Neurotransmitter

A neurotransmitter is defined as a chemical messenger that carries, boosts, and balances signals
between neurons, or nerve cells, and other cells in the body. These chemical messengers can
affect a wide variety of both physical and psychological functions including heart rate, sleep,
appetite, mood, and fear. Billions of neurotransmitter molecules work constantly to keep our
brains functioning, managing everything from our breathing to our heartbeat to our learning and
concentration levels.

50-100 have been identified

– Each has its own chemical structure
– Each can fit into a specific receptor site on the dendrite of a receiving cell
• Example: Like a key fitting into a lock

Mechanism of Action
Neurotransmitters transmit signals across a synapse at various locations, such as:

1. From one neuron to another target neuron

2. At the neuromuscular junction (NMJ), that is from a neuron to a target muscle cell
3. From a neuron to a target gland.

A synapse is a junction through which a neuron relays information to another neuron; it has
three main components:

 The axon terminal, or pre-synaptic side where information is transmitted from

 The synaptic cleft
 The dendrite, or post-synaptic side, receiving the information.

When an electrical signal reaches the end of a neuron, it triggers the release of small sacs called
vesicles that contain the neurotransmitters. These sacs spill their contents into the synapse, where
the neurotransmitters then move across the gap toward the neighboring cells. These cells contain
receptors where the neurotransmitters can bind and trigger changes in the cells.

After release, the neurotransmitter crosses the synaptic gap and attaches to the receptor site on
the other neuron, either exciting or inhibiting the receiving neuron depending on what the
neurotransmitter is.

Neurotransmitters act like a key, and the receptor sites act like a lock. It takes the right key to
open specific locks. If the neurotransmitter is able to work on the receptor site, it triggers
changes in the receiving cell.

Sometimes neurotransmitters can bind to receptors and cause an electrical signal to be

transmitted down the cell (excitatory). In other cases, the neurotransmitter can actually block the
signal from continuing, preventing the message from being carried on (inhibitory).
So what happens to a neurotransmitter after its job is complete? Once the neurotransmitter has
had the designed effect, its activity can be stopped by different mechanisms.

1. It can be degraded or deactivated by enzymes

2. It can drift away from the receptor
3. It can be taken back up by the axon of the neuron that released it in a process known as
reuptake

Some neurotransmitters also have a neuromodulatory action. These can act on large numbers of
neurons at once and are involved in larger scale regulation of groups of neurons. This process
takes place over a much slower time course than excitatory and inhibitory transmission however.

Classification of Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters can be classified by their function:2

Excitatory neurotransmitters: These types of neurotransmitters have excitatory effects on the

neuron, meaning they increase the likelihood that the neuron will fire an action potential. Some
of the major excitatory neurotransmitters include epinephrine and norepinephrine.
Inhibitory neurotransmitters: These types of neurotransmitters have inhibitory effects on the
neuron; they decrease the likelihood that the neuron will fire an action potential. Some of the
major inhibitory neurotransmitters include serotonin and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA).

Some neurotransmitters, such as acetylcholine and dopamine, can create both excitatory and
inhibitory effects depending upon the type of receptors that are present.

Modulatory neurotransmitters: These neurotransmitters, often referred to as neuromodulators,

are capable of affecting a larger number of neurons at the same time. These neuromodulators
also influence the effects of other chemical messengers. Where synaptic neurotransmitters are
released by axon terminals to have a fast-acting impact on other receptor neurons,
neuromodulators diffuse across a larger area and are more slow-acting.

Types
There are a number of different ways to classify and categorize neurotransmitters. In some
instances, they are simply divided into monoamines, amino acids, and peptides.3

Neurotransmitters can also be categorized into one of six types:

1. Amino Acids

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) acts as the body's main inhibitory chemical messenger.
GABA contributes to vision, motor control, and plays a role in the regulation of anxiety.
Benzodiazepines,( Xanax or Valium) Strengthen the effects of the low-levels of GABA.
These are used to help treat anxiety, function by increasing the efficiency of GABA

neurotransmitters, which can increase feelings of relaxation and calm. Alcohol contains
GABA (acts as an agonist for GABA). This is why people drink to “calm-down” or “relax”.

 Glutamate is the most plentiful neurotransmitter found in the nervous system where it
plays a role in cognitive functions such as memory and learning. Excessive amounts of
glutamate can cause excitotoxicity resulting in cellular death. This excitotoxicity caused
by glutamate build-up is associated with some diseases and brain injuries including
Alzheimer's disease4, stroke, and epileptic seizures.

2. Peptides

 Oxytocin is both a hormone and a neurotransmitter. It is produced by the hypothalamus

and plays a role in social recognition, bonding, and sexual reproduction.5 Synthetic
oxytocin such as Pitocin is often used as an aid in labor and delivery. Both oxytocin and
Pitocin cause the uterus to contract during labor.
 Endorphins are neurotransmitters than inhibit the transmission of pain signals and
promote feelings of euphoria. These chemical messengers are produced naturally by the
body in response to pain, but they can also be triggered by other activities such as aerobic
 exercise.6 For example, experiencing a "runner's high" is an example of pleasurable
feelings generated by the production of endorphins.

