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Reliable and Sustainable Electric Power
and Energy Systems Management

Nava Raj Karki

Rajesh Karki
Ajit Kumar Verma
Jaeseok Choi Editors

Sustainable
Power
Systems
Modelling, Simulation and Analysis
Reliable and Sustainable Electric Power
and Energy Systems Management

Series editors
Ajit Kumar Verma, Stord, Norway
Rajesh Karki, Saskatoon, Canada
Jaeseok Choi, Jinju, GN, South Korea
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/10855
Nava Raj Karki Rajesh Karki
•

Ajit Kumar Verma Jaeseok Choi

•

Editors

Sustainable Power Systems

Modelling, Simulation and Analysis

123
Editors
Nava Raj Karki Ajit Kumar Verma
Tribhuvan University Stord/Haugesund University College
Kathmandu Stord
Nepal Norway

Rajesh Karki Jaeseok Choi

University of Saskatchewan Gyeongsang National University
Saskatoon, SK Jinju, Gyeongsangnam-do
Canada South Korea

ISSN 2510-2524 ISSN 2510-2532 (electronic)

Reliable and Sustainable Electric Power and Energy Systems Management
ISBN 978-981-10-2229-6 ISBN 978-981-10-2230-2 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-2230-2

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016947778

© Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2017

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or
for any errors or omissions that may have been made.

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer Science+Business Media Singapore Pte Ltd.
Contents

1 Reliability Assessment of Power Grid Supporting

Sustainable Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Xue Wang and Rajesh Karki
2 Hybrid AC/DC Micro-Grids: Solution for High
Efficient Future Power Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Peng Wang, Jianfang Xiao, Chi Jin, Xiaoqing Han and Wenping Qin
3 Low Voltage Ride Through of Wind Energy Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Tarafdar Hagh Mehrdad and Kashem Mohammad Muttaqi
4 Reliability Evaluation of Distribution System
with Network Reconfiguration and Distributed Generations . . . . . . . 61
P. Pavani and S.N. Singh
5 Tracing the Unreliability and Recognizing the Weak
Parts of a Power System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Kaigui Xie
6 Sustainable Energy Optimization in a Smart Microgrid . . . . . . . . . . 111
Ryan Jansen and Rajesh Karki
7 Renewable Energy Generation System Expansion Planning . . . . . . . 133
Jaeseok Choi
8 Microhydro-Based Mini grid for Sustainable Development
of Rural Communities: A Case Study of Nepal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Netra Pd. Gyawali

v
About the Editors

Nava Raj Karki obtained his M.Sc. (Hons) in Electrical Engineering from
Belarussian National Technical University, Minsk in 1995 and Ph.D. in Electrical
Engineering from Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay in 2011. He joined
Department of Electrical Engineering, Institute of Engineering, Tribhuvan
University in 1995 and is currently an Associate Professor and Head of the
department. He is actively involved in IEEE activities and is the founding Vice
Chair of IEEE Nepal Subsection. Dr. Nava Raj Karki is very active in promoting
Academia-Industry collaboration at the Institute of Engineering and various mul-
tilateral initiatives like Erasmus Mundus Programme. He has published several
papers on power system planning, reliability, distributed generation, and restruc-
turing, and also published a book ‘Electrical Engineering Materials’ (Alpha Science
International Ltd., 2007).
Rajesh Karki obtained his B.E. degree in electrical engineering from the Regional
Engineering College (since renamed National Institute of Technology), Durgapur,
West Bengal, India in 1991, and M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in electrical power
engineering in 1997 and 2000, respectively, from the University of Saskatchewan,
Canada. He worked for academic institutions and different industries in Nepal
between 1991 and 1995, and for GE Industrial Systems, Peterborough, ON, Canada
during 2000–2002. He joined the University of Saskatchewan, Canada as an
Assistant Professor in 2002, where he currently works as a Professor. During 2005–
2012, he chaired the Power Systems Research Group at the University of
Saskatchewan. He has served in various capacities in conferences and workshops,
given lectures in Canada and has published over 80 papers in reputed international
journals and peer reviewed conferences. Dr. Karki has completed several consulting
projects on system planning and reliability for Canadian electric utilities. He is a
Senior Member of the IEEE, and a Professional Engineer in the Province of
Saskatchewan, Canada. His research interests include power system reliability and
planning, and reliability modeling and analysis of renewable energy systems.

vii
viii About the Editors

Ajit Kumar Verma obtained his B.Tech. (Electrical Engineering) and Ph.D.
(Reliability Engineering) from Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, India in
1984 and 1988 respectively. He joined Indian Institute of Technology Bombay in
1988 where he holds the position of Professor of Electrical Engineering. He is
currently working as a Professor of Technical Safety at University College
Stord/Haugesund, Norway. He has supervised/co-supervised 28 doctoral and 88
masters thesis in the area of Software Reliability, Reliable Computing, Power
Systems Reliability (PSR), Reliability Centered Maintenance (RCM), and
Probabilistic Safety/Risk Assessment (PSA). He has over 195 publications in
various journals and conferences. He is a senior member of IEEE and a life fellow
of IETE. He is the Editor-in-Chief of the International Journal of Systems
Assurance Engineering and Management (IJSAEM) published by Springer, as well
as a member of the Advisory Committee for the journal OPSEARCH also pub-
lished by Springer. He has served as a Guest Editor of many international journals
including IEEE Transactions on Reliability for the March 2010 issue. He has been
the Conference Chairman of various international conferences and symposia.
Jaeseok Choi is a Professor at Gyeongsang National University, Korea and has
been teaching at the university since 1991. He did his masters and obtained his Ph.
D. from Korea University in 1984 and 1990, respectively. He completed his
postdoctoral research at University of Saskatchewan, Canada in 1996. He has
published many papers in reputed international journals and conference proceeding,
and undertaken many projects funded by the Korean Electric Power Corporation.
His research interests include fuzzy applications, probabilistic production cost
simulation, reliability evaluation and outage cost assessment of power systems, and
development of flexible methods for power system. His recent research is specially
focused on development and extension of methodology at load points of Composite
Power Systems.
Introduction

