MEN-GEE-321: GEOTECHNICAL

ENGINEERING
Dyson MOSES (Ph.D.)
[email protected] or [email protected]

+265881833015
STRESSES IN SOIL MASS

2
 INTRODUCTION

※Construction of a foundation causes changes in the stress,

usually a net increase
※The net stress increase in the soil depends on the load per
unit area to which the foundation is subjected, the depth
below the foundation at which the stress estimation is desired
※ It is necessary to estimate the net increase of vertical stress
in soil that occurs as a result of the construction of a
foundation so that settlement can be calculated.
3
 INTRODUCTION

※The extent of the elastic layer below the surface loadings

may be any one of the following:
▪ Infinite in the vertical and horizontal directions
▪ Limited thickness in the vertical direction underlain with
a rough rigid base such as a rock bed
※The loads at the surface may act on flexible or rigid footings
※The stress conditions in the elastic layer below vary
according to the rigidity and thickness of the elastic layer
4
 STATE OF STRESS IN A SOIL MASS

※A load acting on a soil mass, whether internal (due to its

self weight) or external (due to a load applied at the
boundary) creates stresses within the soil

※Need for estimation of the state of stress at a point at a

particular depth in a soil mass
5
 STATE OF STRESS IN A SOIL MASS

※Many Geotechnical
structures operate in a state
of plane strain
▪ One dimension of the
structure is large enough
for end effects to be
ignored and the problem
can be regarded as one
of the two dimensions
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 STATE OF STRESS IN A SOIL MASS
※The following figure shows a two-dimensional soil element
that is being subjected to normal and shear stresses (σy> σx)

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NORMAL AND SHEAR STRESSES ON A PLANE

Normal Stress

𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑥
𝜎𝑛 = + cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
2 2
Shear Stress
𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑥
𝜏𝑛 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
2
8
NORMAL AND SHEAR STRESSES ON A PLANE

𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑥
𝜏𝑛 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
2
We can find the value of ɵ for which 𝜏𝑛 =0. Thus, we get:

2𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝜃 =
𝜎𝑦 −𝜎𝑥

For given values of 𝜏𝑥𝑦 , 𝜎𝑥 and 𝜎𝑦 will give two values of 𝜃 which
are 90o apart. 9
MAJOR AND MINOR PRINCIPAL STRESSES

※It means that there are two planes that are at right
angles to each other on which the shear stress is zero
▪ Such planes are called principal planes

※The normal stresses that act on the principal planes are

referred to as principal stresses.
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MAJOR AND MINOR PRINCIPAL STRESSES

Major Principal Stress

𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑥 2
2
𝜎𝑛 = 𝜎1 = + + 𝜏𝑥𝑦
2 2
Minor Principal Stress
𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑥 2
2
𝜎𝑛 = 𝜎3 = − + 𝜏𝑥𝑦
2 2
Angle between the major principal stress plane and the horizontal plane 𝜑 is:
𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑 =
𝜎1 − 𝜎𝑥
11
PRINCIPLES OF THE MOHR’S CIRCLE

※The normal stress and shear stress that act on any plane
can also be determined by plotting a Mohr’s circle
※The following sign conventions are used in Mohr’s circles:
▪ Compressive normal stresses are taken as positive
▪ shear stresses are considered positive if they act on
opposite faces of the element in such a way that they
tend to produce a counterclockwise rotation
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 MOHR’S CIRCLE OF STRESS STATES
Sign Convention

▪ For plane AD of the soil element

shown: normal stress equals +𝜎𝑥
and shear stress equals +𝜏𝑥𝑦

▪ For plane AB, normal stress equals

+𝜎𝑦 and shear stress equals −𝜏𝑥𝑦

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 MOHR’S CIRCLE OF STRESS STATES
▪ The points R and M below represent the stress conditions on planes AD
and AB, respectively
▪ O is the point of intersection of the normal stress axis with the line RM

