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Infectious Disease Ecology and Conservation
Infectious Disease
Ecology and
Conservation

Johannes Foufopoulos
Associate Professor, School for Environment and Sustainability,
University of Michigan, USA

Gary A. Wobeser
Professor Emeritus, Department of Veterinary Pathology,
University of Saskatchewan, Canada

Hamish McCallum
Professor and Director, Centre for Planetary Health and Food Security, Griffith University
and Environmental Futures Research Institute, Australia

3
3
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
© Johannes Foufopoulos, Gary A. Wobeser and Hamish McCallum 2022
The moral rights of the authors have been asserted
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Library of Congress Control Number: 2021942639
ISBN 978–0–19–958350–8 (hbk)
ISBN 978–0–19–958351–5 (pbk)
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780199583508.001.0001
Printed and bound by
CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY
Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials
contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
This book is dedicated to the countless field conservation biologists and wildlife veterinarians who
struggle daily, often at great personal cost, for the protection of the planet’s biodiversity. It is also
dedicated to the present generation of students whose idealism and energy make us hopeful that a better
world is within reach.
Contents

Acknowledgments xiii
List of acronyms and abbreviations xiv
Glossary xv
Introduction xxv

Part I Epidemiological Background 1

1 Conservation biology and parasitism 3

1.1 What is conservation biology? 3
1.2 Biodiversity 3
1.3 Extinction 4
1.4 Drivers of extinction 5
1.4.1 The role of parasites and pathogens in extinction 6
1.4.2 Possible mechanisms of parasite-induced
extinction/endangerment 7
1.4.3 Detecting infectious disease threats to populations
or communities 9
1.5 Endangerment and conservation of parasites 10
1.5.1 Are parasites threatened? 10
1.5.2 Why conserve parasites—Ethical reasons 11
1.5.3 Why conserve parasites—Applied reasons 12
1.5.4 How do parasites become endangered? 15
1.5.5 What are the effects of conservation management activities
on parasite communities? 16
1.5.6 Which parasite species are most likely to become
endangered? 17
1.6 Conclusion 19

2 Disease epidemiology in natural systems 26

2.1 Introduction 26
2.2 Transmission and parasite life cycles 28
2.2.1 Transmission in single host–single parasite infections 28
2.2.2 Transmission in multiple host species–single parasite
infection 30

vii
viii CONTENTS

2.2.3 The basic reproductive number R0 30

2.2.4 Natural selection and host–parasite interactions 33
2.3 Factors determining outcome of infection 34
2.3.1 Host effects 34
2.3.2 Pathogen effects 35
2.3.3 Environmental effects 36

3 Anthropogenic effects and wildlife diseases 40

3.1 Introduction 40
3.2 Human introduction of pathogens or hosts 40
3.2.1 Introduction of a novel disease agent into a naive population 41
3.2.2 Introduction of naive hosts to an area where an indigenous
pathogen exists 44
3.2.3 Introduction of a host that alters the ecology of an indigenous
disease 44
3.3 Interactions between habitat degradation/loss and infectious
disease 46
3.3.1 Parasites/pathogens modifying habitat suitability 46
3.3.2 Effects of habitat degradation/fragmentation on parasites
and pathogens 47
3.3.3 Conclusion 49
3.4 Parasitism and predation 49
3.4.1 Trophic transmission 51
3.4.2 Effects of predators on herd health 52
3.4.3 Combined effects of predation and parasitism on host
population size and stability 53
3.5 Climate change and wildlife disease 53
3.5.1 Climate change and vector-borne diseases 54

Part II Acquisition of Field Data 63

4 Sampling, experimental design, and statistical analysis 65

4.1 Introduction 65
4.2 The three Rs of sampling and study design: Representativeness,
replication, and randomness 65
4.2.1 Representativeness 65
4.2.2 Replication 66
4.2.3 Randomness 67
4.3 Statistical tools 70
4.3.1 Likelihood 70
4.3.2 The Akaike Information Criterion 71
4.4 Hypothesis testing 72
4.5 Power analysis 73
 CONTENTS ix

