Unit 4 Important Environmental Issues, Management and Legislation

Green house effect-

The greenhouse effect is warming of the earth’s surface and lower atmosphere that tends to
intensify with an increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide. The atmosphere allows a large percentage
of the rays of visible light from the sun to reach the earth’s surface and heat it. A part of this energy
is reradiated by the earth’s surface in the form of long-wave infrared radiation, much of which is
absorbed by molecules of carbon dioxide and water vapour in the atmosphere and which is reflected
back to the surface as heat. The trapping of this infrared radiation causes the earth;s surface and
lower atmospheric layers to warm to a higher temperature. An increase in atmospheric
concentrations of other trace gases such as methane, nitrous oxide, and chlorofluorocarbons may
also aggrevate greenhouse conditions.

The term ‘greenhouse’ is used to describe this phenomenon since these gases act like the glass of a
greenhouse to trap heat and maintain higher interior temperatures than would normally occur.
Without the greenhouse effect, it is not possible to sustain life on this planet as the average
temperature of the earth would be -18oC rather than 15 oC.

The amount of heat energy added to the atmosphere by the greenhouse effect is controlled by the
concentration of greenhouse gases in the earth’s atmosphere.

Impact of greenhouse effect

  global warming would cause the polar ice caps and mountain glaciers to melt rapidly and
result in appreciably higher coastal waters.
 The increase in global temperatures is expected to result in other climatic changes including
rises in sea level and changes in the amount and pattern of precipitation.
 The rise in global temperature would also produce new patterns and extremes of drought
and rainfall, seriously disrupting food production in certain regions.
 Effect on human health.
 Effects on agriculture.

Mitigation-

1. Use of alternative sources of energy instead of fossil fuels on a large scale.

2. Afforestation
3. By attaching anti- pollution devices such as catalytic converters and using unleaded petrol,
emission of greenhouse gases from automobiles can be reduced.
4. By putting a check on population explosion mainly in densely populated countries, which will
help in decreasing the quantity of CO2 and chlorofluorocarbons released

Greenhouse effect causes

1. Climate change
2. Global warming

Climate change- is commonly considered to be weather averaged over a long period of time,
typically 30 years.

Consequences of climate change

1. Changes in climate may affect the vector species (e.g. mosquitoes) which in turn will
increase the spread of disease to new areas which lack a strong public health infrastructure.
2. Human societies will be seriously affected by extremes of climate such as droughts and
floods.
3. Food and water shortages may lead to conflicts in vulnerable regions, with serious
implications for public health.
4. There will be rise in sea level.

Mitigation measures for climate change-

1. To prepare data inventory to monitor the climate change in term of global mean
temperature.
2. Monitoring of infectious diseases and disease vectors to detect early changes in the
incidence of diseases.
3. Environmental management measures to reduce risk of climate change.
4. Disaster preparedness for floods or droughts.
5. Training of researchers and health professionals towards the expected outcome of global
climate change.
Global warming- is a term used to describe the trend of increase in the average temperature of the
earth’s atmosphere and oceans that has been observed in recent decades. Most of the warming
observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities. Some effects of global warming:

1. Affect the quality and quantity of drinking water.

2. Effect aquatic life.
3. Increased rainfall will cause flooding.
4. High temperature will produce new breeding sites for pests, shifting the range of infectious
diseases.
5. Shifting of vegetation at high altitude.
6. Melting of snow and glaciers.

Smog- The word smog is derived from smoke and fog.

1. The oldest smog, which consists of a mixture of coal smoke and fog. This kind of smog is
caused by the burning of large amounts of coal within a city; this smog
contains soot particulates from smoke, sulfur dioxide and other components. This type of
smog is called Sulphurous or London Smog. The mixture of smoke, fog and sulphur dioxide
which affected London so badly for several centuries after the introduction of coal as a fuel,
is chemically a reducing mixture, so it is also called as a Reducing Smog.
2. Modern smog, as found for example in Los Angeles, is a type of air pollution derived
from vehicular emission from internal combustion engines and industrial fumes that react in
the atmosphere with sunlight to form secondary pollutants that also combine with the
primary emissions to form photochemical smog. The atmospheric pollution levels of Los
Angeles, Mexico City and other cities are increased by inversion that traps pollution close to
the ground. This type of smog is known as Photochemical or Los Angeles smog.

