The School Experience 324
Early Schooling 326
Changes during Middle School 328
High School 330
College and Professional School 335
Achievement 340
Achievement Motivation 340
Fear of Success 341
Self-Esteem and Self-Confidence 341
Attributions for Success and Failure 344
Considering Diversity 345
Summary 347
Glossary 349
Suggested Readings 349
Suggested Websites 349
References 349

12 Careers and Work 355

Headline: “You’ve Come a Long Way, Baby,” Canadian Business, October 13, 2013 355
Careers 355
Career Expectations and Gender Stereotyping 357
Career Opportunities 359
Discrimination in Hiring 360
Barriers to Career Advancement 363
Balancing Career and Family 367
Gender Issues at Work 369
Gender Segregation on the Job 369
Gender, Communication, and Power in the Workplace 371
Sexual Harassment at Work 373
Considering Diversity 377
Summary 380
Glossary 381
Suggested Readings 382
Suggested Websites 382
References 382

13 Health and Fitness 390

Headline: “Ladies Last,” National Geographic, April, 2013 390
Mortality: No Equal Opportunity 390
Cardiovascular Disease 391
 Contents xiii
Cancer 393
Violent Deaths 395
The Health Care System 398
Gender Roles and Health Care 398
Gender and Seeking Health Care 398
Gender and Receiving Health Care 399
Reproductive Health 402
Gender and Healthy Aging 405
Gender, Lifestyle, and Health 407
Eating 408
Body Image 409
Eating Disorders 412
Exercise and Fitness 413
Considering Diversity 415
Summary 418
Glossary 420
Suggested Readings 420
Suggested Websites 421
References 421

14 Stress, Coping, and Psychopathology 429

Headline: “White Men Have Less Life Stress, But Are More Prone to Depression
Because of It,” Huffington Post, September 23, 2015 429
Stress and Coping 429
Sources of Stress for Men and Women 429
Family Roles 430
Violence 432
Discrimination 433
Poverty 434
Coping Resources and Strategies 435
Social Support 436
Coping Strategies 437
Diagnoses of Mental Disorders 439
The DSM Classification System 439
Gender Inequity in the Diagnosis of Mental Disorders 440
Gender Comparisons in Psychopathology 443
Depression 444
Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders 447
Anxiety Disorders 449
Other Disorders 450
Considering Diversity 454
Summary 456
Glossary 457
Suggested Readings 458
Suggested Websites 458
References 459
xiv Contents
15 Treatment for Mental Disorders 468
Headline: “Colorado Launches Man Therapy to Break Down Mental
Health Stigmas” Nation’s Health, October 2012 468
Approaches to Therapy 468
Psychoanalysis 468
Humanistic Therapy 469
Cognitive Therapy 470
Behavior Modification 471
Medical Therapies 472
Accusations of Gender Bias in Therapy 473
Gender Issues in Therapy 475
Feminist Therapy 475
Principles of Feminist Therapy 476
Clients of Feminist Therapy 477
Therapy with Men 478
Gender-Sensitive Therapies 479
Sexual Exploitation in Therapy 481
The Self-Help Movement 484
Online Support Groups 486
Gender Issues in Self-Help 487
Considering Diversity 488
Summary 490
Glossary 491
Suggested Readings 491
Suggested Websites 492
References 492

16 How Different? 499

Headline: “Signs of Détente in the Battle between Venus and Mars,”
New York Times, May 31, 2007 499
What do Women Want? What do Men Want? 499
Have Women Become More Like Men? 499
Why Can’t a Man Be More Like a Woman? 504
Multiple Roles Have Become the Rule 506
Where Are the Differences? 509
Differences in Ability 510
Differences in Choices 512
Is a Peace Plan Possible? 514
Summary 515
Glossary 516
Suggested Readings 516
Suggested Websites 517
References 517

Index 521
Preface

This book examines the topic of gender—the behaviors and attitudes that relate to (but
are not the same as) biological sex. A large and growing body of research on sex, gender,
and gender-related behaviors has come from psychology, sociology, biology, biochemistry,
neurology, and anthropology. This research and scholarship form the basis for this book,
providing the material for a critical review and an attempt to generate an overall picture of
gender from a psychological perspective.