3. Monoamines

 Epinephrine is considered both a hormone and a neurotransmitter. Generally,

epinephrine (adrenaline) is a stress hormone that is released by the adrenal system.
However, it functions as a neurotransmitter in the brain.7
 Norepinephrine is a neurotransmitter that plays an important role in alertness is involved
in the body's fight or flight response. Its role is to help mobilize the body and brain to
take action in times of danger or stress. Levels of this neurotransmitter are typically
lowest during sleep and highest during times of stress.
 Histamine acts as a neurotransmitter in the brain and spinal cord.8 It plays a role in
allergic reactions and is produced as part of the immune system's response to pathogens.
 Dopamine plays an important role in the coordination of body movements. Dopamine is
also involved in reward, motivation, and additions.Several types of addictive drugs
increase dopamine levels in the brain. Parkinson's disease, which is a degenerative
disease that results in tremors and motor movement impairments, is caused by the loss of
dopamine-generating neurons in the brain.
 Too much Dopamine…..
 Schizophrenia
People have more receptor sites for dopamine in an area of the brain that is involved in
emotional responding
 – Overutilize the dopamine available in the brain
 – Leads to hallucinations and disturbances of thought and emotion.
 High Levels-
– Undistracted
– Works intensely on tasks
 Low Levels-
– Unattentive
– Distractible, moves from one thing to another, has difficultly completing a job
– Difficulty thinking ahead
– Impulsive
Serotonin plays an important role in regulating and modulating mood, sleep, anxiety, sexuality,
and appetite. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, usually referred to as SSRIs, are a type of
antidepressant medication commonly prescribed to treat depression, anxiety, panic disorder, and
panic attacks. SSRIs work to balance serotonin levels by blocking the reuptake of serotonin in
the brain, which can help improve mood and reduce feelings of anxiety.. Deficiencies are linked
to:
 Overeating
 Alcoholism
 Depression
 Aggression
 Insomnia
4. Purines
  Adenosine acts as a neuromodulator in the brain and is involved in suppressing arousing
and improving sleep.
 Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) acts as a neurotransmitter in the central and peripheral
nervous systems. It plays a role in autonomic control, sensory transduction, and
communication with glial cells. Research suggests it may also have a part in some
neurological problems including pain, trauma, and neurodegenerative disorders.

5. Gasotransmitters

 Nitric oxide plays a role in affecting smooth muscles, relaxing them to allow blood
vessels to dilate and increase blood flow to certain areas of the body.
 Carbon monoxide is usually known as being a colorless, odorless gas that can have toxic
and potentially fatal effects when people are exposed to high levels of the substance.
However, it is also produced naturally by the body where it acts as a neurotransmitter that
helps modulate the body's inflammatory response.12

6. Acetylcholine

Acetylcholine is the only neurotransmitter in its class. Found in both the central and peripheral
nervous systems, it is the primary neurotransmitter associated with motor neurons. It plays a role

in muscle movements as well as memory and learning. Controls muscle contractions and is
involved in memory formation
– Excitatory (causes receiving neurons to fire) at synapses between nerves and muscles that
involve voluntary movement
– If it is blocked, Ach can’t get to the site and muscles will not be capable of contracting…so…?
Deficiencies are connected with
 paralysis.
 Prevalent in the Hippocampus
 Involved in the formation of memories
 Level of ACh to the brain decreases, memory function will be impaired
 Alzheimer's Disease
 Gradual deterioration in mental processes such as memory, language, and problem
solving

What Happens When Neurotransmitters Do Not Work

Right
As with many of the body's processes, things can sometimes go awry. It is perhaps not surprising
that a system as vast and complex as the human nervous system would be susceptible to
problems.

A few of the things that might go wrong include:

 Neurons might not manufacture enough of a particular neurotransmitter

  Too much of a particular neurotransmitter may be released
 Too many neurotransmitters may be deactivated by enzymes
 Neurotransmitters may be reabsorbed too quickly

When neurotransmitters are affected by disease or drugs, there can be a number of different
adverse effects on the body.

Diseases such as Alzheimer's, epilepsy, and Parkinson's are associated with deficits in certain
neurotransmitters.

Health professionals recognize the role that neurotransmitters can play in mental health
conditions, which is why medications that influence the actions of the body's chemical
messengers are often prescribed to help treat a variety of psychiatric conditions.

For example, dopamine is associated with such things as addiction and schizophrenia. Serotonin
plays a role in mood disorders including depression and OCD.10 Drugs, such as SSRIs, may be
prescribed by physicians and psychiatrists to help treat symptoms of depression or anxiety.
Medications are sometimes used alone, but they may also be used in conjunction with other
therapeutic treatments including cognitive-behavioral therapy.

Drugs That Influence Neurotransmitters

Perhaps the greatest practical application for the discovery and detailed understanding of how
neurotransmitters function has been the development of drugs that impact chemical transmission.
These drugs are capable of changing the effects of neurotransmitters, which can alleviate the
symptoms of some diseases.

 Agonists vs Antagonists: Some drugs are known as agonists and function by increasing
the effects of specific neurotransmitters. Other drugs and referred to as antagonists and
act to block the effects of neurotransmission.14
 Direct vs Indirect Effects: These neuro-acting drugs can be further broken down based
on whether they have a direct or indirect effect. Those that have a direct effect work by
mimicking the neurotransmitters because they are very similar in chemical structure.
Those that have an indirect impact work by acting on the synaptic receptors.

Excitatory Inhibitory
• Glutamate • GABA (gammaaminobutyric acid)
• Acetylcholine • Serotonin
• Norepinephrine • Dopamine
• (noradrenaline) Epinephrine (adrenaline)
• Dopamine