The importance of electrical power and energy in modern society is well established
and it is impossible to create a modern society without existence of not only reliable
but sustainable power and energy systems. The continued development of systems
that are both reliable and sustainable has been the main focus of power system
engineers as well as advocates of sustainable development. The challenges and
difficulties faced by large-scale power generation and transmission systems are
encouraging the development planners to explore and expedite the inclusion of
more power supply options regarded as reliable as well as sustainable. There is
growing global environmental concern regarding increasing emissions from the
electric power generation required to meet rising energy needs and support sus-
tainable and inclusive development. As a result, the integration of renewable
sources in electric grids has helped increase the penetration of electricity in many
developing and least developed countries, and helped reduce emissions in advanced
countries. The advancement of electric vehicles has achieved significant growth in
recent years and has the potential of changing the planning and operating paradigm
of the power system. The increasing uncertainty associated with planning and
operating modern power systems creates significant challenges to maintaining the
system efficiency, energy security, and reliability. Modernizing power systems with
the application of smart grid technologies is perceived to be a valuable approach to
achieve reliability and efficiency with environmental compliance and also help
improve energy independence and security. The appropriate use of distributed
energy resources in conjunction with state-of-art technology is an important asset in
mitigating these problems, and requires considerable study and research. This
volume intends to bring out the work of researchers from academia and industry in
understanding, modeling, and analysis of the risks associated with implementing
sustainable energy technology in power systems. The topics in this volume include
the Reliability Assessment of Power Grid Supporting Sustainable Transportation,
Hybrid AC/DC Micro-Grids: Solution for High Efficient Future Power Systems,
Low Voltage Ride Through of Wind Energy Systems, Reliability Evaluation of
Distribution System with Network Reconfiguration and Distributed Generations,
Tracing the Unreliability and Recognizing the Weak Parts of a Power System,

ix
x Introduction

Sustainable Energy Optimization in a Smart Microgrid, Renewable Energy

Generation System Expansion Planning, Microhydro Based Mini Grid for
Sustainable Development of Rural Communities: A Case Study of Nepal.
Chapter 1 titled “Reliability Assessment of Power Grid Supporting Sustainable
Transportation” presents analytical models to evaluate the reliability of a power
system with PHEV penetration considering the important PHEV characteristics and
charging scenarios. The parameters of the PHEV-30 and the transportation data
from NHTS 2009 were used to create the relevant models to obtain the load model
of a PHEV. A MCS method was applied to combine individual PHEV models and
build the overall model of PHEV fleet. The impact of PHEV penetration in a power
system was assessed by using the IEEE-RTS as a test system. Different PHEV
penetrations and charging scenarios were examined to analyze the results. The
results show that the system reliability degrades with PHEV penetration increases,
and the negative impact is increased with fast charging which requires a higher
power demand for a shorter duration. The negative reliability impacts can, however,
be mitigated by shifting and controlling the charging time, which is the area of
ongoing research.
Chapter 2 titled “Hybrid AC/DC Micro-Grids: Solution for High Efficient Future
Power Systems” presents a new configuration for future power systems which is the
hybrid AC/DC gird for high efficient connection of the inherent AC and DC sources
and loads. Three phase AC power systems have been in dominant position for over
hundred years due to invention of transformer and the inherent characteristic from
fossil energy driven rotating machines. However, the gradual changes of load types
and distributed renewable generation (DRG) in AC local distribution systems
provide food for consideration of adding DC networks. Renewable sources such as
fuel cells and solar photovoltaics are DC inherent and should be connected to AC
grid through DC/AC conversion techniques, whereas some AC inherent renewable
sources like wind generators also need DC links in their conversion systems to
increase efficiency and mitigate power variation caused by intermittency and
uncertainty. The disadvantage of AC grids for connection of DC inherent sources
and loads as well as AC loads with DC links is that additional DC/AC or AC/DC
converters are required, which may result in efficiency loss from the reverse con-
version. In the other hand DC grids are resurging due to the development and
deployment of renewable DC power sources and their inherent advantage for DC
loads in commercial, industrial, and residential applications. The number of power
conversions in a DC microgrid has been significantly reduced to enhance system
energy efficiency. A more likely scenario is the coexistence of both AC and DC
microgrids, which is so-called the hybrid AC/DC microgrid in order to reduce
processes of multiple reverse conversions in an individual AC or DC microgrid and
facilitate the connection of various renewable AC/DC sources and loads to power
system. Therefore the concept of hybrid microgrids, which can harmonize both AC
and DC sources and loads, has been proposed for future high efficient power
systems. Conventional AC and DC grids are interconnected together through the
bidirectional AC/DC converter. The component model has been introduced. The
Introduction xi

