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The Neutron a Tool and an Object in Nuclear and Particle

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The Pinch Technique and its Applications to Non Abelian

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Nuclear Physics and Cosmology 1st Edition John M. Cornwall
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Introduction to Particle Technology Second Edition Martin
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Constructing Reality Quantum Theory and Particle Physics

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Encyclopedia of Nuclear Physics and its Applications 1st

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Essentials of Nuclear Medicine Physics and Instrumentation

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To Claire

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Contents

Preface to the First Edition xiii

Preface to the Second Edition xv
Notes xvii

1 Basic Concepts 1
1.1 History 1
1.1.1 The Origins of Nuclear Physics 1
1.1.2 The Emergence of Particle Physics: the Standard Model and
Hadrons 3
1.2 Relativity and Antiparticles 6
1.3 Space-Time Symmetries and Conservation Laws 8
1.3.1 Parity 9
1.3.2 Charge Conjugation 10
1.3.3 Time Reversal 12
1.4 Interactions and Feynman Diagrams 14
1.4.1 Interactions 14
1.4.2 Feynman Diagrams 15
1.5 Particle Exchange: Forces and Potentials 17
1.5.1 Range of Forces 17
1.5.2 The Yukawa Potential 19
1.6 Observable Quantities: Cross-sections and Decay Rates 20
1.6.1 Amplitudes 20
1.6.2 Cross-sections 22
1.6.3 Unstable States 26
1.7 Units: Length, Mass and Energy 28
Problems 29

2 Nuclear Phenomenology 31
2.1 Mass Spectroscopy 31
2.1.1 Deflection Spectrometers 32
2.1.2 Kinematic Analysis 33
2.1.3 Penning Trap Measurements 34
2.2 Nuclear Shapes and Sizes 38
2.2.1 Charge Distribution 39
2.2.2 Matter Distribution 43

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viii Contents

2.3 Semi-Empirical Mass Formula: the Liquid Drop Model 45

2.3.1 Binding Energies 45
2.3.2 Semi-empirical Mass Formula 47
2.4 Nuclear Instability 52
2.5 Radioactive Decay 53
2.6 β–Decay Phenomenology 56
2.6.1 Odd-mass Nuclei 56
2.6.2 Even-mass Nuclei 58
2.7 Fission 59
2.8 γ Decays 62
2.9 Nuclear Reactions 63
Problems 67

3 Particle Phenomenology 71
3.1 Leptons 71
3.1.1 Lepton Multiplets and Lepton Numbers 71
3.1.2 Universal Lepton Interactions: the Number of Neutrinos 74
3.1.3 Neutrinos 76
3.1.4 Neutrino Mixing and Oscillations 77
3.1.5 Oscillation Experiments and Neutrino Masses 80
3.1.6 Lepton Numbers Revisited 86
3.2 Quarks 87
3.2.1 Evidence for Quarks 87
3.2.2 Quark Generations and Quark Numbers 90
3.3 Hadrons 92
3.3.1 Flavour Independence and Charge Multiplets 92
3.3.2 Quark Model Spectroscopy 96
3.3.3 Hadron Magnetic Moments and Masses 101
Problems 107

4 Experimental Methods 109

4.1 Overview 109
4.2 Accelerators and Beams 111
4.2.1 DC Accelerators 111
4.2.2 AC Accelerators 112
4.2.3 Neutral and Unstable Particle Beams 119
4.3 Particle Interactions with Matter 120
4.3.1 Short-range Interactions with Nuclei 120
4.3.2 Ionization Energy Losses 122
4.3.3 Radiation Energy Losses 124
4.3.4 Interactions of Photons in Matter 125
4.4 Particle Detectors 127
4.4.1 Gas Detectors 128
4.4.2 Scintillation Counters 132
4.4.3 Semiconductor Detectors 133
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Contents ix

4.4.4 Čerenkov Counters 134

4.4.5 Calorimeters 135
4.5 Multi-Component Detector Systems 138
Problems 143

5 Quark Dynamics: The Strong Interaction 147

5.1 Colour 147
5.2 Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD) 149
5.3 Heavy Quark Bound States 151
5.4 The Strong Coupling Constant and Asymptotic Freedom 156
5.5 Quark-Gluon Plasma 160
5.6 Jets and Gluons 161
5.7 Colour Counting 163
5.8 Deep Inelastic Scattering and Nucleon Structure 165
5.8.1 Scaling 165
5.8.2 Quark-Parton Model 167
5.8.3 Scaling Violations and Structure Functions 170
Problems 173

6 Weak Interactions and Electroweak Unification 177

6.1 Charged and Neutral Currents 177
6.2 Symmetries of the Weak Interaction 178
6.3 Spin Structure of the Weak Interactions 182
6.3.1 Neutrinos 182
6.3.2 Particles with Mass: Chirality 184
6.4 W ± and Z 0 Bosons 187
6.5 Weak Interactions of Hadrons: Charged Currents 188
6.5.1 Semileptonic Decays 189
6.5.2 Selection Rules 192
6.5.3 Neutrino Scattering 195
6.6 Meson Decays and CP Violation 197
6.6.1 CP Invariance 197
6.6.2 CP Violation in K L0 Decay 199
6.6.3 CP Violation in B Decays 201
6.6.4 Flavour Oscillations 203
6.6.5 CP Violation and the Standard Model 205
6.7 Neutral Currents and the Unified Theory 207
6.7.1 Electroweak Unification 207
6.7.2 The Z 0 Vertices and Electroweak Reactions 210
Problems 213