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 MOHR’S CIRCLE OF STRESS STATES
▪ The stress on plane EF can be determined by moving an angle 2ϴ(which is
twice the angle that the plane EF makes in a counterclockwise direction with
plane AB
▪ In a counterclockwise direction from point M along the circumference of the
Mohr’s circle to reach point Q

The coordinates of point Q

gives the normal and shear
stress on
plane EF

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 MOHR’S CIRCLE OF STRESS STATES

▪ Since the ordinates (shear

stresses) of points N and S
are zero, they represent the
stresses on the principal
planes
▪ If the planes AB and AD were
major and minor principal
planes, the normal stress and
shear stress on plane EF is
found by substituting τxy=0
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 MOHR’S CIRCLE OF STRESS STATES

𝜎1 + 𝜎3 𝜎1 − 𝜎3
𝜎𝑛 = + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
2 2

𝜎1 − 𝜎3
𝜏𝑛 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
2

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 WORKED EXAMPLE

A sample of soil 0.1m x 0.1m is subjected to the

forces shown below. Determine;
a) Principal stresses and the angle the major
principal stress makes with the horizontal
b) The maximum shear stresses
c) The stresses on a plane oriented at 30o
counterclockwise from the major principal
stress plane

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 WORKED EXAMPLE
Area = 0.1 x 0.1 = 10-2m2

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 5
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒, 𝜎𝑦 = = −2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 10
= 500𝑘𝑃𝑎

3
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒, 𝜎𝑥 = −2 = 300𝑘𝑃𝑎
10
1
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒, 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = −2 = 100𝑘𝑃𝑎
10

𝜏𝑦𝑥 = −𝜏𝑥𝑦 = −100𝑘𝑃𝑎

19
 WORKED EXAMPLE
From Mohr’s circle;
Draw Mohr circle to extract the parameters
𝜎1 = 540𝑘𝑃𝑎, 𝜎3 = 260𝑘𝑃

𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 140𝑘𝑃𝑎

The Angle AOC = 2𝜑= 450

𝜑 = 22.5o
▪ i.e the principal plane
makes an angle of 22.5º
with the horizontal
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 MOHR’S CIRCLE OF STRAIN STATES
▪ The strain state is found in a similar manner to the stress
state. The principal strains are;
𝜀𝑦 + 𝜀𝑥 𝜀𝑦 − 𝜀𝑥 2 𝛾𝑦𝑥 2
𝑀𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝜀1 = + +
2 2 2

𝜀𝑦 + 𝜀𝑥 𝜀𝑦 − 𝜀𝑥 2 𝛾𝑦𝑥 2
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝜀3 = − +
2 2 2
Where 𝛾𝑦𝑥 is called the engineering shear strain or simple
shear strain
The maximum simple shear strain is:
𝛾max = 𝜀1 − 𝜀3
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BOUSSINESQ’S FORMULA FOR POINT LOADS

❖Consider a load Q acting on the surface of a

semi-infinite solid
❖The problem of solving stresses at any point P
at a depth z as a result of point load was solved
by Boussinesq (1885) by assuming that:
a) The soil mass is elastic, isotropic,
homogeneous and semi-infinite
b) The soil is weightless
c) The load is a point load acting on the
surface
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BOUSSINESQ’S FORMULA FOR POINT LOADS
𝟑𝑸 𝟏 𝑸
𝑸𝒛 = 𝟐
. 𝟓
= 𝟐 𝑰𝑩
𝟐𝝅𝒛 𝟐 𝟐
𝒛
𝒓
𝟏+
𝒛
Where, r is the horizontal distance between an arbitrary point
P below the surface and the vertical axis through the point
load Q
Z=vertical depth of the point P from the surface

IB=Influence Factor (Boussinesq stress coefficient)