5 Capture, restraint, and euthanasia of target species 76

5.1 Introduction 76
5.2 Are captured animals representative of the population? 77
5.3 Are biological samples collected from study animals representative
of the normal physiological state and not unduly influenced by the
capture procedure? 79
5.4 Will capture affect the study animal’s subsequent behavior, activity,
or survival? 83
5.5 Are sampling frequency and intensity sufficient to accurately
represent host population demographics and the dynamics of the
disease? 83
5.6 Will the capture technique endanger the investigator? 86
5.7 How can the capturing/sampling process be improved? 88
5.8 Euthanasia (humane killing) 89
5.9 Capture considerations for various categories of vertebrate hosts 90
5.9.1 Amphibians 90
5.9.2 Reptiles 90
5.9.3 Birds 91
5.9.4 Mammals 92

6 Disease and agent detection 97

6.1 Introduction 97
6.2 Detecting infectious agents in individuals 97
6.3 Detecting infectious agents at the population level 99
6.4 Detecting disease at the individual or population level 101
6.5 Confirming a cause–effect relationship between infection and
disease 103
6.5.1 Basic principles and methodological challenges 103
6.5.2 Experimental studies 105
6.5.3 Observational studies 106

7 The environmental context of wildlife disease 111

7.1 Introduction 111
7.2 Identifying and quantifying the association between environmental
features and disease occurrence 112
7.2.1 The importance of scale 115
7.3 Modeling the environmental occurrence of disease 115
7.3.1 Using features of the ecological niche to predict where or
when disease will occur 117
7.3.2 Using knowledge of the ecological niche in disease
management 118
7.4 Conclusions and summary 119

8 Agent and disease detection—Laboratory methods 123

8.1 Introduction 123
8.2 Sampling—Preanalysis 124
x CONTENTS

8.3 Sampling—Analysis 126

8.4 Sampling—Postanalysis 128

Part III Modeling and Data Analysis 131

9 Disease modeling 133

9.1 Why use a model? 133
9.2 Types of models 134
9.2.1 Strategic versus tactical models 134
9.2.2 Deterministic versus stochastic models 134
9.2.3 Microparasite versus macroparasite models 135
9.3 Microparasite models 136
9.3.1 Incorporating age structure and time delays 138
9.4 Macroparasite models 139
9.5 Integral projection models 140
9.6 The basic reproductive number R0 141
9.6.1 R0 for complex life cycles and multiple hosts 141
9.6.2 R0 for network models 145
9.7 Adding pathogens to population viability analysis models 146
9.8 Individual-based models 147
9.9 Models for spatial spread 148

10 Estimating basic epidemiological parameters 151

10.1 Introduction 151
10.2 Estimating host population size and infection status 151
10.3 Mortality and fecundity: Basic demographic parameters 152
10.3.1 Estimating pathogen- or parasite-induced mortality 152
10.3.2 Survival analysis 154
10.4 Mark–recapture methods 155
10.5 Quantifying transmission 157
10.5.1 What does one need to estimate and why? 157
10.5.2 Estimating contact rates 157
10.5.3 Estimating the force of infection 158
10.5.4 Multistate mark–recapture methods 158
10.6 Estimating R0 160
10.6.1 Direct estimation of R0 for emerging diseases 160
10.6.2 Estimation of R0 for infections at equilibrium 162
10.6.3 Estimating R0 in multiple host systems 162
10.7 Estimating the parameters for spatial spread 163
10.8 Bayesian approaches 163
 CONTENTS xi

Part IV Epidemiological Control and Prevention 169

11 Disease management: Introduction and planning 171

11.1 Identifying the problem: Known knowns 171
11.2 Known unknowns 171
11.3 Unknown unknowns 172
11.4 Steps in managing threats to wildlife from infectious disease 172
11.5 Management plans 175
11.5.1 Elements of a management plan 176
11.5.2 Existing management plans for wildlife diseases: The
example of Australia 176