7 Models and Theories of Nuclear Physics 217

7.1 The Nucleon-Nucleon Potential 217
7.2 Fermi Gas Model 220
7.3 Shell Model 222
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7.3.1 Shell Structure of Atoms 222

7.3.2 Nuclear Magic Numbers 224
7.3.3 Spins, Parities and Magnetic Dipole Moments 227
7.3.4 Excited States 229
7.4 Non-Spherical Nuclei 231
7.4.1 Electric Quadrupole Moments 231
7.4.2 Collective Model 234
7.5 Summary of Nuclear Structure Models 234
7.6 α Decay 235
7.7 β Decay 238
7.7.1 Fermi Theory 239
7.7.2 Electron and Positron Momentum Distributions 240
7.7.3 Selection Rules 242
7.7.4 Applications of Fermi Theory 243
7.8 γ Emission and Internal Conversion 247
7.8.1 Selection Rules 247
7.8.2 Transition Rates 248
Problems 250

8 Applications of Nuclear Physics 253

8.1 Fission 253
8.1.1 Induced Fission and Chain Reactions 253
8.1.2 Fission Reactors 257
8.2 Fusion 262
8.2.1 Coulomb Barrier 262
8.2.2 Fusion Reaction Rates 264
8.2.3 Stellar Fusion 266
8.2.4 Fusion Reactors 268
8.3 Nuclear Weapons 271
8.3.1 Fission Devices 273
8.3.2 Fission/Fusion Devices 275
8.4 Biomedical Applications 278
8.4.1 Radiation and Living Matter 278
8.4.2 Medical Imaging Using Ionizing Radiation 283
8.4.3 Magnetic Resonance Imaging 289
Problems 294

9 Outstanding Questions and Future Prospects 297

9.1 Overview 297
9.2 Hadrons and Nuclei 298
9.2.1 Hadron Structure and the Nuclear Environment 298
9.2.2 Nuclear Structure 300
9.2.3 Nuclear Synthesis 302
9.2.4 Symmetries and the Standard Model 303
9.3 The Origin of Mass: the Higgs Boson 305
9.3.1 Theoretical Background 305
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Contents xi

9.3.2 Experimental Searches 307

9.4 The Nature of the Neutrino 311
9.4.1 Dirac or Majorana? 311
9.4.2 Neutrinoless Double β Decay 312
9.5 Beyond the Standard Model: Unification Schemes 315
9.5.1 Grand Unification 315
9.5.2 Supersymmetry 318
9.5.3 Strings and Things 321
9.6 Particle Astrophysics 322
9.6.1 Neutrino Astrophysics 323
9.6.2 The Early Universe: Dark Matter and Neutrino Masses 327
9.6.3 Matter-Antimatter Asymmetry 330
9.7 Nuclear Medicine 331
9.8 Power Production and Nuclear Waste 333

Appendix A Some Results in Quantum Mchanics 339

A.1 Barrier Penetration 339
A.2 Density of States 341
A.3 Perturbation Theory and the Second Golden Rule 343
A.4 Isospin Formalism 345
A.4.1 Isospin Operators and Quark States 345
A.4.2 Hadron States 347

Appendix B Relativistic Kinematics 351

B.1 Lorentz Transformations and Four-Vectors 351
B.2 Frames of Reference 353
B.3 Invariants 355
Problems 358

Appendix C Rutherford Scattering 361

C.1 Classical Physics 361
C.2 Quantum Mechanics 364
Problems 365

Appendix D Gauge Theories 367

D.1 Gauge Invariance and the Standard Model 367
D.1.1 Electromagnetism and the Gauge Principle 368
D.1.2 The Standard Model 370
D.2 Particle Masses and the Higgs Field 372

Appendix E Data 377

E.1 Physical Constants and Conversion Factors 377
E.2 Tables of Particle Properties 378
E.2.1 Gauge Bosons 378
E.2.2 Leptons 379
E.2.3 Quarks 379
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xii Contents

E.2.4 Low-Lying Baryons 380

E.2.5 Low-Lying Mesons 382
E.3 Tables of Nuclear Properties 384
E.3.1 Properties of Naturally Occurring Isotopes 384
E.3.2 The Periodic Table 392

Appendix F Solutions to Problems 393

References 437
Bibliography 441
Index 443
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Preface to the First Edition