control and operation of individual sources and energy storages are presented. The
coordination control and power sharing techniques are also introduced.
Chapter 3 titled “Low Voltage Ride Through of Wind Energy Systems” focuses
on the importance of low voltage ride through (LVRT) of wind turbines. The
investigation of some selected grid codes has revealed that LVRT has different
requirements in different grid codes. The results of the investigation have found that
higher penetration of wind energy in grid results in stricter LVRT requirements. On
the other hand, increasing the wind energy penetration in grid is an ongoing pro-
cess, so it will be mandatory to increase the LVRT performance of existing wind
turbines as well as newly installed units. This chapter has presented some key
power circuit topology-based and control strategy-based LVRT improvement
methods. While power circuit topology-based strategies are usually more efficient
than control strategy-based methods, they need extra power electronic-based
electrical circuits which might be expensive or bulky and they may affect the
normal operation of wind turbines too. This chapter has also discussed the problems
of resynchronization of wind turbines. It is shown that without sufficient LVRT
capability, wind turbines would be disconnected from grid during faults and
resynchronization of them would be a time-consuming process which may impose
large transients to the grid. A resynchronization scheme for automatic reconnection
of wind turbines has been presented and also validated through simulation.
Chapter 4 titled “Reliability Evaluation of Distribution System with Network
Reconfiguration and Distributed Generations” proposes reliability and power loss
evaluation of distribution system using network reconfiguration tool and optimal
DG siting and sizing. The objectives are reliability improvement and power loss
reduction subjected to various operating constraints. The renewable DG technolo-
gies including the synchronous machine-based biomass generator are considered in
distribution system expansion planning. The network reconfiguration with DGs and
tie-switch placement for the reliability improvement and loss minimization is
proposed. Tie-switches are placed at terminal nodes with geographical constraints
and their all possible binary combinations are considered. DGs sizing for the pre-
defined DGs are calculated using integer programming for objective, viz., reliability
improvement and minimization of losses with penetration level taken for less than
total load. Power loss is calculated using forward/backward sweep distribution load
flow algorithm in all the cases analyzed. A search-based reconfiguration algorithm
has been formulated for finding the optimal switch configuration for the radial
distribution system with DG. The optimal DG placement and DG sizing for
combined objectives of reliability improvement and loss minimization, using fuzzy
logic approach is proposed in two steps. Out of four DG variables, type and number
are taken as fixed variables and size and location are considered as variables in the
formulation. In the first step, for all DGs combination, their optimal sizes are
calculated using nonlinear optimization tool with the improved reliability and real
power loss reduction objectives. SAIDI and SAIFI indices are used for the relia-
bility evaluation in this case. In the formulation three indices, power loss, SAIDI
and SAIFI are used with weighing factors and taken as combined objective.
A combined network reconfiguration and optimal DG siting and sizing is carried
xii Introduction

out for the objectives, viz., real power loss reduction and reliability improvement
for various penetration levels and various loading conditions. It is observed that
optimal sitting and sizing of the DGs improve the system performance in terms of
real power loss reduction and improvement in the system reliability. Different
objectives give different optimal locations and sizes but based on the physical
constraints, the final decisions are to be made. The present work may be a guideline
to the planners and policymakers for planning the DGs in the distribution systems.
Chapter 5 titled “Tracing the Unreliability and Recognizing the Weak Parts of a
Power System” presents two Unreliability tracing principles, i.e., failure component
sharing principle (FCSP) and proportional sharing principle (PSP) to derive the UT
model and algorithm for a power system. The proposed technique provides a new
idea for evaluating the impact of components on the system unreliability and can be
used to distribute the unreliability indices of a power system to the system com-
ponents impartially and reasonably.The models and algorithms for tracing the
unreliability are determined using the PSP. The UT indices for individual com-
ponent are created to recognize the major unreliability contributions (MUC) of the
power system. The method provides the system planner/operator with information
on how much an individual component contributes to the overall system risk and
the system MUC. The basic principles and methods proposed in this paper are
general and therefore applicable to both HL-I and HL-II. The illustration application
is at HL-I and the RBTS and IEEE-RTS were examined using the proposed method.
The results show that the proposed approach has good practicability and has
promising prospects in other engineering applications. Power system applications
utilizing the proposed UT technique could address using decision analysis to rec-
ognize weak system elements, improve the reliability, analyze reliability
cost/benefits, and optimize scheduled maintenance. In addition, the proposed UT
technique can be easily implemented on the existing reliability evaluation programs
with a relatively little additional computation requirement, and conveniently
expanded to AC/DC systems, distribution systems or interconnected systems.
Chapter 6 titled “Sustainable Energy Optimization in a Smart Microgrid” pre-
sented the methodology for developing a smart microgrid optimization model that
can be used to determine the most financially economical combination of microgrid
technologies with acceptable level of system reliability. The smart microgrid
optimization model assessed various combinations of PV and wind turbine
renewable generation in increments of 5 kW varying between 0 and 200 kW.
Battery energy storage was also considered in combination with renewable gen-
eration in increments of 5 kWh from 0 to 200 kWh. The smart microgrid opti-
mization model was developed in the MATLAB environment and incorporated a
smart microgrid management system to achieve additional fuel savings and
increased system reliability by utilizing load shedding and load deferral techniques.
Microgrid power system reliability was assessed using an SMCS simulation model.
The accuracy of the model was verified using the SIPSREL program developed at
the University of Saskatchewan. Results indicated that the implementation of
renewable generation, battery energy storage, and DSM techniques can substan-
tially reduce the lifetime operational costs of a microgrid while increasing power
Introduction xiii