12 Preventing new disease occurrences 181

12.1 Background and definitions 181
12.1.1 Anticipatory planning 183
12.1.2 Ecological and evolutionary considerations 184
12.2 Introduction of pathogens into susceptible systems: Prevention
and management 187
12.2.1 Preventing disease introduction after accidental movement
of hosts 187
12.2.2 Preventing disease introduction during intentional host
movement: Wildlife translocations and reintroductions 191
12.2.3 Preventative protection of individual hosts 192
12.3 Introduction of susceptible hosts to a disease nidus: Realities and
prevention 192
12.4 Preventing environmental changes that allow a disease to
establish or increase in prevalence 194
12.5 Conclusion 196

13 Disease elimination and eradication 202

13.1 Introduction 202
13.2 Pre-intervention considerations 202
13.3 Manipulating the causative agent 206
13.4 Manipulating the host(s) 207
13.5 Vaccination 211
13.6 Manipulating environmental factors 213
13.7 Combined techniques 215
13.8 The endgame 215
13.9 Establishing an “ark” or “insurance” population 216

14 Disease control: How to live with infection 223

14.1 Introduction 223
14.2 Reducing prevalence or intensity of infection 225
14.2.1 Culling 225
xii CONTENTS

14.2.2 Chemotherapy 225

14.2.3 Managing species other than the focal host 227
14.3 Increasing resistance or tolerance 227
14.3.1 Food supplementation 227
14.3.2 Vaccination 228
14.3.3 Probiotics and related approaches 228
14.3.4 Genetic management 230
14.4 Increasing tolerance of infection at a population level 232

15 Infectious diseases as biological control agents 237

15.1 Introduction 237
15.2 Myxomatosis as a biological control for rabbit populations 237
15.3 Rabbit hemorrhagic disease to control rabbit populations 241
15.3.1 Rabbit biocontrol—Ecological consequences 242
15.4 Feline panleukopenia virus against cats 242
15.5 Herpesvirus as a control agent for European carp 243
15.6 Potential biological control of cane toads 245
15.7 Virally vectored immunocontraception 245
15.8 Synthesis and conclusions 246
15.8.1 Logistics of biocontrol 246
15.8.2 Required prerelease knowledge 247
15.8.3 Postrelease activities 247

16 Ethical and public outreach considerations 250

16.1 Introduction 250
16.2 Ethics in wildlife disease management 250
16.2.1 Conservation 252
16.2.2 Preservationism 253
16.2.3 A special case: Global eradication of pathogens or parasites 253
16.2.4 Implications for wildlife disease management 253
16.2.5 Ethics of wildlife disease management: Some practical
suggestions 254
16.3 Wildlife disease management and public outreach 255
16.3.1 Communicating information about wildlife-associated
disease: Interacting with the community 255
16.3.2 Stakeholder engagement methods 259

Index 264
 Acknowledgments

This book is the product of the work of count- extensive bibliography. In addition, we are thank-
less individuals who have contributed to it directly, ful to the members of the UM Ecosystem Health
or indirectly. First, we would like to acknowledge class who read individual chapters and provided
the institutional support from our academic homes: comments and insights. Last, but not least, this
the School for Environment and Sustainability book reflects the indirect inputs of many colleagues
at the University of Michigan, the School of Envi- who, through innumerable conversations at confer-
ronment and Science and Centre for Planetary ences and professional meetings, helped shape the
Health and Food Security at Griffith University, ideas in this book. We thank our colleagues Rebecca
and the Western College of Veterinary Medicine at Hardin and Joe Eisenberg, who acted as sounding
the University of Saskatchewan, without which this boards for many of the ideas in this book. We also
book would not have been possible. JF would also would like to express our gratitude to the many col-
like to acknowledge the support of Griffith Uni- leagues who so generously provided us with images
versity and the Max Planck Institute for Animal of their work that are included in this book.
Movement (Konstanz, Germany), which provided We are deeply indebted to our editors at OUP,
intellectual homes during two sabbatical stints of Lucy Nash, Bethany Kershaw and Charles Bath
writing this book. HM would like to acknowledge for their patience, support, and attention to detail
the support of All Souls College Oxford, through a in improving the manuscript. However, our deep-
Visiting Fellowship in Michaelmas term 2015, dur- est thanks go to Ian Sherman, who with unfailing
ing which a substantial amount of time was spent poise, patience, and persistence kept us focused,
working on the book. and helped us navigate this project through the
We are greatly indebted to multiple students, and many years to completion.
especially David Faulker, Kesiree Thiamkeelakul, Most of all, we are thankful for our friends and
Kristine Meader, and Hal Terry, for reading earlier especially our spouses (JF: Jennifer; HM: Barbara;
versions of the manuscript and improving the text Gary: Amy as well as our children (JF: Alex; HM:
through numerous suggestions, corrections, and Alasdair and Maddy) and parents (JF: Christel and
edits. Chrysi Beltsou and Laura McNeil were instru- Manoli) for putting up with us while we spent
mental in compiling, organizing, and formatting the endless hours on writing this book.