Ozone layer depletion-

Ozone depletion describes two distinct but related phenomena observed since the late 1970s: a
steady decline of about 4% per decade in the total volume
of ozone in Earth's stratosphere (the ozone layer), and a much larger springtime decrease in
stratospheric ozone over Earth's polar regions. The latter phenomenon is referred to as the ozone
hole. In addition to these well-known stratospheric phenomena, there are also springtime
polartropospheric ozone depletion events.
Ozone is formed in the stratosphere when oxygen molecules photodissociate after absorbing
an ultraviolet photon whose wavelength is shorter than 240 nm. This converts a single O2 into two
atomic oxygen radicals. The atomic oxygen radicals then combine with separate O2molecules to
create two O3 molecules. These ozone molecules absorb UV light between 310 and 200 nm,
following which ozone splits into a molecule of O2and an oxygen atom. The oxygen atom then joins
up with an oxygen molecule to regenerate ozone. This is a continuing process that terminates when
an oxygen atom "recombines" with an ozone molecule to make two O2 molecules.
O + O3 → 2 O2 chemical equation
The overall amount of ozone in the stratosphere is determined by a balance between photochemical
production and recombination.
Ozone can be destroyed by a number of free radical catalysts, the most important of which are
the hydroxyl radical (OH·), the nitric oxide radical (N O·), atomic chlorine ion (Cl·) and
atomic bromine ion (Br·). All of these have both natural and man-made sources; at the present time,
most of the OH· and NO· in the stratosphere is of natural origin, but human activity has dramatically
increased the levels of chlorine and bromine. These elements are found in certain stable organic
compounds, especially chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which may find their way to
the stratosphere without being destroyed in the troposphere due to their low reactivity. Once in the
stratosphere, the Cl and Br atoms are liberated from the parent compounds by the action of
ultraviolet light, e.g.
CFCl3 + electromagnetic radiation → CFCl2 + Cl
The Cl and Br atoms can then destroy ozone molecules through a variety of catalytic cycles. In the
simplest example of such a cycle, a chlorine atom reacts with an ozone molecule, taking an oxygen
atom with it (forming ClO) and leaving a normal oxygen molecule. The chlorine monoxide (i.e., the
ClO) can react with a second molecule of ozone (i.e., O3) to yield another chlorine atom and two
molecules of oxygen. The chemical shorthand for these gas-phase reactions is:

 Cl + O3 → ClO + O2:

The chlorine atom changes an ozone molecule to ordinary oxygen

 ClO + O3 → Cl + 2 O2:

The ClO from the previous reaction destroys a second ozone molecule and recreates the original
chlorine atom, which can repeat the first reaction and continue to destroy ozone.
The overall effect is a decrease in the amount of ozone. A single chlorine atom would keep on
destroying ozone for up to two years.
Acid Rain- is the one of the most dangerous and widespread forms of pollution. Acid rain is rain that
has a larger amount of acid in it than normal. It can have harmful effects on plants, aquatic animals,
and infrastructure. Acid rain is caused by emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide, which react
with the water molecules in the atmosphere to produce acids. Governments have made efforts since
the 1970s to reduce the release of sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere with positive results. Nitrogen
oxides can also be produced naturally by lightning strikes and sulfur dioxide is produced
by volcanic eruptions. The chemicals in acid rain can cause paint to peel, corrosion of steel structures
such as bridges, and erosion of stone statues.

The main reactions are as follows

2SO2+O2 2SO3

2NO+O2 2NO2

SO3+H2O H2SO4

NO2+H2O HNO2+HNO3

Disasters- disasters can be natural or man made.