system reliability. Implementation of energy storage technologies to reduce fossil

fuel consumption as well as to increase renewable generation penetration is an area
of ongoing research, as is the application of microgrid technology to improve
remote power system reliability.
Chapter 7 titled “Renewable Energy Generation System Expansion Planning”
proposes a new approach using linear programming to solve the long-term gener-
ation mix considering renewable energy resources generators namely; Wind
Turbine Generators (WTGs) and Solar Cell Generator (SCGs) with multi-criteria
considering CO2, SOx, and NOx emission constraints under the uncertain circum-
stances. The chapter focuses on the development of tools to analyze the effect of
WTGs and SCGs on the best generation mix (BGM) using fuzzy set theory. The
method accommodates sensitivity analysis of capacity factors of WTG and SCG.
The effectiveness of the proposed approach is demonstrated by applying to solve
the flexible generation mix problem on the Korean power system for a planning
horizon up to the year 2030. The test system contains nuclear, coal, LNG, oil,
pumped-storage hydroplant, WTG and SCG in multi-years period. The economic
credits of renewable energy resource in best generation mix problem were proposed
in the viewpoint of CF and CER of WTG and SCG. It is noted that the WTG and
SCG are competitive generator types in the mix and the WTG and SCG can win the
conventional generators mix from for various percentage mix of WTGs and SCGs
in the Korean power system. The proposed model and method are useful tools for
various economics evaluation in BGM considering renewable energy generators
and emission constraints.
Chapter 8 titled “Microhydro-Based Mini grid for Sustainable Development of
Rural Communities: A Case Study of Nepal” presents the overview of Microhydro
Based Mini Grid for Sustainable Development of Rural Communities in Nepal.
Development of energy sector in Nepal demands optimum tapping of Hydropower
of different scales; be it through large, medium, or small size hydroplants. Large
power plants are often required big capital investment and involve long construc-
tional time, whereas small and microhydro plants (SMHP) can be installed in short
time period with local initiative. Since very beginning SMHP are proved to be as
cost-effective, indigenous, and reliable source of electrical power. However, they
also have been facing hurdles in full-scale development. The main issues are low
load factor, low capacity to run big machines, poor end-use pattern, and unavail-
ability of water throughout the year. Besides the expansion of national grid to the
MHP vicinity has caused to extinct, thereby wasting the productive asset. This
scenario has forced to develop integrated hydropower development model in
country, in which MHP can be operated even after the reach of grid. By this,
additional revenue will be generated from surplus electricity. Second, parallel
operation of two or more MHPs can realized for sharing the common loads.
Formation of such MGs would have number of benefits; it would maximize the use
of spilling resource, increase load factor and improve the reliability of the overall
system. These MGs can be connected with national grid if it is nearby, and operated
autonomously in islanded mode and interconnected mode in specified manner.
From utility perspective, the MG functions as single entity, which can provide a
xiv Introduction

better platform to interconnect SMHPs to grid? Thereby they can be operated even
after the reach of grid in their sites, making MG a sustainable scheme for SMHP
development. There are several sites in Nepal with potential of MG. AEPC has
reported 14 sites across the country with capacity ranging 100 kW to 1 MW. AEPC
also initiated to pilot a MG project in Baglung District by connecting the MHPs
along the corridor of Kalung Khola river, which was completed and commissioned
in 2011. Presently, It has been drawing attention to the researchers, entrepreneurs,
and professionals across the globe for the real-time study of MG. Its success stories
have paved the ways for the further development of other MGs in the different parts
of country.
Chapter 1
Reliability Assessment of Power Grid
Supporting Sustainable Transportation

Xue Wang and Rajesh Karki

Abstract This chapter titled “Reliability Assessment of Power Grid Supporting

Sustainable Transportation” presents analytical models to evaluate the reliability of
a power system with PHEV penetration considering the important PHEV charac-
teristics and charging scenarios. The parameters of the PHEV-30 and the trans-
portation data from NHTS 2009 were used to create the relevant models to obtain
the load model of a PHEV. A MCS method was applied to combine individual
PHEV models and build the overall model of PHEV fleet. The impact of PHEV
penetration in a power system was assessed using the IEEE-RTS as a test system.
Different PHEV penetrations and charging scenarios were examined to analyze the
results. The results show that the system reliability degrades with the increase in
PHEV penetration, and the negative impact is increased with fast charging which
requires a higher power demand for a shorter duration. The negative reliability
impacts can however be mitigated by shifting and controlling the charging time,
which is area of ongoing research.