The Topic of Gender

A critical review of gender research is important for several reasons. First, gender is currently
a “hot topic,” and almost everyone has an opinion. These opinions are not usually based on
research. Most people are not familiar with research findings; they simply know their own
opinions. People’s personal experiences influence their opinions, but the media cultivate a
view of gender through stories and depictions in the movies, on television entertainment and
news programs, and in other media. Based on these portrayals, people create images about
how they believe women and men should be and attempt to re-create these images in their
own lives. This personal reproduction of gender portrayals in the media is another example
of what Candace West and Don Zimmerman (1987) described as “doing gender.”
In Gender: Psychological Perspectives, I present findings from gender researchers, although
the picture is neither simple nor complete. Research findings are complex and sometimes
contradictory, but the volume of research over the past 50 years has yielded sufficient research
to obtain clarity in some areas, whereas other areas are not yet so clear. I believe that it is
important to understand this research rather than draw conclusions based on only personal
opinions and popular media portrayals.
Second, despite the bias and controversy that have surrounded the research process,
research is a valuable way to understand gender. Although scientific research is supposed
to be objective and free of personal bias, this idealistic notion often varies from the actual
research process. Gender research in particular has been plagued with personal bias. Despite
the potential for bias in the research process, I believe that research is the most productive
way to approach the evaluation of a topic. Others disagree with this view, including some
who are interested in gender-related topics. A number of scholars, especially feminist schol-
ars, have rejected scientific research as the best way to learn about gender.
Although I agree that science has not treated women equitably, either as researchers or
as participants in research, I still believe that science offers the best chance for a fuller
understanding of gender (as well as of many other topics). Although some scholars disagree,
I believe that science can further the goal of equity. I agree with Janet Shibley Hyde and
Kristen Kling (2001, p. 369) who said, “An important task of feminist psychology is to
challenge stereotypic ideas about gender and test the stereotypes against data.” My goals
xvi Preface
are consistent with that view—to examine what gender researchers have found and how
they have interpreted their findings. By doing so, I hope to accomplish one of the goals that
Meredith Cherland (2008) mentioned for those who teach about gender: “unsettling their
students’ collective views of the world and their sense of life’s inevitability” (p. 273). I believe
that the research on gender has that potential.
The book’s emphasis on gender is similar to another approach to studying gender—
through examining the psychology of women. The psychology-of-women approach concen-
trates on women and issues unique to women, whereas the gender approach focuses on the
issue of gender as a factor in behavior and in the social context in which behavior occurs.
Gender research and theory draw heavily from research on the psychology of women, but
the emphasis differs.
By emphasizing women and their experience, the psychology-of-women approach often
excludes men, but gender research cannot. Studying both women and men is essential to an
understanding of gender. Researchers who are interested in gender issues may concentrate on
women or men, but they must consider both, or their research reveals nothing about gender.
Therefore, this seventh edition of Gender: Psychological Perspectives examines the research
and theory from psychology and related fields in order to evaluate the behavior, biology, and
social context in which both women and men function.
The gender approach also reflects my personal preferences: I want a psychology of women
and men. When I was completing the first edition of this book, I attended a conference
session on creating a course on psychology of women. Several instructors who had created
such courses led a discussion about obtaining institutional approval and the challenges they
had encountered, including resistance from administrators (who were mostly men) concern-
ing a course in which the enrollment would be mostly women. One of the group advised
trying for approval of a course on gender if obtaining approval for a psychology of women
course was not successful. The implication was that the topic of gender included men and
would be more acceptable but less desirable. I disagreed. I wanted men to be included—in
the research, in my book, and in my classes. This preference comes from the belief that both
women and men are required in order to consider and discuss gender issues. I prefer the
gender approach, and I wanted this book to reflect that attitude. As R. W. (now Raewyn)
Connell (2005) has discussed, women’s efforts for change will not succeed completely with-
out men’s support and assistance. Men must participate to create gender equity for everyone.
My interest in gender comes from two sources—my research and my experience as a
female psychologist. The research that prompted me to examine gender issues more carefully
was work on risk perception related to health problems. I was interested in investigating
people’s perceptions of the health risks created by their behavior, such as the perceptions of
health risks in smokers versus nonsmokers. In this research, I found that women and men
saw their behaviors and risks in similar ways, even when the actual level of health risks dif-
fered quite a bit for men and women. My research showed gender similarities rather than
gender differences.
In examining the volume of research on gender-related attitudes and behaviors, I dis-
covered that many other researchers’ findings were similar to mine—more similarities than
differences. When differences appeared, many were small. I came to doubt the widespread
belief that men and women are opposites. Rather, the evidence indicated that women and
men are more similar than different. With the focus on differences, this view was not often
voiced. Recently, this view has become more prominent. Concentrating on research find-
ings rather than stereotypes or media portrayals, psychologists have come to conclusions of
gender similarities rather than differences. Janet Shibley Hyde (2005) has proposed a gender
similarities hypothesis rather than one of gender differences, and Rosalind Barnett and Caryl
Rivers (2004) have summarized this view as Same Difference.
 Preface xvii
As a female psychologist, I was forced to attend to gender issues from the outset of my
career. Sexism and discrimination were part of the context in which I received my professional
training and in which I have pursued my career as a psychologist. Women were a small minor-
ity in the field during my early years in psychology, but the numbers have since increased so
that now women receive over half the doctoral degrees granted each year in psychology. This
increase and several antidiscrimination laws have produced some improvements in equitable
treatment for women in psychology (as well as in other professions and in society in general).
The psychology-of-women approach came from the women in psychology during the
feminist movement of the 1960s. Most of the women in psychology have not been directly
involved in the psychology of women, and some are not feminists, but the presence of a
growing proportion of women has changed psychology, making a psychology of gender not
only possible but also, I think, inevitable.

