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Grammatical Borrowing in Cross linguistic Perspective

Yaron Matras

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i

■ Borrowing
ii
iii

Borrowing
Loanwords in the Speech Community
and in the Grammar

Shana Poplack

3
iv

3
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers
the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education
by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University
Press in the UK and certain other countries.

Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press

198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America.

© Oxford University Press 2018

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction
rights organization. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above.

You must not circulate this work in any other form

and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Poplack, Shana, author.
Title: Borrowing : loanwords in the speech community and in the grammar /
Shana Poplack.
Description: New York : Oxford University Press, [2018] |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017035258 (print) | LCCN 2017007215 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780190256371 (softcover : acid-free paper) |
ISBN 9780190256388 (hardcover : acid-free paper) | ISBN 9780190256395 (pdf) |
ISBN 9780190256401 (online course) | ISBN 9780190699086 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Language and languages—Foreign words and phrases. |
Language and languages—Foreign elements. | Languages in contact. |
Grammar, Comparative and general. | BISAC: LANGUAGE ARTS & DISCIPLINES /
Linguistics / Sociolinguistics. | LANGUAGE ARTS & DISCIPLINES / Linguistics /
Historical & Comparative. | LANGUAGE ARTS & DISCIPLINES /
Linguistics / Psycholinguistics.
Classification: LCC P324 .P55 2017 (ebook) | LCC P324 (print) | DDC 412—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017035258

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Paperback printed by WebCom, Inc., Canada
Hardback printed by Bridgeport National Bindery, Inc., United States of America
v

■ In loving memory of my parents

■ For Nath
vi
vi

■  C O N T E N T S

Foreword xiii
Preface xv
Abbreviations and conventions xix

1. Rationale 1
1.1. Introduction 1
1.2. Definitions 5
1.3. Plan of this volume 8

2. A variationist perspective on borrowing 14

2.1. Introduction 14
2.2. The primacy of the speech community 15
2.3. Speakers 17
2.4. Data 18
2.5. Analysis 19
2.5.1. The Principle of Accountability 20
2.5.2. Identifying patterns 21
2.5.3. Circumscribing the variable context 21
2.6. Contextualizing language-​mixing strategies 23
2.6.1. Comparison as validation 25
2.6.2. The conflict site and the Principle of Diagnosticity 26
2.7. Procedure 27
2.8. Summary 28

3. Bilingual corpora 30
3.1. Introduction 30
3.2. The Ottawa-​Hull French Corpus 31
3.3. Diachronic corpora 37
3.4. Other language pairs 38

4. Borrowing in the speech community 40

4.1. Introduction 40
4.2. Data and method 40
4.2.1. English-​origin forms in Ottawa-​Hull French 40
4.2.2. Constituting a corpus of borrowings 41
4.2.3. Coding procedures 42
4.2.4. Assessing frequency 43

vii
vi

viii ■ Contents

4.3. Results 44
4.3.1. O
 verall distribution of English-​origin words 44
4.3.2. L
 exical integration of English-origin forms 45
4.3.3. B
 orrowability of different parts of speech 48
4.3.4. L
 inguistic integration of English-​origin words 50
4.3.4.1. Gender assignment 50
4.3.4.2. Morphological integration 52
4.3.4.2.1. Plural marking 52
4.3.4.2.2. Verbal inflection 53
4.3.4.2.3. Adjective and adverb inflection 54
4.3.4.3. Syntactic integration 55
4.3.4.4. Phonetic integration 56
4.3.5. Th
 e role of lexical need 58
4.4. Discussion 60