𝟑 𝟏
IB = . 𝟓
𝟐𝝅
𝒓 𝟐 𝟐
𝟏+ 𝒛

The value of the Boussinesq coefficient can be determined

23
for a number of values of r/z.
BOUSSINESQ’S FORMULA FOR POINT LOADS

IB has a maximum value of

0.48 at r/z = 0
Indicating that the stress is a
maximum below the point load

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 WORKED EXAMPLE
𝑄
𝜎𝑧 = 2 𝐼𝐵 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
A concentrated load of 1000KN 𝑧
is applied at the ground surface. 3
( )
𝐼𝐵 = 2𝜋
Compute the vertical pressure 5
𝑟 2 2
at a depth of 4m below the load 1+
𝑧

When r/z = 0, 𝐼𝐵 =3/2𝜋=0.48

1000
𝜎𝑧 = 0.48 ∗ = 30𝐾𝑁/𝑚2
42 25
 WESTERGAARD’S FORMULA FOR POINT
LOADS
▪ The soil is neither isotropic nor homogeneous
▪ Westergaard (1938) proposed a formula for
the computation of vertical stress σz by a
point load, Q, at the surface as;

1 − 2𝜇
𝑄 2 − 2𝜇 𝑄
𝜎𝑧 = 2
. 3 = 2 𝐼𝑤
2𝜋𝑧 2 2 𝑧
1 − 2𝜇 𝑟
+
2−𝜇 𝑧
𝜇 is poisson’s ratio, and 𝐼𝑤 is known as
Westergaard stress coefficient.
26
WESTERGAARD’S FORMULA FOR POINT
LOADS
If 𝜇 is taken as zero for all
practical purposes, then we
have;
𝑄
𝜎𝑧 = 2 𝐼𝑤
𝑧
1
( )
𝜋
Where 𝐼𝑤 = 3
𝑟 2 2
1+2
𝑧
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 STRIP LOADS
▪ A strip load is the load transmitted by a
structure of finite width and infinite length
on a soil surface
▪ Plain strain condition is applied
▪ Such conditions are found for structures
extended very much in one direction,
such as strip and wall foundations,
foundations of retaining walls,
embankments, dams, etc
▪ Consider a load q per unit area acting on
a strip of infinite length and of constant
width B
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 STRIP LOADS
▪ Applying the principle of superposition, the total stress 𝝈𝒛 at point P
due to a strip load distributed over a width B (=2b) can be written as:

𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝒒 −𝟏
𝒛 −𝟏
𝒛 𝟐𝒃𝒛(𝒙 − 𝒃 − 𝒛 )
𝝈𝒛 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 − 𝐭𝐚𝐧 − 𝟐
𝝅 𝒙−𝒃 𝒙+𝒃 𝒙 − 𝒃𝟐 + 𝒛𝟐 𝟐 + 𝟒𝒃𝟐 𝒛𝟐

▪ The non-dimensional values of 𝜎𝑧 /q are provided graphically

▪ The above equation can also be expressed as:

𝒒
𝝈𝒛 = [𝜷 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜷 + 𝟐𝜹)
𝝅 29
 STRIP LOADS

The non-dimensional
values of 𝜎𝑧 /q for strip
load

30
 STRIP LOADS
The non-dimensional values of
𝝈𝒛 /𝐪 for strip load

The principal stresses at any point P

may be obtained from the
equations:
𝒒
𝝈𝟏 = (𝜷 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷)
𝝅
𝒒
𝝈𝟑 = (𝜷 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷)
𝝅
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 STRIP LOADS

Using Boussinesq’s method for line loads.

The formula is given as

𝒒 𝟐/𝝅 𝒒
𝝈𝒛 = . = 𝒍𝒛
𝒛 𝒙 𝟐 𝟐 𝒛
𝟏+
𝒛
32
 WORKED EXAMPLE
Three parallel strip footings 3m wide each and 5m apart centre to
centre transmit contact pressures of 200, 150 and 100kN/m2
respectively. Calculate the vertical stress due to the combined loads
beneath the centres of each footing at a depth of 3m below the
base. Assume the footings are placed at a depth of 2m below the
ground surface. Use Boussinesq’s method for line loads.
Using
𝒒 𝟐/𝝅 𝒒
𝝈𝒛 = . 𝟐
= 𝒍𝒛
𝒛 𝒙 𝟐 𝒛
𝟏+
𝒛
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 WORKED EXAMPLE

