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Practical Electronics
for Inventors
 ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Paul Scherz is a Systems Operation Manager who received his B.S.
in physics from the University of Wisconsin. He is an inventor/
hobbyist in electronics, an area he grew to appreciate through his
experience at the University’s Department of Nuclear Engineering
and Engineering Physics and Department of Plasma Physics.

Dr. Simon Monk has a bachelor’s degree in cybernetics and

computer science and a Ph.D. in software engineering. He spent
several years as an academic before he returned to industry,
co-founding the mobile software company Momote Ltd. He has
been an active electronics hobbyist since his early teens and is a
full-time writer on hobby electronics and open-source hardware.
Dr. Monk is author of numerous electronics books, including
Programming Arduino, Hacking Electronics, and Programming the
Raspberry Pi.

ABOUT THE TECHNICAL EDITORS

Michael Margolis has more than 40 years of experience devel-

oping and delivering hardware and software solutions. He has
worked at senior levels with Sony, Lucent/Bell Labs, and a num-
ber of start-up companies. Michael is the author of two books,
Arduino Cookbook and Make an Arduino-Controlled Robot: Autono-
mous and Remote-Controlled Bots on Wheels.

Chris Fitzer is a solutions architect and technical manager who

received his Ph.D. in electrical and electronic engineering from the
University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology
(UMIST) in 2003 and a first-class honors degree (B.Sc.) in 1999.
He currently leads a global team developing and deploying
Smart Grid technologies around the world. Previous positions
have seen Chris drive the European interests of the ZigBee Smart
Energy (ZSE) profile and lead the development of the world’s first
certified Smart Energy In Premise Display (IPD) and prototype
smart meter. He has also authored or co-authored numerous tech-
nical journal papers within the field of Smarter Grids.
Practical Electronics
for Inventors
Fourth Edition

Paul Scherz

Simon Monk

New York Chicago San Francisco

Athens London Madrid Mexico City Milan
New Delhi Singapore Sydney Toronto
Library of Congress Control Number: 2016932853

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Practical Electronics for Inventors, Fourth Edition

Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2007, 2000 by McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Printed
in the United States of America. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act
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ISBN 978-1-25-958754-2
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CONTENTS

Preface xxiii
Acknowledgments xxv

CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Electronics 1

CHAPTER 2 Theory 5
2.1 Theory of Electronics 5
2.2 Electric Current 6
2.2.1 Currents in Perspective 9
2.3 Voltage 9
2.3.1 The Mechanisms of Voltage 11
2.3.2 Definition of Volt and Generalized Power Law 14
2.3.3 Combining Batteries 15
2.3.4 Other Voltage Sources 16
2.3.5 Water Analogies 17
2.4 A Microscopic View of Conduction (for Those
Who Are Interested) 18
2.4.1 Applying a Voltage 21
2.5 Resistance, Resistivity, Conductivity 23
2.5.1 How the Shape of a Conductor Affects Resistance 24
2.5.2 Resistivity and Conductivity 25
2.6 Insulators, Conductors, and Semiconductors 28
2.7 Heat and Power 31
2.8 Thermal Heat Conduction and Thermal Resistance 34
2.8.1 Importance of Heat Production 37
2.9 Wire Gauges 39
2.10 Grounds 40
2.10.1 Earth Ground 42
2.10.2 Different Types of Ground Symbols 45
2.10.3 Loose Ends on Grounding 47