xiii
 List of Acronyms and Abbreviations

ACE-2 angiotensin-converting enzyme 2

AIC Akaike information criterion
ANOVA analysis of variance
bTB bovine tuberculosis
CM capture myopathy
CSF classical swine fever
CWD chronic wasting disease
CyHV-3 cyprinid herpesvirus-3
DRA disease risk analysis
ELISA enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
ESU Evolutionarily Significant Unit
FIV feline immunodeficiency virus
FPV feline panleukopenia virus
GC glucocorticoid
GLMM generalized linear mixed model
GPS Global Positioning System
HA hunted animals
IA indicator animals
IPM integral projection model
IUCN International Union for Conservation
of Nature
MCMV murine cytomegalovirus
NIAID National Institute of Allergy and
Infectious Diseases
OIE World Organisation for Animal
Health
PAA pre-analytical artifact
PCR polymerase chain reaction
PVA population viability analysis
RCV-A1 rabbit calicivirus Australia 1
RML Rocky Mountain Laboratories
RHDV rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus
SARS severe acute respiratory syndrome
TTP total testing process
TST tuberculin skin test

xiv
 Glossary

“When I use a word” Humpty Dumpty said, in rather a variance in counts per sampling unit will then
scornful tone, “it means just what I choose it to mean— be larger than the mean count per sampling unit.
neither more nor less.” Macroparasites are almost invariably aggregat-
Lewis Carroll, Through the Looking-Glass ed in their host population, the majority of hosts
harboring a few or no parasites and a few hosts
In the spirit of Humpty Dumpty and Lewis Carroll,
harboring large parasite burdens. Aggregation
the definitions we give in this glossary are the way
generally arises from some source heterogene-
in which we have used the terms in this book. Many
ity in the host or parasite population. Cluster-
of these terms may have slightly differing defini-
ing and overdispersion are synonymous terms.
tions throughout the biological and epidemiological
Aggregated distributions are often described by
literature.
the negative binomial distribution.
Terms adapted from Grenfell and Dobson (1997),
Agroecosystem Land used for crops, pasture, and
Meffe and Carroll (2006), Loker and Hofkin (2015),
livestock; the adjacent uncultivated land that
Allaby (2005), and various internet resources.
supports other vegetation and wildlife; and
Acaricide A chemical agent used to kill mites or the associated atmosphere, the underlying soils,
ticks. groundwater, and drainage networks.
Accuracy The degree to which an individual mea- Amplification host A host in which infectious
surement or estimate represents the true value agents multiply to high levels, providing an
of the attribute being measured; the proportion important source of infection for vectors or other
of all tests, both positive and negative, that are species.
correct. (cf. Precision) Anagenesis Evolutionary change, especially along
Adaptive management A management style in a single, unbranched lineage.
which the strategy is altered as additional Antibody A protein produced in the blood of ver-
information becomes available as management tebrates in response to an antigen. The antibody
proceeds. Passive adaptive management uses produced is able to bind specifically to that anti-
additional information as it becomes available. gen and plays a role in its inactivation or removal
Active adaptive management deliberately alters by the immune system.
the management strategy in order to gain infor- Antigen A substance, generally foreign, capable of
mation to aid management. inducing antibody formation.
Aetiological agent The causative agent of a dis- Antihelminthic A drug used specifically to control
ease or condition, often a microorganism or a helminth (i.e., parasitic worm) infections.
toxin. Arbovirus A member of a diverse group of virus-
Aggregation Organisms show an aggregated dis- es that use arthropods as vectors and are
tribution when the numbers per sampling unit transmitted in their saliva to the definitive
(often a quadrat or, in the case of parasites, a host.
host) are more variable than would be expected Background extinction rate Historical rates of
from a random (Poisson) distribution. The extinction owing to environmental causes not