5. Dealing with variability in loanword integration 62

5.1. Introduction 62
5.2. Data and method 63
5.3. Detecting borrowings in spontaneous speech 66
5.3.1. Th
 e role of function words 66
5.3.2. Th
 e light verb strategy 66
5.3.3. Case-​marking 67
5.4. Results 68
5.4.1. Th
 e accusative case 68
5.4.1.1. Word order 68
5.4.1.2. Word class 69
5.4.1.3. Accusative case-​marking 70
5.4.2. Th
 e dative case 72
5.4.2.1. Word class 72
5.4.2.2. Syntactic context 72
5.4.2.3. Dative case-​marking 73
5.4.3. T amil-​origin objects of English verbs 74
5.4.4. Summary 76
5.4.5. C oincidence sites: Nominative case 77
5.5. Discussion 78

6. The bare facts of borrowing 80

6.1. Introduction 80
6.2. Nominal modification in the Wolof-​French and Fongbe-​
French language pairs  82
6.2.1. D ata and method 82
6.2.2. N P structure in monolingual and bilingual discourse 84
6.3. Results 87
6.3.1. Wolof-​French 87
6.3.2. Fongbe-​French 90
ix

Contents ■ ix

6.4. Nominal modification in the Igbo-​English language pair 91

6.5. Discussion 96

7. Confirmation through replication: Other language pairs,

other diagnostics 97
7.1. Introduction 97
7.2. Word order in Gulf Arabic-​English 98
7.3. Verb and adjective structure in Persian-​English 99
7.4. Inflection and vowel harmony in Igbo-​English 101
7.5. Vowel harmony in Turkish-​English 105
7.6. Case-​marking in Ukrainian-​English 105
7.7. Case-​marking in Japanese-​English 109
7.8. Determination in Spanish-​English 113
7.9. Other avenues for integration: The No-​Inflection Constraint
in Tunisian Arabic-​French  115
7.10. Discussion 120

8. How nonce borrowings become loanwords 122

8.1. Introduction 122
8.2. Data and method 123
8.3. Results 125
8.3.1. Th
 e Diffusion Assumption 125
8.3.2. Th
 e Graduality Assumption 127
8.3.2.1. Verb inflection 129
8.3.2.2. Plural marking 131
8.3.2.3. Determiner realization 132
8.3.2.4. Consistency in gender assignment 134
8.4. Discussion 138

9. Distinguishing borrowing and code-​switching: Why it matters 141

9.1. Introduction 141
9.2. Data 142
9.3. Results 143
9.3.1. L exical constitution of mixing strategies 143
9.3.2. Linguistic integration 145
9.3.2.1. Verb inflection 145
9.3.2.2. Plural marking 145
9.3.2.3. Determiner realization 147
9.3.2.4. Adjective placement 148
9.3.2.5. Consistency in gender assignment 150
9.3.3. S peaker propensity to code-​switch and nonce borrow 152
9.4. Corroborating evidence 153
9.5. Discussion 156
x

x ■ Contents

10. The role of phonetics in borrowing and integration 158

10.1. Introduction 158
10.2. Method 159
10.2.1. Speakers 160
10.2.2. Mixing types 160
10.2.3. Diagnostics 161
10.3. The LR benchmark 164
10.4. Realization of nonce borrowings 164
10.4.1. Th
 e role of the diagnostic segment 164
10.4.2. Th
 e role of the individual 165
10.4.3. Th
 e role of extra-​linguistic factors 167
10.4.3.1. Speaker age 167
10.4.3.2. Individual bilingual ability 167
10.4.3.3. Intensity of contact at the local level 168
10.4.4. H andling multiple segments of a single
nonce borrowing  169
10.4.5. Summary: Nonce borrowings 169
10.5. Realization of attested loanwords 170
10.5.1. Th
 e role of the diagnostic segment and the individual 170
10.5.2. Th
 e role of extra-​linguistic factors 170
10.5.3. H andling multiple iterations of a single
attested loanword  172
10.5.4. Summary: Attested loanwords 174
10.6. Realization of code-​switches 175
10.6.1. Th
 e role of the diagnostic segment and the individual 175
10.6.2. Th
 e role of extra-​linguistic factors 176
10.6.3. Summary: Code-​switches 176
10.7. Relative treatment of language-​mixing types 176
10.7.1. O verall integration rates 178
10.7.2. C ontrolling for the individual: Integration of nonce
borrowings relative to attested loanwords
and code-​switches  179
10.8. Discussion 181