1 Introduction

Electric vehicle (EV) provides a means of transportation that utilizes sustainable

energy, and provides an alternative to conventional transport vehicles that burn
petroleum fuel and release harmful greenhouse gas emissions [1]. EV utilizes
battery for electrical energy storage that can be generated from sustainable energy
sources, such as wind and photovoltaic. EV can considerably reduce emissions that
are believed to contribute to global warming [2]. There are different types of EV,
such as hybrid electric vehicle (HEV), battery electric vehicle (BEV), and plug-in

X. Wang (&)
R. Karki

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada
e-mail: [email protected]
R. Karki
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2017 1

N.R. Karki et al. (eds.), Sustainable Power Systems, Reliable and Sustainable
Electric Power and Energy Systems Management,
DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-2230-2_1
2 X. Wang and R. Karki

hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV). PHEV takes the concept of HEV a step further with
a larger battery and gets rid of the perceived limitation of BEV in driving range,
long charging time and dependence on electric outlets. Among all the other EV
alternatives, PHEV receives increasing attention for lower emission and signifi-
cantly less oil dependency. Moreover, the fuel-switching capability provides
increased flexibility on driving range and economic electric propulsion [3].
Many countries have plans to substantially increase the number of PHEVs on the
road by the next decade [4]. The advancement in PHEV technology has gradually
established these vehicles as an affordable and efficient option capable of competing
with traditional internal combustion engine vehicles. There is ongoing research in
new types of energy storage technology, which provide increased compatibility
with PHEV. Many researchers in academia and EV industry have focused on
improving efficiency and reliability of the PHEV technology. An equally important
area is to develop methodology to evaluate the efficiency and reliability of the
overall energy system that generates and delivers energy to the electric trans-
portation system. There is a need to develop appropriate models that recognize
PHEV behavior, the power system to which the PHEVs are connected, and the
interaction between the two PHEV and system models.
Many researchers have been involved in the study of various issues associated
with PHEV injection in power systems since the first PHEV prototype was built.
Existing literatures cover a broad range of PHEV technology research and appli-
cations. Reference [5] predicts the potential impacts of PHEVs on electricity
demand and prices, generation structure, and associated emission levels. The work
in [6] emphasizes on power quality and analyzes PHEV impacts on power losses as
well as voltage deviations. PHEV impacts on a distribution system are analyzed in
[7] using both deterministic and stochastic analytical methods considering PHEV
penetration and the charging behaviors. Reference [8] presents PHEV impacts on a
distribution system considering fast charging scenario. Reference [9] shows the
improvement in power quality using coordinated charging realized by a smart
metering system and also indicates the uncoordinated charging of PHEVs decreases
the distribution system efficiency. Sustainable energy sources are considered in
some literature related to PHEVs. Results of Ref. [10] show renewable energy
sources can reduce the impacts of charging PHEVs on the distribution system in
system losses as well as customers’ cost. Reference [11] presents a system model
with PHEVs and renewable energy resources, and analyzes related energy, eco-
nomic and environmental impacts to power grid. The flexibility in the PHEV
characteristics enables them to be charged when needed as long as electric outlet is
available. When the number of PHEVs connected to a power system is consider-
able, the resulting change in the energy demand characteristic will adversely affect
the overall system reliability. The reliability of a power system will be highly
influenced by PHEV characteristics and operation strategies in the near future since
PHEV penetration is expected to significantly increase. There is a definite need for
further research in this area.
This chapter presents analytical models and a methodology to evaluate the
reliability of a power system with PHEV penetration considering certain PHEV
1 Reliability Assessment of Power Grid … 3

characteristics and charging scenarios. The commuting data provided by the United
States transportation survey indicates that privately owned PHEVs account for a
large proportion in current market and a majority of the people choose home to be
the charging place at the end of the day. However, vehicles can also be charged in
public parking places wherever the power outlet is available. In North America,
PHEV models introduced by main automobile companies have two optional
charging voltage levels: 120 and 240 V, which are also known as the normal
charging and fast charging scenarios. The charging duration time at the higher
voltage level is much shorter than the time required at the lower voltage level.
Different scenarios of charging places and charging voltage levels are considered in
this chapter.
This chapter is structured as follows. Important characteristics of PHEV mod-
eling are presented in Sect. 2. Section 3 introduces the methodology of combining
individual PHEV models and obtaining PHEV fleet model. Then charging scenarios
of PHEVs are presented in Sect. 4. Section 5 introduces power system and load
model that is used for PHEV reliability assessment, and followed by impacts of
different PHEV penetration levels and charging scenarios on power system
reliability.

2 Important PHEV Characteristics for Model

Development

PHEV is a hybrid electric vehicle in which a gasoline engine and an electric motor
are both used for propulsion. The vehicle includes rechargeable battery packs that
can be charged as needed through an external electric power source. PHEV is
usually operated at all-electric mode until the battery reaches the minimum state of
charge (SOC). Then gasoline becomes the main energy source to drive the vehicle,
and battery SOC may fluctuate due to regenerative braking. Lithium-ion batteries
are widely used in PHEVs and are normally sized to provide enough capacity for
short commutes.
PHEV-X refers to PHEVs with an all-electric range of X miles. Table 1 provides
the important parameters of PHEV-30, which is a typical model used by many
manufactures. Similar models are also used by several research institutes, such as
the Sloan Automotive Laboratory at MIT (U.S.), United States Advanced Battery

Table 1 Parameters of Body size Midsize vehicle

PHEV-30
Battery type Lithium-ion
Battery size (kWh) 8
Full recharge time (120 V outlet) 7h
Full recharge time (240 V outlet) 2.5–3 h
All-electric range (Miles) 30
4 X. Wang and R. Karki

Consortium, and National Renewable Energy Laboratory [12–14]. The following

subsections describe the PHEV parameters that are important for reliability and
energy modeling.