Earthquake- occurs due to sudden movements of earth’s crust. An earthquake is the shaking of the
earth caused by pieces of the earth’s crust that suddenly shift. This crust is full of large and small
cracks called faults. When two pieces those are next to each other get pushed in different directions,
they break apart and move. This sudden shift in the rock shakes all of the ground around it. The
point on a fault at which the first movement occurs during an earthquake is called the epicentre. It
occurs because of a sudden release of stored energy. Earthquakes are measured by the richter scale,
which measures the energy released in an earthquake by measuring the size of the seismic waves.

Protection from earthquake:

 River banks must be strengthened by building dykes.

 Building design should be such that it has sufficient strength to withstand the vibration.
 Roofs should be placed on iron beams.
 In hilly areas, lighter material, as wood should be used for building houses.

Flood- due to heavy rains or sudden snow melts, the quantity of water in streams exceeds their
capacity and water overflows the banks. This condition is called flood.

Deforestation, overgrazing, mining, rapid industrialization, global warming etc have also contributed
largely to a sharp rise in the incidence of floods, which otherwise is a natural disaster.

The mitigation measures for flood include both structural and non-structural measures.

The structural measures include:

 Prevention of over bank spilling by the construction of embankment and flood walls.
 Improvement of flow conditions in the channel and anti erosion measures.
 Improve drainage.

The nonstructural measures include:

 Flood plan management.

 Maintaining wetland.
 Flood forecasting and warning services.
 Disaster relief, flood fighting and public health measures.
 Flood insurance.

Landslides- refer to rapid down slope movement of soil or rock. Landslide occurs as a result of
alteration of the natural slope by sharp steeping or cutting into slope or removing material at the
base of the slope.

Landslides often block streams or rivers due to which water overflow from the banks and causes
floods. Human activities such as road construction , deforestation , agricultural cultivation and
building construction on steep and unstable slopes increase both the frequency and the damage
done by landslide.

Cloud bursting- A cloudburst is an extreme amount of precipitation, sometimes

with hail and thunder, which normally lasts no longer than a few minutes but is capable of creating
flood conditions. The term cloudburst may be used to describe any sudden heavy, brief, and usually
unforecast rainfall.

During a cloudburst, more than 20 mm of rain may fall in a few minutes. When there are instances
of cloudbursts, the results can be disastrous.
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)- is an assessment of positive or negative impact that a
proposed proposal may have on the environment, together consisting of the natural, social and
economic aspects.

The EIA process makes sure that environmental issues are raised when a project or plan is first
discussed and that all concerns are addressed as a project gains momentum through to
implementation. Recommendations made by the EIA may necessitate the redesign of some project
components, require further studies, suggest changes which alter the economic viability of the
project or cause a delay in project implementation. To be of most benefit it is essential that an
environmental assessment is carried out to determine significant impacts early in the project cycle
so that recommendations can be built into the design and cost-benefit analysis without causing
major delays or increased design costs. To be effective once implementation has commenced, the
EIA should lead to a mechanism whereby adequate monitoring is undertaken to realize
environmental management.

The way in which an EIA is carried out is not rigid: it is a process comprising a series of steps. The
main steps in the EIA process are:

 Screening
 scoping
 Baseline data collection
 Impact prediction and mitigation
 management and monitoring
 Public hearing
 audit

Figure shows a general flow diagram of the EIA process, how it fits in with parallel technical and
economic studies and the role of public participation. In some cases, such as small-scale irrigation
schemes, the transition from identification through to detailed design may be rapid and some steps
in the EIA procedure may be omitted.

• Screening often results in a categorization of the project and from this a decision is made on
whether or not a full EIA is to be carried out.

• Scoping is the process of determining which are the most critical issues to study and will involve
community participation to some degree. It is at this early stage that EIA can most strongly influence
the outline proposal.

 Baseline data collection is done by going to the site and find the impacts of that project on
surroundings.

• Detailed impact prediction and mitigation studies follow scoping and are carried out in parallel
with feasibility studies.

• The main output report is called an Environmental Impact Statement, and contains a detailed plan
for managing and monitoring environmental impacts both during and after implementation.