11. The social dynamics of borrowing 186

11.1. Introduction 186
11.2. Method 187
11.3. The contribution of extra-​linguistic factors to borrowing 187
11.3.1. P roficiency in English 187
11.3.2. N eighborhood of residence 189
11.3.3. Occupational class 192
11.3.4. Age 193
xi

Contents ■ xi

11.3.5. Gender 195

11.3.6. Education 196
11.3.7. Relative importance of social influences on borrowing 197
11.4. Tapping into loanword diffusion: The sharedness measure 199
11.5. The role of speaker attitudes 202
11.6. Other evidence: French incorporations in Quebec English 206
11.7. Discussion 208

12. Epilogue 210

12.1. Rationale 210
12.2. Recognizing integration 211
12.3. Key findings 212
12.4. The primacy of the speech community 214
12.5. Assessing the method 214
12.6. Moving toward consensus 214
12.7. Future directions 215

Appendix A: Speaker characteristics of the Ottawa-​Hull

French Corpus  217
Appendix B: Sources of attestation histories for English-​origin
words in the Ottawa-​Hull French Corpus  223
B.1. European French  223
B.2. Canadian French  223
References 225
Index 237
xi
xi

■  F O R E W O R D

Just days before I was honored by the request to write a foreword for this volume,
I had been thinking that Shana Poplack, if she had the energy, should assemble
her various writings on lexical borrowing into a single book. And, like rubbing
Aladdin’s lamp, there it was! Poplack did combine her research results into a sin-
gle book that reads like a monograph rather than a compilation. There can be no
doubt that this is the most coherent, authoritative, and comprehensive study of the
process of lexical borrowing so far undertaken, and it is hard to imagine another
book superseding it in the years to come.
The book is coherent because it was written with a slowly evolving single vision,
developed and fine-​tuned during a research trajectory over almost 40 years. Very
rarely do we find a research program so consistently carried out over a long per-
iod, and with such great tenacity. In her work with the Puerto Rican speech com-
munity in New York, Poplack found that switching between Spanish and English
followed clear rules in which the grammatical properties of both languages were
respected. However, later studies, documented here, showed that in another kind
of language mixing—​borrowing—​borrowed elements show very different proper-
ties from code-​switches. Here, the grammar of the “recipient” language is what
counts. Thus, in Fongbe-​French bilingual speech, the French loans science and
tonnerre appear without the article, which would be almost impossible in French
but follows Fongbe rules:
Et puis science xlɛ́ mı̌ gbèɖé ɖɔ̀ tonnerre hù mɛ̀ ɖòkpó. (FON.003.3:780)
‘And science has never shown that thunder killed one person.’
The book is authoritative because every analysis and statement is supported
by thoroughly documented, and often dauntingly large, datasets. Particularly the
Ottawa-​Hull French Corpus allows questions (and answers) that many smaller
datasets could not handle. Under Poplack’s strong academic leadership all datasets
gathered have been stored and annotated.
The book is comprehensive because it covers borrowing phenomena in 13
language pairs involving languages from five language families from all over the
world. This yields a rich perspective on borrowing. Like the Fongbe example
above, in Tamil sentences, English nouns as well as verbs are often incorporated
but with Tamil material added to them, as in the following example from Tamil-​
English bilingual speech:
an̪ða car-​ai drive paɳɳanum. (TAM.SH.846)
‘We must drive that car.’

xiii
xvi

xiv ■ Foreword

The English word car receives a Tamil accusative case ending, and drive is
accompanied by a Tamil helping verb meaning ‘do.’ Thus, in contrast to code-​
switching, the shape of the borrowed word derives from the particular properties
of the recipient language involved in the mix, in conjunction with the norms of the
speech community under consideration.
Borrowed words also undergo a long trajectory, from nonce borrowings to
loanwords sometimes no longer recognized as such, as lucidly discussed by
Poplack. They become part of the social treasures of the speech community which
gives shape to the language in which they are embedded. While Poplack’s work
has always been a key reference for sociolinguists and contact linguists, I hope
that psycholinguists, trying to understand how lexical borrowing is handled cog-
nitively in the bilingual lexicon, also will become engaged, and possibly further
entangled, in the research program laid out in this book.
Pieter Muysken
Radboud University, Nijmegen
xv