2.1 Daily Driving Distance

PHEV behavior is determined in general by several factors, such as, transportation

habits, charging infrastructure, price incentives, and the battery technologies [4].
The daily driving distance of a vehicle is an important parameter that can vary
considerably from one day to another. Daily vehicle travel data have been collected
and reported by the Federal Highway Administration of U.S. Department of
Transportation. The latest publication with this data was collected in the National
Household Travel Survey (NHTS) 2009 [15, 16]. Data from the report can be used
to model the uncertainty in the driving distance. An analysis of the data shows that
the daily driving distance can be represented by a lognormal distribution using a
best-fit criterion. This is shown in Fig. 1 and the lognormal distribution is mathe-
matically expressed in Eq. (1).

1
pffiffiffiffiffiffi e½ðln xlD Þ =2rD 
2 2
fD ðxÞ ¼ ð1Þ
xrD 2p

where
lD is the mean of the log-normal of the daily driving distance, equal to 4.0, and
rD is the standard deviation, equal to 0.92.

Fig. 1 Probability of daily driving distance

1 Reliability Assessment of Power Grid … 5

2.2 Battery Performance During Driving

A fully charged PHEV will initially operate in the “all-electric mode” using the
electric power provided by the battery as described in Sect. 1. The SOC is another
parameter of a PHEV that indicates the amount of electric energy available in the
battery at any instant in time. As the vehicle is operated, the battery is gradually
discharged, and the value of SOC declines until it reaches the minimum value about
0.2, which means 20 % of the full capacity. When the minimum battery SOC is
reached, the vehicle is switched to the “gasoline mode.” A toolbox called
ADVISOR operated in MATLAB/Simulink environment has been used to assess
the battery performance during the driving period of a day. Figure 2 shows the
battery SOC as a function of the driving distance.
The plot of SOC with driving distance in Fig. 2 can be divided into two distinct
periods; the initial “all-electric” driving period and the “gasoline” driving period.
The initial period is battery dependent, and the SOC declines linearly with driving
distance. In the case of PHEV-30, the first stage will approximately last for 30
miles. Equation (2) gives the battery SOC at this stage.
(
maxf0:2; 1  0:0333Dg; D  X
SOC ¼ ð2Þ
Y; D [ X

where D is the daily driving distance in miles, X is the all-electric driving range in
miles, and Y is a uniformly distributed random number between 0.2 and 0.3.
The second stage of the driving period is associated with the “gasoline mode.”
During this stage, the PHEV battery SOC fluctuates as the battery is frequently
charged for short durations due to regenerative braking, which allows restoring
energy whenever a PHEV slows down. The battery is discharged to provide energy

Fig. 2 Battery SOC as a function of driving distance

6 X. Wang and R. Karki

as the vehicle speeds up again. The battery SOC varies in a stochastic manner in
this stage. A uniformly distributed random number between 0.2 and 0.3 can be used
to obtain the SOC value in the second stage of the driving period. The battery
performance model during the vehicle driving period can therefore be achieved by
combining the respective models for the two stages.

2.3 Battery Performance During Charging

Most people start charging their vehicles as soon as they arrive home at the end of a
day [16]. The PHEVs would then be plugged in for battery charging if the battery
SOC is below a specified value, such as 0.8. The battery is charged until it is full.
The battery SOC increases almost linearly with charging time. Figure 3 shows the
battery SOC as a function of charging time for a typical lithium-ion battery.
Figure 4 shows power supplied to the battery during the charging process in per
unit of the rated charging power.
A PHEV plugged in for charging can be considered as a power system load with
a specific characteristic. The load profile of a PHEV is characterized by the
charging power and duration. The duration on the PHEV load is the time taken to
fully charge the battery, and can be calculated using Fig. 3 with the knowledge of
the initial battery SOC prior to the charging process. The power demand of the
PHEV load as a function of the charging time can be calculated using Fig. 4.
The Charging Start Time for PHEV battery charging is an important parameter
in PHEV load modeling. Daily travel data collected and reported in NHTS 2009 can
be used to obtain the “last trip ending time” for a PHEV for each day. Since it is
assumed that the PHEV charging will commence as soon as the vehicle reaches
home, the last trip ending time is also the charging start time. The probability
distribution of the “last trip ending time” data is shown in Fig. 5. The figure also

Fig. 3 Battery SOC during the charging process

1 Reliability Assessment of Power Grid … 7

Fig. 4 Power demand of a PHEV during the charging process

shows the best fitting curve which is a normal distribution. The mathematical
equation for this curve is given in Eq. (3).
8 h i
>
> ðxlTh Þ2 =2r2T
>
< 1pffiffiffiffi
e h
; ðlTh  12Þ\x  24
rTh 2p
fTh ðxÞ ¼ h i ð3Þ
>
> ðx þ 24lTh Þ2 =2r2T
>
: 1pffiffiffiffi
e h
; 0\x  ðlTh  12Þ
rTh 2p

where
lTh Mean value, equals to 17.4 h, or 5:24 PM
rTh Standard deviation, equals to 3.3 h
Th start time of the home charging scenario

Fig. 5 Probability distribution of charging start time for home charging

8 X. Wang and R. Karki

2.4 PHEV Modeling

The important PHEV parameters and their characteristics described in the preceding
subsections are analyzed to develop an appropriate load model for a PHEV during a
charging cycle. The developed load model can then be used for reliability evalu-
ation. Figure 6 presents an algorithm that can be used to obtain the load model of an
individual PHEV for one charging cycle. The number of charging cycles within a
day depends on the frequency of the PHEV charging processes available in a day.
There is only one charging cycle in a day if charging at home is the only option that
occurs at the end of the day.
Each block in Fig. 6 represents a model development for a specific PHEV
parameter. It is assumed that a PHEV will be plugged in for charging if the battery