Gendered Voices
Although I believe that research is a good way to understand behavior, including gender-
related behavior, I accept the value of other approaches, including personal accounts. In
traditional quantitative research, the data consist of numbers, and each participant’s experi-
ence is lost in the transformation to numerical data and the statistical compilations of these
data. Personal accounts and interviews do not lead to a comfortable blurring of the results.
Rather, each person’s account is sharply depicted, with no averaging to blunt the edges of
the story. Louise Kidder (1994) contended that one of the drawbacks of personal accounts
is the vividness of the data generated by reports of personal experience. I thought that such
accounts could be an advantage.
The text of Gender: Psychological Perspectives consists of an evaluation of research findings—
exactly the sort of information that people may find difficult to relate to their lives. I decided
that I also wanted to include some personal, narrative accounts of gender-relevant aspects of
people’s lives, and I wanted these accounts to connect to the research studies. The perils of
vividness seemed small compared to the advantages. I believe that people’s personal experi-
ences are distilled in statistical research, but I also know that a lot of the interesting details
are lost in the process.
These “Gendered Voices” narratives are my attempt to restore some of the details lost in
statistical summaries, allowing men and women to tell about their personal experiences.
Telling these stories separate from the text was an alternative to presenting information
about gender and highlighting the relevance of research findings with vivid detail. Some
of the stories are funny, showing a light-hearted approach to dealing with the frustrations
and annoyances of discrimination and gender bias. Some of the stories are sad, revealing
experiences of sexual harassment, violence, and abuse. All of the stories are real accounts,
not fictional tales constructed as good examples. When the stories are based on published
sources, I name the people presenting their experience. For other stories, I have chosen not
to name those involved to protect their privacy. I listened to my friends and students talk
about gender issues and wrote down what they told me, trying to report what they said in
their own words. I hope that these stories give a different perspective and add a sense of
gendered experience to the volume of research reported here.