It is common practice to teach nuclear physics and particle physics together in an intro-
ductory course and it is for such a course that this book has been written. The material
presented is such that different selections can be made for a short course of about 25–30
lectures depending on the lecturer’s preferences and the students’ backgrounds. On the
latter, students should have taken a first course in quantum physics, covering the tradi-
tional topics in non-relativistic quantum mechanics and atomic physics. A few lectures
on relativistic kinematics would also be useful, but this is not essential, as the necessary
background is given in an appendix and is only used in a few places in the book. I have not
tried to be rigorous, or present proofs of all the statements in the text. Rather, I have taken
the view that it is more important that students see an overview of the subject, which for
many, possibly the majority, will be the only time they study nuclear and particle physics.
For future specialists, the details will form part of more advanced courses. Nevertheless,
space restrictions have still meant that it has been necessarily to make a choice of topics
and doubtless other, equally valid, choices could have been made. This is particularly true
in Chapter 8, which deals with applications of nuclear physics, where I have chosen just
three major areas to discuss. Nuclear and particle physics have been, and still are, very
important parts of the entire subject of physics and its practitioners have won an impressive
number of Nobel Prizes. For historical interest, I have noted in the footnotes many of these
awards for work related to the field.
Some parts of the book dealing with particle physics owe much to a previous book,
Particle Physics, written with Graham Shaw of Manchester University, and I am grateful
to him and the publisher, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, for permission to adapt some of that
material for use here. I also thank Colin Wilkin for comments on all the chapters of the
book; to David Miller and Peter Hobson for comments on Chapter 4; and to Bob Speller
for comments on the medical physics section of Chapter 8. If errors or misunderstandings
still remain (and any such are of course due to me alone) I would be grateful to hear about
them. I have set up a website (www.hep.ucl.ac.uk/∼brm/npbook.html) where I will post
any corrections and comments.

Brian R Martin
January 2006

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Preface to the Second Edition

The structure of this edition follows closely that of the first edition. Changes include the
rearrangement of some sections and the rewriting and/or expansion of others where, on
reflection, I think more explanation is required, or where the clarity could be improved;
the inclusion of a number of entirely new sections and two new appendices; modifications
to the notation in places to improve consistency of style through the book; the inclusion
of additional problems; and updating the text, where appropriate. I have also taken the
opportunity to correct misprints and errors that were in the original printing of the first
edition, most of which have already been corrected in later reprints of that edition. I
would like to thank those correspondents who have brought these to my attention, par-
ticularly Roelof Bijker of the Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, Hans Fynbo
of the University of Aarhus, Denmark and Michael Marx of the Stony Brook campus
of the State University of New York. I will continue to maintain the book’s website,
(www.hep.ucl.ac.uk/∼brm/npbook.html) where any future comments and corrections will
be posted.
Finally, a word about footnotes: readers have always had strong views about these,
(‘Notes are often necessary, but they are necessary evils’ – Samuel Johnson), so in this
book they are designed to provide ‘non-essential’ information only. Thus, for those readers
who prefer not to have the flow disrupted, ignoring the footnotes should not detract from
understanding the text.

Brian R. Martin
November 2008

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Notes

References

References are referred to in the text in the form of a name and date, for example Jones
(1997), with a list of references with full publication details given at the end of the book.

Data

It is common practice for books on nuclear and particle physics to include tables of data
(masses, decay modes, lifetimes etc.) and such a collection is given in Appendix E. Among
other things, they will be useful in solving the problems provided for most chapters.
However, I have kept the tables to a minimum, because very extensive tabulations are now
readily available at the ‘click of a mouse’ from a number of sites and it is educationally
useful for students to get some familiarity with such sources of data.
For particle physics, a comprehensive compilation of data, plus brief critical reviews
of a number of current topics, may be found in the bi-annual publications of the Particle
Data Group (PDG). The 2008 edition of their definitive Review of Particle Properties is
referred to as Amsler et al. (2008) in the references. The PDG Review is available online
at http://pdg.lbl.gov and this site also contains links to other sites where compilations of
particle data may be found.
Data for nuclear physics are available from a number of sources. Examples are: the
Berkeley Laboratory Isotopes Project (http://ie.lbl.gov/education/isotopes.htm); the Na-
tional Nuclear Data Center (NNDC), based at Brookhaven National Laboratory, USA
(http://www.nndc.bnl.gov); the Nuclear Data Centre of the Japan Atomic Energy Research
Institute (http://wwwndc.tokai-sc.jaea.go.jp/NuC); and the Nuclear Data Evaluation Lab-
oratory of the Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute (http://atom.kaeri.re.kr). All four
sites have links to other data compilations.

Problems

Problems are provided for Chapters 1–8 and some Appendices; their solutions are given in
Appendix F. The problems are an integral part of the text. They are mainly numerical and
require values of physical constants that are given in Appendix E. Some also require data
that may be found in the other tables in Appendix E and in the sites listed above.

xvii
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xviii Notes

Illustrations

Some illustrations in the text have been adapted from, or are based on, diagrams that have
been published elsewhere. In a few cases they have been reproduced exactly as previously
published. I acknowledge, with thanks, permission to use such illustrations from the relevant
copyright holders, as stated in the captions. Full bibliographic details of sources are given
in the list of references on page 437.
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