Fig. 6 Load model

development for an individual
PHEV
1 Reliability Assessment of Power Grid … 9

SOC is lower than 0.8. The battery SOC can be calculated from the knowledge of
the daily driving distance using the relation in Fig. 2 and Eq. (2). If the calculated
SOC is less than 0.8, the PHEV will be plugged in for battery charging. It is
important to record the charging start time. The charging duration or the time taken
to fully charge the PHEV battery is then obtained. The amount of power supplied to
the battery for the charging duration is then determined, which then provides the
load or demand profile of an individual PHEV in time chronology. If there is more
than one charging cycle within a day for the PHEV, the load profiles are similarly
created for each charging cycle, and a time sequential load profile is obtained for the
entire day.

3 PHEV Fleet Modeling

Section 2 presents the development of the load model for an individual PHEV
considering a daily charging cycle. PHEV fleet consists of a number of PHEVs with
different charging and driving behaviors. These parameters are stochastic and
interrelated with each other. The model developed for individual PHEVs within a
fleet need to be aggregated using an appropriate technique to obtain the charac-
teristic model for the overall fleet.
A Monte Carlo Simulation (MCS) method is used to build the overall model for
a PHEV fleet by combining individual PHEV models. Figure 6 shows how the
important parameters of an individual PHEV are sequentially modeled to obtain the
daily load profile of the PHEV. The sequential modeling is repeated for all the
PHEVs that exist in the fleet using the MCS technique to obtain the overall daily
load profile for the fleet.
In the beginning of the simulation, a random number Zi is generated to obtain the
daily driving distance Di of the ith PHEV. The random number Zi is used to
calculate a lognormal value Mi of the driving distance, using Eq. (4) where the
parameters lD and rD are given in Eq. (1).

M i ¼ l D þ rD  Z i ð4Þ

The calculated value of Mi is then used in Eq. (5) to obtain the daily driving
distance Di of the ith PHEV.

D i ¼ eM i ð5Þ

The value of Di obtained from Eq. (5) is then used in Eq. (2) to calculate the
SOCi of the ith PHEV. The SOC value is then fitted in Fig. 3 to determine the time
required to fully charge, or the charging time CTi of the ith PHEV.
In order to simulate the charging start time Ti for the ith PHEV, a uniformly
distributed random number Ui between 0 and 1 is first generated. The random
number Ui is transformed to a normally distributed variable Yi using Eqs. (6) and (7).
10 X. Wang and R. Karki

The charging start time Ti is then calculated using Eq. (8) where lTh and rTh are
obtained from Eq. (3).

1  Ui ; 0:5\Ui  1:0
Qi ¼ ð6Þ
Ui ; 0  Ui  0:5
8
< ai ; 0:5\Ui \1:0
Yi ¼ 0; Ui ¼ 0:5 ð7Þ
:
ai ; 0  Ui \0:5

where
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
bi ¼ 2 ln Qi

and

2:515517 þ 0:802853bi þ 0:010328b2i

ai ¼ bi 
1 þ 1:432788bi þ 0:189269b2i þ 0:001308b3i

Ti ¼ lTh þ rTh Yi ð8Þ

The calculated SOCi and charging time CTi is used in Fig. 4 to obtain a time
sequential power demand of the ith PHEV for the charging time duration. This
creates the sequential load profile for which the start time is Ti and duration is CTi.
This provides the load model for the ith PHEV for a charging cycle.
To effectively specify this sequential modeling process, one illustrational
charging cycle is shown in Fig. 7.
The sequential modeling process is carried out for all the n PHEVs in the fleet as
shown in Fig. 8.
The daily sequential loads obtained as discussed above are recursively aggre-
gated for all the n vehicles as shown in Eq. (9) to obtain the sequential load model
for the entire fleet.

Fig. 7 A sample run of the PHEV charging cycle methodology

1 Reliability Assessment of Power Grid … 11

Fig. 8 PHEV fleet modeling procedure

X
n
Lh ¼ LPHEVi;h ð9Þ
i¼1

where, h 2 24 is the hour of the day, Lh is the fleet load at Hour h, and LPHEVi;h is the
load of the ith PHEV at Hour h.
The simulation runs for all the vehicles in fleet are repeated until convergence
criteria are met, i.e., when the fleet load model is not changed with further runs.
Figure 9 shows the daily sequential load model for a fleet with 100 PHEVs and the
individual updated load models in per unit of the respective peak loads.
12 X. Wang and R. Karki

Fig. 9 Daily load model of individual PHEVs and of the entire fleet

4 PHEV Charging Scenarios

There can be different methods and scenarios for PHEV charging. Section 3
illustrated the method to develop a load model for a PHEV fleet with the
assumption that people start charging their vehicles as soon as they arrive home.
This scenario for PHEV charging is termed as “Home Charging Only” scenario in
this chapter. PHEVs can also be charged during the daytime where public charging
facilities are available. This scenario is termed as “Public Charging.”
The PHEV battery can be recharged at different voltage levels as specified by the
PHEV manufacturer. Table 1 shows that the PHEV-30 can be charged either at 120
and 240 V, which are designated as “normal charging” and “fast charging”
methods. The charging time depends on the charging voltage level, and therefore
the charging voltage will influence the load model of the PHEV. The load model
illustrated in Fig. 9 was obtained considering a normal charging voltage of 120 V.