Headlines
Long before I thought of writing a book about gender, I noticed the popularity of the topic
in the media. Not only are the sexes the topic of many private and public debates, but gender
differences are also the topic of many newspaper, magazine, and television stories, ranging
xviii Preface
from sitcoms to scientific reporting. I had read warnings about the media’s tendencies to
oversimplify research findings and to “punch up” the findings to make the story grab people’s
attention. I wanted to examine the research on gender to try to understand what the research
says, with all of its complexities, and to present the media version along with an analysis of
the research findings.
Of particular concern to me was the tendency of the media and of people who hear
reports of gender research to seek (or assume) a biological basis for the behavioral differences
between the sexes, as though evidence of biologically based differences would be more “real”
than any other type of evidence. The division of the biological realm from the behavioral
realm is a false dichotomy; the two are intertwined and mutually influence each other. Even
genes can be altered by environment, and experiences can produce changes in behavior as
permanent as any produced by physiology. Many people hold the view that biological dif-
ferences are real and permanent, whereas experience and culture produce only transient and
changeable effects. This view is incorrect.
The tendency to seek a biological explanation is strong and appealing to many. As Naomi
Weisstein (1982) said, “Biology has always been used as a curse against women” (p. 41),
which has led many scholars to minimize the focus on biology. However, this book exam-
ines biological evidence in some detail because I want to present and evaluate this research
rather than ignore it. I want readers to question the extent to which the biological “curse”
should apply.
To further highlight the popular conceptualizations of gender, I decided to use headlines
from newspapers and popular magazines as a way to illustrate how the media represent
gender. Some of the headline stories are examples of responsible journalism that seeks to
present research in a way that is easy to understand, whereas other headline stories are more
sensational or simplified.
The sensationalism occurs because such stories get attention, but the stories distort research
findings and perpetuate stereotypical thinking about the sexes. I believe that Beryl Lieff
Benderly (1989), a science reporter, was correct when she warned about media sensational-
ism of gender research by writing the headline “Don’t believe everything you read” (p. 67).

According to the Media and According to the Research

In addition to gender in the headlines, I have included two boxed features called “Accord-
ing to the Media” and “According to the Research” that concentrate on gender portrayals in
the media. According to the Media boxes examine how gender is portrayed in the various
media—magazines, television, movies, video games, Internet sources, cartoons, and fiction.
The corresponding According to the Research boxes provide research findings as a more
systematic counterpoint to the media topics. The contrast of these two presentations pro-
vides an opportunity to examine gender bias and stereotyping in the media. I hope these
features lead students to question and think critically about the accuracy and fairness of the
thousands of gendered images that they experience through the media.

Considering Diversity
The history of psychology is not filled with a concern for diversity or an emphasis on diver-
sity issues, but these topics are of increasing interest and concern within psychology. Indeed,
gender research is one of the major contributors to the growing diversity in psychology. In
addition, cross-cultural research has flourished and continues to expand in countries around
the world. This research has begun to provide a more comprehensive picture of psychological
issues in contexts beyond ethnic groups within the United States.
 Preface xix
To highlight this developing research and tie it to gender issues, this edition of Gender:
Psychological Perspectives includes a section in most chapters called “Considering Diversity,”
which focuses on diversity research. Although diversity issues enter the text at many other
points in the book, the creation of a section to highlight diversity ensures attention to these
important issues. In some chapters, the research is sufficiently developed to present a cross-
cultural review of the topic, but for other topics, cross-cultural research remains sparse, so
those diversity sections present a specialized topic that relates to the chapter.

References
Barnett, Rosalind; & Rivers, Caryl. (2004). Same difference: How gender myths are hurting our relationships, our
children, and our jobs. New York: Basic Books.
Benderly, Beryl Lieff. (1989, November). Don’t believe everything you read: A case study of sex-difference
research turned a small finding into a major media flap. Psychology Today, 67–69.
Cherland, Meredith. (2008). Harry’s girls: Harry Potter and the discourse of gender. Journal of Adolescent & Adult
Literacy, 52(4), 273–282.
Connell, R. W. (2005). Change among the gatekeepers: Men, masculinities, and gender equality in the global
arena. Signs, 30, 1801–1825.
Hyde, Janet Shibley. (2005). The gender similarities hypothesis. American Psychologist, 60, 581–592.
Hyde, Janet Shibley; & Kling, Kristen C. (2001). Women, motivation, and achievement. Psychology of Women
Quarterly, 25, 364–378.
Kidder, Louise. (1994, August). All pores open. Paper presented at the 102nd annual convention of the American
Psychological Association, Los Angeles, CA.
Weisstein, Naomi. (1982, November). Tired of arguing about biological inferiority? Ms., 41–46, 85.
West, Candace; & Zimmerman, Don H. (1987). Doing gender. Gender and Society, 1, 125–151.
Acknowledgments