ix
x Contents

2.11 Electric Circuits 49

2.12 Ohm’s Law and Resistors 50
2.12.1 Resistor Power Ratings 51
2.12.2 Resistors in Parallel 52
2.12.3 Resistors in Series 55
2.12.4 Reducing a Complex Resistor Network 58
2.12.5 Multiple Voltage Dividers 61
2.13 Voltage and Current Sources 62
2.14 Measuring Voltage, Current, and Resistance 65
2.15 Combining Batteries 67
2.16 Open and Short Circuits 68
2.17 Kirchhoff’s Laws 69
2.18 Superposition Theorem 74
2.19 Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorems 76
2.19.1 Thevenin’s Theorem 76
2.19.2 Norton’s Theorem 77
2.20 AC Circuits 80
2.20.1 Generating AC 81
2.20.2 Water Analogy of AC 82
2.20.3 Pulsating DC 82
2.20.4 Combining Sinusoidal Sources 83
2.20.5 AC Waveforms 84
2.20.6 Describing an AC Waveform 84
2.20.7 Frequency and Period 85
2.20.8 Phase 86
2.21 AC and Resistors, RMS Voltage, and Current 87
2.22 Mains Power 92
2.23 Capacitors 94
2.23.1 Determining Capacitance 97
2.23.2 Commercial Capacitors 99
2.23.3 Voltage Rating and Dielectric Breakdown 99
2.23.4 Maxwell’s Displacement Current 100
2.23.5 Charge-Based Model of Current
Through a Capacitor 102
2.23.6 Capacitor Water Analogy 104
2.23.7 Energy in a Capacitor 105
2.23.8 RC Time Constant 105
2.23.9 Stray Capacitance 108
2.23.10 Capacitors in Parallel 108
2.23.11 Capacitors in Series 109
2.23.12 Alternating Current in a Capacitor 110
2.23.13 Capacitive Reactance 111
2.23.14 Capacitive Divider 113
2.23.15 Quality Factor 113
2.24 Inductors 113
2.24.1 Electromagnetism 114
2.24.2 Magnetic Fields and Their Influence 117
 Contents xi

2.24.3 Self-Inductance 120

2.24.4 Inductors 121
2.24.5 Inductor Water Analogy 127
2.24.6 Inductor Equations 128
2.24.7 Energy Within an Inductor 133
2.24.8 Inductor Cores 133
2.24.9 Understanding the Inductor Equations 138
2.24.10 Energizing RL Circuit 142
2.24.11 Deenergizing RL Circuit 144
2.24.12 Voltage Spikes Due to Switching 147
2.24.13 Straight-Wire Inductance 147
2.24.14 Mutual Inductance and Magnetic Coupling 148
2.24.15 Unwanted Coupling: Spikes, Lightning,
and Other Pulses 149
2.24.16 Inductors in Series and Parallel 149
2.24.17 Alternating Current and Inductors 150
2.24.18 Inductive Reactance 151
2.24.19 Nonideal Inductor Model 153
2.24.20 Quality Factor 154
2.24.21 Inductor Applications 155
2.25 Modeling Complex Circuits 155
2.26 Complex Numbers 159
2.27 Circuit with Sinusoidal Sources 164
2.27.1 Analyzing Sinusoidal Circuits with
Complex Impedances 165
2.27.2 Sinusoidal Voltage Source in Complex Notation 167
2.27.3 Odd Phenomena in Reactive Circuits 175
2.28 Power in AC Circuits (Apparent Power,
Real Power, Reactive Power) 176
2.28.1 Power Factor 178
2.29 Thevenin’s Theorem in AC Form 186
2.30 Resonant Circuits 188
2.30.1 Resonance in RLC Circuits 191
2.30.2 Q (Quality Factor) and Bandwidth 193
2.30.3 Bandwidth 194
2.30.4 Voltage Drop Across Components
in RLC Resonant Circuit 195
2.30.5 Capacitor Losses 195
2.30.6 Parallel-Resonant Circuits 196
2.30.7 The Q of Loaded Circuits 202
2.31 Lecture on Decibels 204
2.31.1 Alternative Decibel Representations 207
2.32 Input and Output Impedance 207
2.32.1 Input Impedance 207
2.32.2 Output Impedance 208
2.33 Two-Port Networks and Filters 210
2.33.1 Filters 210
2.33.2 Attenuators 221
xii Contents