xv
xvi G L O S S A RY

influenced by human activities. Distinct and introduction of zoonotic pathogens into human
much lower than mass extinction events. populations.
Barrier culling A disease elimination approach Carrier (asymptomatic) An individual infected
in which populations of susceptible hosts are with a parasite that may transmit infection, but
removed from a specific region ahead of an epi- which does not display symptoms of disease.
zootic in order to prevent entry of the disease Case definition A standard set of criteria for deter-
into an area where it does not occur, or from mining whether an individual has a particu-
where it has been eliminated in the past. lar infection, disease, or syndrome. Use of an
Basic reproductive number (basic reproduction agreed-upon standard case definition ensures
number, basic reproductive ratio R0 ) A theo- that every case is equivalent, regardless of when
retical value representing the average number or where it occurred. Furthermore, it allows for
of new infections that arise during the period of rigorous comparison of case numbers or rate of
infectiousness of a single infectious individual disease, identified in one time or place against
who has entered a population of completely the number or rate from another time or place
susceptible hosts. (cf. effective reproduction (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention).
number) Chemoprophylaxis The use of chemicals to pre-
Bayesian statistical methods Statistical methods vent infection or disease.
derived from Thomas Bayes’ theorem of condi- Chemotherapy The treatment of infection by
tional probability. Bayesian methods are char- means of chemicals (drugs) that have a specific
acterized by their incorporation of prior knowl- toxic effect on the parasite or pathogen.
edge about the quantity to be estimated, which is Coccidia An order of parasitic protozoa.
then modified by the observed data to generate Cohort (observational) study A particular form of
a posterior distribution. longitudinal study that samples the performance
Binomial distribution A statistical distribution of a cohort (a group of individuals who share
that describes the probability of observing the a defining characteristic, typically those who
number of “successes” x, from a series of n experienced a common event, such as birth
independent trials in which the probability of during a selected period), at various intervals
success p remains constant. In disease ecology, throughout time. Cohort studies represent one
if the prevalence of infection in a population of the fundamental designs of epidemiology and
is p, the number of infected individuals x in a are used on “difficult to reach” answers, for
sample size of n individuals is likely to follow a instance on how risk factors affect the incidence
binomial distribution. of diseases.
Biocontrol or biological control The addition of a Commensalism A form of interspecific association
species to an ecological community with the in which two species live in close association
intention of controlling an invasive species. with each other, with one deriving a benefit, and
Biomagnification The accumulation of toxic sub- the other being neither positively nor negatively
stances in species occupying higher trophic lev- affected. (cf. Mutualism and Parasitism)
els. Complex life cycle A life cycle in which a para-
Bridge host A host (in most usages, other than site needs to be transmitted through at least two
a vector) that transmits infection from a main- different host species in order to complete its
tenance or reservoir host to a target host. (cf. development. (also Indirect life cycle)
amplification host and reservoir host) Confidence interval (xx%) A range of values with-
Burden of disease Mortality, morbidity, and dis- in which the true value of a parameter will fall
ability in a population caused by a disease. xx% of the time if a given estimation procedure
Bushmeat Meat from animals (usually terrestri- is repeated a large number of times. Loosely, it
al) that is harvested in the wild. Often a cause is often said that there is an xx% chance that the
of wildlife endangerment and a portal for the true value of the parameter will fall within the
 G L O S S A RY xvii