At the completion of any book, authors have many people to thank, and I am no exception.
Without the assistance, support, and encouragement of many people, I never could have
written this book, much less completed six editions. I thank all of them, but several people
deserve special mention. My colleagues in the psychology department at McNeese State
University were supportive and helpful. Dena Matzenbacher, Denise Arellano, Cameron
Melville, Carl Bartling, Charlotte Carp, Tracy Lepper, and Patrick Moreno offered their
expertise and assistance.
Husbands often deserve special thanks, and mine is no exception. My husband, Barry
Humphus, did a great deal to hold my life together while I was researching and writing:
He bailed me out of tech trouble repeatedly and rendered charts and graphs for many of
the figures that appear in this edition of the book. I would not have attempted (much less
completed) this book without him.
I would like to thank the people who told me their personal stories for the Gendered
Voices feature of the book, many of whom have been my students at McNeese. To respect
their privacy I will not name them, with one exception. Melinda Schaefer deserves special
thanks because her story was so good that hearing it made me realize that I wanted to include
others’ stories. Without her story, and Louise Kidder’s (1994) presentation, I would not have
realized how important these accounts are.
The people at Taylor and Francis have been helpful and supportive. My editor Debra Rieg-
ert and her associate Rachel Severinovsky have smoothed the transition to and supported my
efforts in revising and completing the manuscript.
I would also like to thank reviewers who read parts of the manuscript and offered helpful
suggestions, especially Carol Tavris, who advised me about how to use one of her excel-
lent quotations and Florence Denmark, who took the time and careful attention to offer
a review. I am honored. I am also grateful to past reviewers Maggie Felton, University of
Southern Indiana; Heather Hill, University of Texas at San Antonio; Mary Losch, Univer-
sity of Northern Iowa; Elizabeth Ossoff, Saint Anselm College; and Karen Prager, the Uni-
versity of Texas at Dallas. Thanks also for the suggestions from Luciane A. Berg, Southern
Utah University; Christina Byme, Western Washington University; Linda Heath, Loyola
University–Chicago; Marcela Raffaelli, University of Nebraska; and Stephanie Riger, Uni-
versity of Illinois–Chicago.
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Appendix 1: Interdisciplinary approaches

Learning Objective 1: Practical applications and examples
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 2: Experimental procedures and results
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 3: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 4: Current trends and future directions
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 4: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 5: Current trends and future directions
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 5: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 6: Best practices and recommendations
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 7: Ethical considerations and implications
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 8: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 8: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Key terms and definitions
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Module 2: Statistical analysis and interpretation
Remember: Current trends and future directions
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 11: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 14: Ethical considerations and implications
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Key terms and definitions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 18: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Key terms and definitions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Summary 3: Study tips and learning strategies
Example 20: Literature review and discussion
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 23: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Research findings and conclusions
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 24: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 26: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Review 4: Assessment criteria and rubrics
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Current trends and future directions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 34: Key terms and definitions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 35: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 35: Experimental procedures and results
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 38: Best practices and recommendations
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 39: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Topic 5: Key terms and definitions
Example 40: Ethical considerations and implications
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Experimental procedures and results
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 42: Practical applications and examples
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 44: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Experimental procedures and results
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 45: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 47: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Ethical considerations and implications
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 48: Historical development and evolution
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 49: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Practical applications and examples
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice 6: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
Important: Ethical considerations and implications
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 51: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 52: Practical applications and examples
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Key terms and definitions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Experimental procedures and results
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 57: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 59: Literature review and discussion
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 60: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Section 7: Assessment criteria and rubrics
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Ethical considerations and implications
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 63: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Case studies and real-world applications
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 67: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 67: Literature review and discussion
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Unit 8: Literature review and discussion
Practice Problem 70: Key terms and definitions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 72: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 74: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 76: Key terms and definitions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 78: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Current trends and future directions
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Summary 9: Assessment criteria and rubrics
Remember: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 82: Best practices and recommendations
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 84: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 85: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 88: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 89: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 89: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Part 10: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
Definition: Key terms and definitions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 91: Research findings and conclusions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 92: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 93: Practical applications and examples
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 95: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 96: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Key terms and definitions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 99: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Appendix 11: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
Definition: Experimental procedures and results
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 101: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 101: Experimental procedures and results
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 103: Key terms and definitions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 106: Practical applications and examples
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Key terms and definitions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 110: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Quiz 12: Case studies and real-world applications
Example 110: Key terms and definitions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 111: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Experimental procedures and results
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 113: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Research findings and conclusions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 115: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Case studies and real-world applications
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Experimental procedures and results
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 117: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 119: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Unit 13: Study tips and learning strategies
Example 120: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 121: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 121: Experimental procedures and results
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 122: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
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