4.1 Normal and Fast Charging

Table 1 shows that the normal charging of PHEV-30 using 120 V supply requires
7 h for full recharge. The table also shows that the full recharge time is only 2.5–
3 h when fast charging mode is selected using 240 V supply. Among PHEV
models introduced by main automobile companies of North America, fast charging
is a common feature that provides the additional flexibility in the charging process.
It should be noted the charging time is reduced and the charging power is increased
when fast charging method is selected to charge the PHEV. In this case, the relevant
1 Reliability Assessment of Power Grid … 13

Fig. 10 Comparisons of the power demand and charging time of the normal and the fast charging
methods

full recharge time and charging power should be used in Figs. 3 and 4 to obtain the
PHEV load model.
Figure 10 compares the load model of a PHEV using the two different charging
methods, i.e., the normal charging and the fast charging. It can be seen that the fast
charging method requires less than half the charging time and about three times
higher charging power when compared to the normal charging method.

4.2 Home and Public Charging

It can be assumed that the majority of vehicles that have relatively short daily
driving distances will prefer the “home charging only” scenario. This in case, the
normal charging method using 120 V supply is the preferred option as this voltage
level is readily available in homes.
PHEV owners can also charge their vehicles during the daytime where charging
facilities are available. It is reasonable to assume that people would choose fast
charging in public during daytime for the sake of time saving. It is highly likely that
PHEV subjected to public charging will also be recharged at home at the end of the
day. These vehicles will have at least two charging cycles in a day. When public
charging scenario is considered, individual PHEV load model can be obtained by
evaluating the charging cycle shown in Fig. 6 twice considering two charging
cycles within a day.
The following assumptions are made to model the ith PHEV under public
charging. First, the driving distance of a PHEV prior to public charging is assumed
to be half of daily driving distance, which is 0.5 * Di. The charging time is then
calculated using the relationship in Fig. 3 under fast charging scenario considering
3 h as full recharge time. The charging power is calculated using the per unit power
14 X. Wang and R. Karki

profile in Fig. 4, where the rated charging power for fast charging is selected as the
base. Second, it is assumed that the fast charging facility is available at the
workplace, and public charging of the PHEV will commence as soon as the vehicle
reaches the workplace. The travel data of “arriving workplace time” reported in
NHTS 2009 can be used to obtain the “public charging start time.” Using best-fit
criterion, the mathematically expression is shown in Eq. (10).

1
pffiffiffiffiffiffi e½ðxlTp Þ =2rTp 
2 2
fTp ðxÞ ¼ ð10Þ
rTp 2p

where
lTp Mean value, equals to 8.5 h, or 8:30 AM
rTp Standard deviation, equals to 2.4 h
Tp start time of public charging scenario.
The fully charged PHEV at the workplace will then be discharged on the way
home. The driving distance prior to home charging is assumed to be half of daily
driving distance, which is 0.5 * Di. Home charging cycle evaluation for the PHEV
is carried out using the method discussed in Sect. 3 considering the normal
charging method. Two load models are therefore obtained for the two charging
cycles of each PHEV, i.e., public charging and home charging cycles. Then as
described in Sect. 3, the PHEV fleet model can be obtained using MCS method.
Figure 11 shows the daily sequential load model for a fleet with 100 PHEVs
under “public/home charging” scenario and the individual updated load models in
per unit of the respective peak loads. The daily load model shown in Fig. 11 can be
compared with Fig. 9 obtained for the “home charging only” scenario. It can be
observed from Fig. 11 that there is a new peak during daytime introduced due to
public charging, and the peak value during the daytime is higher than the evening
“home charging” peak because of the higher charging power needed for public
charging as shown in Fig. 10.

Fig. 11 Daily load model of individual PHEVs and of the entire fleet for the public/home
charging scenario
1 Reliability Assessment of Power Grid … 15

5 Power System Reliability Modeling to Incorporate

PHEV Loads

The IEEE Reliability Test System (IEEE-RTS) is used in this chapter to illustrate
the reliability impacts of PHEV penetration in electric power systems. The
IEEE-RTS is a relatively large power system model with a total installed capacity of
3405 MW and a peak load of 2850 MW. The annual hourly chronological load for
the IEEE-RTS expressed in per unit of the peak load is shown in Fig. 12. The
annual peak load occurs during the winter season. Power demand is greater during
wintertime because of the electrical heating load, while not has much impact during
summer.
A period analysis is carried out by dividing a year into two seasons, in order to
incorporate the seasonality effect on the system reliability. Summer runs from April
to September and contains 4392 h. Winter consists of 4368 h, from October to
March. Figure 13 shows the 24-h chronological load for the winter day with the
highest annual load and the summer day with the lowest load. The two days are
respectively from December and September as shown in Fig. 12.
The original IEEE-RTS described above is modified by adding PHEV load to
the test system. The magnitude of the PHEV load relative to the original system
load is expressed in terms of PHEV penetration. It is the ratio of the maximum
PHEV power demand and the system peak load. For example, a 10 % PHEV
penetration in the IEEE-RTS means a maximum PHEV demand of 285 MW. The
total system load of the modified IEEE-RTS is obtained by aggregating the original
load with the PHEV load.

Fig. 12 The IEEE-RTS chronological hourly loads for 1 year

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