𝑞 2/𝜋 𝑞
𝜎𝑧 = . = 𝑙𝑧
𝑧 𝑥 2 2 𝑧
1+
𝑧

The stress at C
2∗200 1 2 2∗150 1 2 2∗100 1 2
𝜎𝑧 𝐶 = + + = 23.74𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
3.14∗3 1+ 10 2 3.14∗3 1+ 5 2 3.14∗3 1+ 0 2
3 3 3
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 STRESSES BENEATH THE CORNER OF A
RECTANGULAR FOUNDATION
▪ The stress produced by the pressure q over the entire rectangle b x l
can be obtained by using the equation
▪ 𝜎𝑧 = 𝑞𝐼
➢ I is a dimensionless factor
➢ Represents the influence of a
surcharge covering the
rectangular area on the vertical
stress at a point located at a depth
z below one of its corners
35
 STRESSES BENEATH THE CORNER OF A
RECTANGULAR FOUNDATION

Chart for computing 𝜎𝑧 below

the corner of a rectangular
Foundation

To find I, determine the

rations z/b and l/b

36
 STRESSES BENEATH THE CORNER OF A
RECTANGULAR FOUNDATION
When the Point is Inside

The influence value I may be

obtained from the Charts for the
various ratios (l/b) and (z/b) and
the total stress is calculated as:

𝜎𝑧 = 𝑞(𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 + 𝐼4 )

37
 STRESSES BENEATH THE CORNER OF A
RECTANGULAR FOUNDATION
When the Point is Outside

Construct rectangles as shown. The

point O is the corner point of the
rectangle OB1CD1

Area ABCD= OB1CD1-OB1BD2-OD1

DA1 +OA1AD2

38
 STRESSES BENEATH THE CORNER OF A
RECTANGULAR FOUNDATION
When the Point is Outside

The vertical stress at point P

located at a depth z below point O
due to a surcharge q per unit area
of ABCD is equal to the algebraic
sum of the vertical stresses
produced by loading each one of
the areas with q per unit area

39
 STRESSES BENEATH THE CORNER OF A
RECTANGULAR FOUNDATION
When the Point is Outside

If 𝐼1 to 𝐼4 are the influence factors of each of these

areas, the total vertical stress is:

𝜎𝑧 = 𝑞(𝐼1 − 𝐼2 − 𝐼3 + 𝐼4 )

40
STRESSES BENEATH THE CORNER OF A
RECTANGULAR FOUNDATION

m=b/z; n=l/z

41
 WORKED EXAMPLE

ABCD is a raft foundation of a multi-

story building . As shown in the
figure below; AB=65.6ft and
BC=39.6ft. The uniformly distributed
load q over the raft is 7310Ib/ft2.
Determine 𝜎𝑧 at a depth of 19.7ft
below point O where AA1 =13.12 ft
and A1O=19.68

42
 WORKED EXAMPLE

m=b/z; n=l/z

43
 WORKED EXAMPLE

Area ABCD= OB1CD1-OB1BD2-OD1 DA1 +OA1AD2

𝜎𝑧 = 𝑞(𝐼1 − 𝐼2 − 𝐼3 + 𝐼4 )=7310 (0.245-0.168-0.194+0.145)= 204.67Ib/ft2

44
 REFERENCES
▪ Coduto, D.P., (1999), Component: Geotechnical Engineering:
Principles and Practices. Prentice Hall, NJ.
▪ Craig, R. F., (2003), Soil Mechanics, ELBS – Van Nostrand Reinhold
U. K.
▪ Lambe, T.W., Soil Testing for Engineers. BiTech Publishers,
Vancouver
▪ Das, B.M. (2012). Principles of geotechnical engineering (6th ed.).
PWS Publishing.
▪ A.Aysen. (2002). Soil Mechanics; Basic Concepts and Engineering
Applications. A.A Balkema Publishers
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