confidence interval. This definition is, however, Edge effect The altered biological and environ-
closer to the credible interval used in Bayesian mental conditions at the perimeter of a fragment-
statistics. ed habitat; see Habitat fragmentation.
Contact rate The average frequency per unit time Effective reproduction number (Re ) The average
with which susceptible individuals contact (or number of secondary cases resulting from each
are sufficiently close to) infected individuals or infected individual at any point after disease has
infective stages of a parasite, such that they can been introduced into a population, taking into
potentially acquire infection. account factors such as an acquired immunity
Credible interval In Bayesian statistics, an inter- or vaccination. (cf. Basic reproduction number
val in which an unknown parameter falls with a R0 )
given probability. Efficacy An index of the potency of a drug or
Cross-sectional observation study A study that treatment, usually estimated as the average pro-
examines the infection or disease status of a host portion of parasites in any host killed by a single
population (generally subdivided by age or sex) dose or a short-term course of the treatment.
at a moment in time. Eigenvalue A fundamental mathematical param-
Definitive host see Primary host. eter associated with square matrices that has
Degrees of freedom (of an estimate or test statis- many important applications in population biol-
tic) The number of independent observations ogy and epidemiology. For example, the largest
used to calculate the statistic or estimate, minus (dominant) eigenvalue of a matrix describing an
the number of quantities calculated from the age-structured population represents the loga-
same dataset that were required to calculate the rithmic growth rate of that population.
statistic or estimate. Elimination of a pathogen. Reduction to zero of
Density-dependent transmission Transmission of the incidence of infection caused by a specific
a pathogen/parasite at a rate that is dependent agent, in a defined geographical area, as a result
(typically in a positive manner) on the popula- of deliberate efforts. (cf. Eradication)
tion density of the host. Environmental reservoir Part of the environment,
Digenean A parasitic helminth belonging to the either other organisms (see Reservoir popula-
platyhelminthic fluke subgroup Digenea. tion), or abiotic parts of the environment, in
Dilution effect The hypothesis that pathogen or which a parasite or pathogen can be maintained
parasite transmission to a target host decreases in the long term, and from which it can infect a
with increasing diversity of the ecological com- target population.
munity. Enzootic transmission Relatively stable transmis-
Direct life cycle (or Simple life cycle) A life cycle sion of an infectious agent in an animal popula-
in which a parasite is transmitted directly from tion.
one host to the next without an intermediate host Epizootic transmission Transmission of an infec-
or vector of another species. tious agent in an animal population in excess of
Disease An abnormal condition affecting the func- what is normally observed in a region in a given
tioning of an organism, not caused by external period. The resulting wave of infection is called
injury. Often used incorrectly or as shorthand an epizootic.
to refer to a parasite or pathogen that causes Eradication of a pathogen The reduction to zero of
disease. the worldwide incidence of infection caused by a
Disease triangle The concept that infectious dis- specific agent, as a result of deliberate effort. (cf.
ease (both at a population and individual lev- Elimination)
el) is a result of an interaction between the Eutrophication The overabundance of algal life
host, a disease-causing organism (parasite or (an algal bloom) in a body of water, typically
pathogen), and the environment in which both as the result of human-caused nutrient (N, P)
host and pathogen occur. inflow. Following the eventual death of these
xviii G L O S S A RY