• Finally, an audit of the EIA process is carried out some time after implementation. The audit serves
a useful feedback and learning function.

Flow diagram of the EIA process and parallel studies

Resources

An EIA team for an irrigation and drainage study is likely to be composed of some or all of the
following: a team leader; a hydrologist; an irrigation/drainage engineer; a fisheries
biologist/ecologist; an agronomist/pesticide expert; a soil conservation expert; a
biological/environmental scientist; an economist, a social scientist and a health scientist (preferably
a epidemiologist). The final structure of the team will vary depending on the project. Specialists may
also be required for fieldwork, laboratory testing, library research, data processing, surveys and
modelling. The team leader will require significant management skill to co-ordinate the work of a
team with diverse skills and knowledge.

There will be a large number of people involved in EIA apart from the full-time team members.
These people will be based in a wide range of organizations, such as the project proposing and
authorizing bodies, regulatory authorities and various interest groups. Such personnel would be
located in various agencies and also in the private sector; a considerable number will need specific
EIA training.

The length of the EIA will obviously depend on the programme, plan or project under review.
However, the process usually lasts from between 6 and 18 months from preparation through to
review.

The cost of the study will vary considerably and only very general estimates can be given here.
Typically, costs vary from between 0.1 and 0.3 percent of the total project cost for large projects
over US$ 100 million and from 0.2 to 0.5 percent for projects less than US$ 100 million. For small
projects the cost could increase to between 1 and 3 percent of the project cost.

Screening

Screening is the process of deciding on whether an EIA is required. This may be determined by

1. Type of project- there are 29 categories. Examples are highway construction,

hydroelectric, fertilizer, cement etc.
2. Budget of project- projects having budget more than 1 crore have to undergo EIA.
3. Location of project – if that project area is near to national park or any water body
then they have to undergo EIA.

For example, the repair of a recently destroyed diversion structure is unlikely to require an EIA whilst
a major new headwork structure may. Guidelines for whether or not an EIA is required will be
country specific depending on the laws or norms in operation. Legislation often specifies the criteria
for screening and full EIA. All major donors screen projects presented for financing to decide
whether an EIA is required.

The output from the screening process is often a document called an Initial Environmental
Examination or Evaluation (IEE). The main conclusion will be a classification of the project according
to its likely environmental sensitivity. This will determine whether an EIA is needed and if so to what
detail.

Scoping

Scoping occurs early in the project cycle at the same time as outline planning and pre-feasibility
studies. Scoping is the process of identifying the key environmental issues and is the most important
step in an EIA.
Scoping is important for two reasons. First, problems can be pinpointed early allowing mitigating
design changes to be made before expensive detailed work is carried out. Second, to ensure that
detailed prediction work is only carried out for important issues.

It is not the purpose of an EIA to carry out exhaustive studies on all environmental impacts for all
projects. If key issues are identified and a full scale EIA considered necessary then the scoping should
include terms of reference for these further studies.

At this stage the option exists for cancelling or drastically revising the project should major
environmental problems be identified. Equally it may be the end of the EIA process should the
impacts be found to be insignificant. Once this stage has passed, the opportunity for major changes
to the project is restricted.

Before the scoping exercise can be fully started, the remit of the study needs to be defined and
agreed by the relevant parties.

Baseline data collection

The main EIA techniques used are baseline studies, checklists, matrices and network diagrams. These
techniques collect and present knowledge and information in a straightforward way so that logical
decisions can be made about which impacts are most significant.

Prediction and mitigation

Once the scoping exercise is complete and the major impacts to be studied have been identified,
prediction work can start. This stage forms the central part of an EIA. Several major options are likely
to have been proposed either at the scoping stage or before and each option may require separate
prediction studies. Realistic and affordable mitigating measures cannot be proposed without first
estimating the scope of the impacts, which should be in monetary terms wherever possible. It then
becomes important to quantify the impact of the suggested improvements by further prediction
work.