2.34 Transient Circuits 223

2.34.1 Series RLC Circuit 231
2.35 Circuits with Periodic Nonsinusoidal Sources 235
2.35.1 Fourier Series 236
2.36 Nonperiodic Sources 243
2.37 SPICE 245
2.37.1 How SPICE Works 246
2.37.2 Limitations of SPICE and Other Simulators 249
2.37.3 A Simple Simulation Example 249

CHAPTER 3 Basic Electronic Circuit Components 253

3.1 Wires, Cables, and Connectors 253
3.1.1 Wires 253
3.1.2 Cables 256
3.1.3 Connectors 256
3.1.4 Wiring and Connector Symbols 261
3.1.5 High-Frequency Effects Within
Wires and Cables 262
3.2 Batteries 271
3.2.1 How a Cell Works 272
3.2.2 Primary Batteries 274
3.2.3 Comparing Primary Batteries 275
3.2.4 Secondary Batteries 279
3.2.5 Battery Capacity 287
3.2.6 Note on Internal Voltage Drop of a Battery 289
3.3 Switches 290
3.3.1 How a Switch Works 291
3.3.2 Describing a Switch 291
3.3.3 Kinds of Switches 292
3.3.4 Simple Switch Applications 294
3.4 Relays 295
3.4.1 Specific Kinds of Relays 297
3.4.2 A Few Notes about Relays 298
3.4.3 Some Simple Relay Circuits 299
3.5 Resistors 299
3.5.1 Resistance and Ohm’s Law 301
3.5.2 Resistors in Series and Parallel 302
3.5.3 Reading Resistor Labels 304
3.5.4 Real Resistor Characteristics 306
3.5.5 Types of Resistors 314
3.5.6 Variable Resistors (Rheostats,
Potentiometers, Trimmers) 320
3.5.7 Potentiometer Characteristics 322
3.6 Capacitors 324
3.6.1 Capacitance 326
3.6.2 Capacitors in Parallel 326
3.6.3 Capacitors in Series 327
 Contents xiii

3.6.4 RC Time Constant 327

3.6.5 Capacitive Reactance 328
3.6.6 Real Capacitors 329
3.6.7 Capacitor Specifications 329
3.6.8 Types of Capacitors 333
3.6.9 Capacitor Applications 341
3.6.10 Timing and Sample and Hold 347
3.6.11 RC Ripple Filter 348
3.6.12 Arc Suppression 350
3.6.13 Supercapacitor Applications 352
3.6.14 Problems 352
3.7 Inductors 355
3.7.1 Inductance 357
3.7.2 Constructing Inductors 357
3.7.3 Inductors in Series and Parallel 357
3.7.4 RL Time Constant 359
3.7.5 Inductive Reactance 360
3.7.6 Real Inductors 361
3.7.7 Inductor Specifications 361
3.7.8 Types of Inductors 363
3.7.9 Reading Inductor Labels 367
3.7.10 Inductor Applications 369
3.7.11 EMI/EMC Design Tips 373
3.8 Transformers 374
3.8.1 Basic Operations 374
3.8.2 Transformer Construction 385
3.8.3 Autotransformers and Variable Transformers 387
3.8.4 Circuit Isolation and the Isolation Transformer 389
3.8.5 Various Standard and Specialized Transformers 390
3.8.6 Transformer Applications 392
3.9 Fuses and Circuit Breakers 397
3.9.1 Types of Fuses and Circuit Breakers 398

CHAPTER 4 Semiconductors 401

4.1 Semiconductor Technology 401
4.1.1 What Is a Semiconductor? 401
4.1.2 Applications of Silicon 406
4.2 Diodes 407
4.2.1 How p-n Junction Diodes Work 407
4.2.2 Diode Water Analogy 409
4.2.3 Kinds of Rectifiers/Diodes 409
4.2.4 Practical Considerations 411
4.2.5 Diode/Rectifier Applications 412
4.2.6 Zener Diodes 420
4.2.7 Zener Diode Applications 423
4.2.8 Varactor Diodes (Variable Capacitance Diodes) 424
xiv Contents