■  P R E F A C E

My fascination with lexical borrowing arose over many years of studying code-​
switching. Transcribing and poring over reams of densely populated Puerto Rican
Spanish-​English bilingual recordings, collected by the peerless Pedro Pedraza
under the auspices of CUNY’s Center for Puerto Rican studies, my goal was to
locate and extract the code-​switches, with a view to analyzing their syntax and
function. I brought to this endeavor a deep attraction to the speakers, their speech
community, and above all, their speech. I also brought a strong background in var-
iation theory, a predilection for counting, and a sense of the importance of know-
ing what to count. But the extremely rich and varied data collected by Pedraza
among fellow denizens of New York City’s El Barrio proved recalcitrant. These
materials were a far cry from the well-​behaved examples I was used to seeing in
linguistics journals, and my forays into them repeatedly pointed up just how many
items they contained that I simply didn’t know what to do with. Some looked like
loanwords, but no one had ever heard them before; others were clearly English,
but sounded just like Spanish. It finally became obvious that lumping the English
portions together (under the working assumption of the time that other-​language
incorporations in mixed discourse were all instantiations of the same thing) wasn’t
going to work. Some of these English items were consistent with English gram-
mar, but others, despite their etymology, displayed only Spanish features. Many
were recurrent, others very rare. Some were long stretches, but most consisted of
a single word.
Although I didn’t fully apprehend this at the time, the systematicity that would
later be shown to characterize these mixed structures was often obscured, due to
the as yet unacknowledged fact that bilingual speech, just like its monolingual
congeners, is inherently variable, involving choices during speech production that
incorporate some degree of unpredictability. My attempts to apply the variationist
framework to bilingual speech eventually led me to distinguish among different
manifestations of language contact and to contextualize the various mixing strate-
gies with respect to each other and to monolingual benchmark varieties. I owe the
discovery of when (and how) other-​language items assume the linguistic structure
of a recipient language into which they are incorporated and when they retain
their donor-​language identity to these methodological imperatives. Even more
important, in conjunction with systematic quantitative analyses of the data, they
eventually revealed patterns of language mixing within and across communities,
enabling me to tease out the major strategies from idiosyncratic outliers. The cor-
nerstone of this enterprise has always been the data of actual bilingual interactions
situated in the context of the speech community in which they were produced.