An important outcome of this stage will be recommendations for mitigating measures. This would be
contained in the Environmental Impact Statement. Clearly the aim will be to introduce measures
which minimize any identified adverse impacts and enhance positive impacts. Formal and informal
communication links need to be established with teams carrying out feasibility studies so that their
work can take proposals into account. Similarly, feasibility studies may indicate that some options
are technically or economically unacceptable and thus environmental prediction work for these
options will not be required.

Many mitigating measures do not define physical changes but require management or institutional
changes or additional investment, such as for health services. Mitigating measures may also be
procedural changes, for example, the introduction of, or increase in, irrigation service fees to
promote efficiency and water conservation.

By the time prediction and mitigation are undertaken, the project preparation will be advanced and
a decision will most likely have been made to proceed with the project. Considerable expenditure
may have already been made and budgets allocated for the implementation of the project. Major
changes could be disruptive to project processing and only accepted if prediction shows that impacts
will be considerably worse than originally identified at the scoping stage.
For example, an acceptable measure might be to alter the mode of operation of a reservoir to
protect downstream fisheries, but a measure proposing an alternative to dam construction could be
highly contentious at this stage. To avoid conflict it is important that the EIA process commences
early in the project cycle.

This phase of an EIA will require good management of a wide range of technical specialists with
particular emphasis on:

• prediction methods;
• interpretation of predictions, with and without mitigating measures;
• assessment of comparisons.

Management and monitoring

The part of the EIS covering monitoring and management is often referred to as the Environmental
Action Plan or Environmental Management Plan. This section not only sets out the mitigation
measures needed for environmental management, both in the short and long term, but also the
institutional requirements for implementation. The term 'institutional' is used here in its broadest
context to encompass relationships:

• established by law between individuals and government;

• between individuals and groups involved in economic transactions;
• developed to articulate legal, financial and administrative links among public agencies;
• motivated by socio-psychological stimuli among groups and individuals (Craine, 1971).

One of the more straightforward and effective changes is to set-up a monitoring programme with
clear definition as to which agencies are responsible for data collection, collation, interpretation and
implementation of management measures.

The purpose of monitoring is to compare predicted and actual impacts, particularly if the impacts are
either very important or the scale of the impact cannot be very accurately predicted.

Public hearing- The EIA provides an ideal forum for checking that the affected public have been
adequately consulted and their views taken into account in project preparation.

State Pollution Control Board (SPCB) are required to give notice in atleast two newspapers widely
circulated in the region around the project. Public hearings are called for in projects involving a large
displacement of residents or severe environmental impacts. A panel is made which include a
representative of the SPCB, the district collector, a state government representative, a
representative of the central Ministry of the Environment and Forest, not more than three
representatives of local bodies. Finally the proposals are sent to MOEF for obtaining environmental
clearance.

Auditing

In order to capitalise on the experience and knowledge gained, the last stage of an EIA is to carry out
an Environmental Audit some time after completion of the project or implementation of a
programme. It will therefore usually be done by a separate team of specialists to that working on the
bulk of the EIA. The audit should include an analysis of the technical, procedural and decision-
making aspects of the EIA. Technical aspects include: the adequacy of the baseline studies, the
accuracy of predictions and the suitability of mitigation measures.
Sustainable Development- is defined as development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
This definition was given by the Norwegian Prime Minister G.H.Brundtland. The nations of the world
came to clearly understand sustainable development at the Rio Conference in 1992. Several
documents were created for the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
(UNCED), which brought out the fact that environment and development were closely connected
and that there was a need to ‘care for the Earth’.
The necessary conditions for achieving sustainable development are:

1. Social equity- there should be an equilibrium condition in the society among the same
generation within and between nation and between two different generations.
2. Economical equity- the technology should address to the problem of the developing
countries producing draught tolerant varities for uncertain climates, vaccines for
infectious diseases, clean fuel for domestic and industrial use. This type of technological
development will support the economic growth of the poor countries and help in
narrowing the wealth gap and lead to sustainability.
3. Ecological security- if any development process protects our biodiversity, decreases the
rate of soil erosion and increases the forest cover that brings the ecological security.