4.2.9 PIN Diodes 426

4.2.10 Microwave Diodes (IMPATT, Gunn, Tunnel, etc.) 426
4.2.11 Problems 427
4.3 Transistors 429
4.3.1 Introduction to Transistors 429
4.3.2 Bipolar Transistors 430
4.3.3 Junction Field-Effect Transistors 449
4.3.4 Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors 459
4.3.5 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs) 468
4.3.6 Unijunction Transistors 468
4.4 Thyristors 472
4.4.1 Introduction 472
4.4.2 Silicon-Controlled Rectifiers 473
4.4.3 Silicon-Controlled Switches 476
4.4.4 Triacs 477
4.4.5 Four-Layer Diodes and Diacs 480
4.5 Transient Voltage Suppressors 481
4.5.1 Lecture on Transients 482
4.5.2 Devices Used to Suppress Transients 483
4.6 Integrated Circuits 491
4.6.1 IC Packages 492

CHAPTER 5 Optoelectronics 495

5.1 A Little Lecture on Photons 495
5.2 Lamps 497
5.3 Light-Emitting Diodes 499
5.3.1 How an LED Works 500
5.3.2 Kinds of LEDs 501
5.3.3 More on LEDs 502
5.3.4 LED Applications 505
5.3.5 Laser Diodes 506
5.4 Photoresistors 512
5.4.1 How a Photoresistor Works 512
5.4.2 Technical Stuff 513
5.4.3 Applications 513
5.5 Photodiodes 514
5.5.1 How a Photodiode Works 514
5.5.2 Basic Operations 515
5.5.3 Kinds of Photodiodes 515
5.6 Solar Cells 516
5.6.1 Basic Operations 517
5.7 Phototransistors 517
5.7.1 How a Phototransistor Works 518
5.7.2 Basic Configurations 518
5.7.3 Kinds of Phototransistors 519
5.7.4 Technical Stuff 519
5.7.5 Applications 520
 Contents xv

5.8 Photothyristors 521

5.8.1 How LASCRs Work 521
5.8.2 Basic Operation 521
5.9 Optoisolators 522
5.9.1 Integrated Optoisolators 522
5.9.2 Applications 523
5.10 Optical Fiber 524

CHAPTER 6 Sensors 525

6.1 General Principals 525
6.1.1 Precision, Accuracy, and Resolution 525
6.1.2 The Observer Effect 526
6.1.3 Calibration 526
6.2 Temperature 528
6.2.1 Thermistors 529
6.2.2 Thermocouples 531
6.2.3 Resistive Temperature Detectors 532
6.2.4 Analog Output Thermometer ICs 532
6.2.5 Digital Thermometer ICs 533
6.2.6 Infrared Thermometers/Pyrometers 534
6.2.7 Summary 534
6.3 Proximity and Touch 535
6.3.1 Touch Screens 535
6.3.2 Ultrasonic Distance 536
6.3.3 Optical Distance 537
6.3.4 Capacitive Sensors 539
6.3.5 Summary 539
6.4 Movement, Force, and Pressure 540
6.4.1 Passive Infrared 540
6.4.2 Acceleration 541
6.4.3 Rotation 542
6.4.4 Flow 543
6.4.5 Force 544
6.4.6 Tilt 545
6.4.7 Vibration and Mechanical Shock 545
6.4.8 Pressure 545
6.5 Chemical 546
6.5.1 Smoke 546
6.5.2 Gas 546
6.5.3 Humidity 547
6.6 Light, Radiation, Magnetism, and Sound 547
6.6.1 Light 547
6.6.2 Ionizing Radiation 547
6.6.3 Magnetic Fields 548
6.6.4 Sound 549
6.7 GPS 549
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