algae, their decomposition leads to pronounced Fomite An inanimate object or substance that
removal of oxygen from the water column, there- transfers a pathogen from one host to another.
fore creating conditions conducive to pathogen Force of infection For microparasites, the rate
spread. (per unit of time) at which susceptible individ-
Exotic species Species introduced to a different uals in a given population acquire infection. For
ecosystem than their native one, often through macroparasites, the rate at which hosts acquire
anthropogenic processes; such nonnative species additional parasites.
however are not necessarily invasive. Frequency-dependent transmission A term used
Exposure Contact with an infectious agent req- to describe disease transmission that does not
uired, but not sufficient for infection. Not the depend on the density of infected and sus-
same as dose. ceptible hosts but instead on the frequency
Ex situ preservation Managing animals in zoos, with which a transmitting event occurs. Spread
or otherwise away from their natural habitat in of vector-transmitted pathogens and sexually
order to protect them. (Contrast with In situ transmitted diseases is often frequency depen-
conservation) dent.
Extinction cascade A series of linked extinctions Genetic drift Genetic changes and losses that
whereby the extinction of one species leads to the occur by chance, especially evident in small pop-
extinction of one or more different species. ulations.
Extinction vortex A set of self-reinforcing inter- Glochidium/ia The larval stage typical of many
nal processes (such as inbreeding depression or types of freshwater bivalves (mussels) that
demographic stochasticity) that can lead to the attaches to the gill filaments of fish where it
eventual extinction of small populations even lives as an ectoparasite. Ultimately it drops off
in the absence of external stressors. The tenden- and settles on the bottom of the water body to
cy of small populations to become progressive- continue its development into an adult mussel.
ly smaller in each generation, eventually going Habitat The physical environment in which a
extinct. species is found.
Extinction rate (background) “Normal” low-level Habitat corridors Strips of land, typically covered
rates of extinction owing to background envi- by natural vegetation, which connect patches of
ronmental causes, not influenced by human natural habitat.
activities or other catastrophic events (see Mass Habitat fragmentation The process by which a
extinction event). large, continuous area of habitat is both reduced
Fitness The extent to which an organism is adapt- in area and divided into two or more sections
ed to its environment, measured by the number (fragments).
of viable offspring it leaves behind relative to Helminth A member of one the five classes of para-
other individuals in the population. sitic worms: monogeneans, digeneans, cestodes,
Focal culling (“reactive culling,” “point infection nematodes, and acanthocephalans.
control”) An approach used to eliminate disease Herd immunity Reached when a sufficiently high
in animals. The entire group on an “infected” proportion of a population is immune (either as a
farm or a herd is euthanized, and culling may result of vaccination or acquired immunity) that
extend to adjacent premises, to remove poten- the prevalence of infection no longer increases in
tial sources of infection and reduce availability the population.
of susceptible animals. The technique requires Herd immunity threshold The minimum level of
rapid identification of cases, prompt interven- herd immunity that prevents sustained trans-
tion, and restriction of movement of animals into mission of an infectious agent in a popula-
and out of the cull site and is best used in sit- tion. Depends on characteristics of the infectious
uations where good access exists to the animal agent, the host population, and the environmen-
population. tal conditions.
 G L O S S A RY xix

Heteroxenous A parasitic organism that utilizes hosts, or vectors before the definitive host is
more than one host during its life cycle. reinfected.
Hematozoan A parasitic organism residing pri- Infection The colonization and replication of a
marily in the blood of the host. parasitic organism that gains sustenance or shel-
Host Any animal or plant that under natural con- ter from the body of a host, whether or not that
ditions provides sustenance or shelter to a para- host experiences ill health.
sitic organism. Infectious (or contagious) disease Disease caused
Horizontal transmission The most common type by infection with a parasite that can be transmit-
of pathogen/parasite transmission, in which an ted from one individual to another either directly
infected individual infects another susceptible or, indirectly, through a vector.
individual of the same species. In situ conservation Managing species in their
Hypothesis testing A statistical approach in natural environment. (cf. Ex situ conservation)
which a null hypothesis continues to be accept- Intensity of infection Used inconsistently in the
ed following an experiment, unless the data literature: either the mean number of parasites
collected indicate that the null hypothesis is within infected members of the host population
sufficiently unlikely to be true. In that case an or the mean parasite burden of the entire popu-
alternative hypothesis is accepted. lation. Unless prevalence is 100%, the latter will
Immunity the ability to combat infection or dis- be smaller than the former.
ease owing to the presence of antibodies or acti- Intermediate host (also secondary host) A host
vated cells. Typically divided into three types: required for a parasite’s life cycle, but not the
acquired immunity is conferred on an individ- host inside which parasite sexual reproduction
ual following recovery from a disease; natural occurs.
or innate immunity is inherited from parents, or Invasive species A species occurring and expand-
in some cases antibodies may be passed across ing its distribution outside its natural range,
the placenta and therefore are present in the typically introduced directly or indirectly by to
blood at birth; and artificial immunity may be human activities (see exotic species).
induced by the injection of a vaccine or anti- Keystone species Select species that have a dispro-
serum and confers protection of variable dura- portionate effect on the organization of a bio-
tion to a pathogen. logical community and the loss of which may
Immunosuppression Suppression of the immune have far-reaching consequences for community
response by drugs, parasites, or the host’s own structure.
immune regulatory mechanisms. Koch’s postulates A set of four criteria used to
Inbreeding The mating of individuals who are determine whether a causative relationship
more closely related than by chance alone. exists between a microorganism and a disease.
Inbreeding depression Lowered reproductive First expressed formally by the German physi-
rates, or production of offspring with lowered cian Robert Koch in the nineteenth century.
survival and reproduction, following mating Latent infection An infection that is causing no
among close relatives or self-fertilization. disease.
Incidence rate The ratio of the number of new Latent period Interval between acquisition of
events (e.g., infections) during a defined time infection by a host and its ability to transmit
period to the population at risk of experiencing infection. (cf. Incubation period and Serial
the event. interval)
Incubation period The time interval between the Likelihood In statistics, the probability of observ-
acquisition of infection and the onset of clinical ing values of one or more model parameters,
signs. (cf. latent period and serial interval) given a particular set of data. The set of param-
Indirect Life cycle (or Complex life cycle) A life eters at which the likelihood is maximized are
cycle that requires one or more intermediate called the maximum likelihood estimates.
Another Random Scribd Document
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 Immunology - Revision Notes
Winter 2022 - Academy