The primary goal of sustainable development is to achieve a reasonable and equitably distributed
level of economic well-being that can be perpetuated continually for many human generations. It
also implies using renewable natural resources in a manner that does not eliminate or degrade them
or otherwise diminish their usefulness for future generations. Development should protect our
biodiversity, prevent soil erosion, slow down the population growth, increase forest cover, cut off
the emissions of CFC, SOX, NOX and CO2, reduce waste generation, eliminate poverty and bring
benefits to all.

Consumerism and waste products

A consumer is someone who buys and uses goods and services. Consumers are not only found in
human society but also in other societies. Consumerism also encompasses the evolving set of
activities of government business enterprise and independent consumer organization that are
designed to protect the rights and interests of consumers. Hence consumerism is a global problem
affecting every section of the society.

Product is something that is made, grown or obtained in large quantities so that it can be sold.
Production is the basis for consumption. Production increases when the demand for a particular
product increases. This increase in production is sustainable only when the quality of the product is
maintained; the price is regulated and advertising claims are fair.

Efficient consumerism is the most essential element to minimize waste and to promote the economy
of a nation. Inefficient consumerism results in the following problems:

-Uncontrolled manufacture of foods leading to inferior quality

-Rampant adulteration leading to health and hygiene problems
-Improper services resulting in dissatisfaction and stress
-Production of lots of waste leads to depletion of natural resources and environmental imbalance
Suggestions for efficient consumerism:

1. Standards should be verified before buying or accepting a product from market.

2. In every possible way waste must be minimized.

3. Waste minerals have to be recycled.

4. Strict laws must be implemented.

Another example of waste due to inefficient consumerism is the solid waste. Minimising the waste
leads to sustainability and economy.

Environment Management System (EMS):

refers to the management of an organization's environmental programs in a comprehensive,

systematic, planned and documented manner. It includes the organizational structure, planning and
resources for developing, implementing and maintaining policy for environmental protection. The
term can also refer to software systems for organizational environmental management.

An Environmental Management System (EMS):

 Serves as a tool to improve environmental performance

 Provides a systematic way of managing an organization’s environmental affairs
 Is the aspect of the organization’s overall management structure that addresses immediate
and long-term impacts of its products, services and processes on the environment
 Gives order and consistency for organizations to address environmental concerns through
the allocation of resources, assignment of responsibility and ongoing evaluation of practices,
procedures and processes
 Focuses on continual improvement of the system
 ISO stands for the International Organization for Standardization, located in Geneva,
Switzerland. ISO International Standards ensure that products and services are safe, reliable
and of good quality. For business, they are strategic tools that reduce costs by minimizing
waste and errors and increasing productivity. They help companies to access new markets,
level the playing field for developing countries and facilitate free and fair global trade.

ISO 14000 refers to a family of voluntary standards and guidance documents to help
organizations address environmental issues. Included in the family are standards for
Environmental Management Systems, environmental and EMS auditing, environmental
labeling, performance evaluation and life-cycle assessment. It provides practical tools for
companies and organizations looking to identify and control their environmental impact and
constantly improve their environmental performance.

In September 1996, the International Organization for Standardization published the first
edition of ISO 14001, the Environmental Management Systems standard. This is an
international voluntary standard describing specific requirements for an EMS. ISO 14001 is a
specification standard to which an organization may receive certification or registration. ISO
14001 is considered the foundation document of the entire series.

ISO 14001:2004 and ISO 14004:2004 focus on environmental management systems. The
other standards in the family focus on specific environmental aspects such as life cycle
analysis, communication and auditing.

ISO 14001:2004 sets out the criteria for an environmental management system and can be
certified to. It does not state requirements for environmental performance, but maps out a
framework that a company or organization can follow to set up an effective environmental
management system. It can be used by any organization regardless of its activity or sector.
Using ISO 14001:2004 can provide assurance to company management and employees as
well as external stakeholders that environmental impact is being measured and improved.
The benefits of using ISO 14001:2004 can include:

 Reduced cost of waste management

 Savings in consumption of energy and materials
 Lower distribution costs
 Improved corporate image among regulators, customers and the public