xv
xvi

xvi ■ Preface

Over time those data yielded to analysis, and structure began to emerge, revealing,
instead of mayhem, the startling systematicity of bilingual mixing. The chapters
assembled in this volume are a chronological reflection of this decades-​long jour-
ney from chaos to order.
The reader will note the abundant use of the first-​person plural we through-
out these chapters. This is neither royal nor stylistic, but reflects the fact that the
analyses presented here are the result of team effort. No work based on millions
of words, tens of thousands of tokens, and hundreds upon hundreds of analyses
could have been carried out otherwise. The neat tables and graphs gracing these
pages conceal the countless hours and wealth of brainpower that went into con-
structing them, and the massive infrastructure involved in collecting, transcribing,
correcting, computerizing, extracting, coding, correcting, recoding, analyzing,
reanalyzing, and interpreting the data on which they are based. I am extraordi-
narily fortunate to have been surrounded over the years by a team of exceptional
students and associates, whose participation in this research program made the
present work possible.
The large-​scale analyses featured in these chapters carry a cost, the lion’s share
of which was graciously defrayed by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research
Council of Canada. SSHRC has supplied me with decades of uninterrupted fun­
ding in the form of back-​to-​back standard research grants, a Canada Research
Chair (twice renewed), and, most recently, its Gold Medal for Research. These
have allowed me to create and maintain, since 1982, the uOttawa Sociolinguistics
Laboratory, which has been a hotbed of research on language variation, contact,
and change, and the birthplace of the work assembled here. The Isaac Walton
Killam Foundation saw fit to honor me with both its Research Fellowship and
the Killam Prize, and the Ontario Ministry of Research and Innovation and the
Trudeau Foundation also awarded me prestigious research prizes which contri­
buted greatly to furthering this work. I gratefully acknowledge all this support,
which has permitted me to offer research training and employment to linguistics
students and associates for over 30 years, many of whom contributed directly to
the contents of this volume.
Much of the research reported here originated as collective efforts. Early colla­
boration with both David Sankoff and Marjory Meechan remains fundamental to
my thinking about language mixing. This is most evident in the material synthe-
sized in c­ hapters 4 (based on Poplack, Sankoff, and Miller [1988]), 5 (drawn from
Sankoff, Poplack, and Vanniarajan [1990]), 6 (Poplack and Meechan 1995) and
11 (Poplack, Sankoff, and Miller 1988). Nathalie Dion co-​authored the work
presented in ­chapters 8 and 9 (Poplack and Dion 2012), and she and Suzanne
Robillard contributed to the analyses of c­ hapter 10 (Poplack, Robillard, and Dion,
under review). I gratefully acknowledge their valuable contributions, as well as
those of co-​authors Chris Miller and Swathi Vanniarajan, and herewith absolve
them of any responsibility for the current formulations of this work.
xvi

Preface ■ xvii

Generations of students in the language contact seminars I have given over the
years have taught me a great deal of what I know about language mixing, often via
analysis of previously understudied or unstudied typologically distinct language
pairs. Many of their class papers, later developed into dissertations and/​or publica-
tions, provided precious replications of the major analyses of this volume. Some of
these are reviewed in ­chapters 7 and 9.
It has been my great privilege to interact with a number of fellow seekers in
our common quest to make sense of the challenging data of bilingual speech,
though they may not agree with all, or even most, of the ideas expressed here.
I have particularly benefited from reading the work of (and engaging in spir-
ited exchanges with) Peter Auer, Ad Backus, François Grosjean, Jürgen Meisel,
and Jeanine Treffers-​Daller. Pieter Muysken’s seminal work on each of the issues
treated in this book (and many others) has been an enduring source of inspira-
tion and insight. Rena Torres Cacoullos has been unstintingly generous with her
time and her vast store of professional and personal knowledge of bilingualism,
language mixing, and linguistic variation and change. In her combined capacities
of sounding board, editor, and critic extraordinaire, she has helped elucidate an
unending supply of seemingly intractable research problems.
Stephen Levey, Rena Torres Cacoullos, and Catherine Travis took much-​needed
time to read drafts of these chapters, and provided comments that improved
them immeasurably. Swathi Vanniarajan was kind enough to convert our anti-
quated Tamil transcriptions to standard International Phonetic Alphabet format
for ­chapter 5. In a reprisal of his role as Art Director to the Sociolinguistics Lab,
Dave Norris designed the cover for this volume. Salvatore Digesto oversaw com-
pilation of the index. Suzanne Robillard shouldered the herculean tasks of edi­
ting, standardizing, formatting, and otherwise cajoling these materials into shape
for publication, all with incredible efficiency and astonishingly short turnaround
times. Beyond reading, discussing, and critiquing every word of this text (some
many times), Nathalie Dion masterminded every aspect of this project in ways too
numerous to detail. Her precious contributions are evident in every page of this
volume. I am extremely grateful to them all.
To all the bilinguals who, by their example, have taught me so much about the
incredible creativity and abiding regularity of lexical borrowing, I dedicate this
work. If it contributes to dissipating even some of the bad press bilingualism has
received, in Canada and around the world, it will have fulfilled its mission.
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