Prepared by: Lecturer Garcia

Date: August 12, 2025

Methodology 1: Study tips and learning strategies

Learning Objective 1: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 2: Practical applications and examples
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 3: Study tips and learning strategies
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 4: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 5: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Ethical considerations and implications
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Current trends and future directions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 8: Historical development and evolution
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Best practices and recommendations
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Background 2: Theoretical framework and methodology
Definition: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 11: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 12: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 15: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 15: Historical development and evolution
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 16: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 19: Key terms and definitions
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Quiz 3: Comparative analysis and synthesis
Important: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Research findings and conclusions
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 26: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 27: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 27: Practical applications and examples
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 28: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Abstract 4: Best practices and recommendations
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 31: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Current trends and future directions
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 35: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 38: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Discussion 5: Fundamental concepts and principles
Remember: Key terms and definitions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 42: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 44: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 45: Practical applications and examples
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 49: Historical development and evolution
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Test 6: Study tips and learning strategies
Example 50: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 52: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 53: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 54: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 55: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Key terms and definitions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 59: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Exercise 7: Assessment criteria and rubrics
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 62: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Case studies and real-world applications
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 65: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 68: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Current trends and future directions
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Quiz 8: Experimental procedures and results
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 71: Key terms and definitions
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 72: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Key terms and definitions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 74: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 76: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 76: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 77: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 78: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 79: Best practices and recommendations
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Introduction 9: Assessment criteria and rubrics
Key Concept: Experimental procedures and results
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 81: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Practical applications and examples
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 86: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 88: Case studies and real-world applications
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 90: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Conclusion 10: Practical applications and examples
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Literature review and discussion
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 93: Case studies and real-world applications
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Experimental procedures and results
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Research findings and conclusions
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Practical applications and examples
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Exercise 11: Best practices and recommendations
Example 100: Ethical considerations and implications
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 102: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Current trends and future directions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 103: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 104: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Study tips and learning strategies
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Study tips and learning strategies
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 107: Literature review and discussion
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Test 12: Experimental procedures and results
Example 110: Case studies and real-world applications
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 111: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 113: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Historical development and evolution
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Conclusion 13: Critical analysis and evaluation
Example 120: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Ethical considerations and implications
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 123: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 124: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 124: Experimental procedures and results
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Best practices and recommendations
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 129: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Key terms and definitions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice 14: Key terms and definitions
Example 130: Literature review and discussion
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Current trends and future directions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 133: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Literature review and discussion
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Study tips and learning strategies
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 137: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Key terms and definitions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
References 15: Current trends and future directions
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 143: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 144: Historical development and evolution
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
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