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America Beyond Black and White: How Immigrants and Fusions Are Helping Us Overcome the Racial Divide
Ronald Fernandez
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The University of Michigan Press

America Beyond Black and White

America Beyond Black and White: How Immigrants and Fusions Are Helping Us Overcome the Racial Divide
Ronald Fernandez
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The University of Michigan Press
America Beyond Black and White: How Immigrants and Fusions Are Helping Us Overcome the Racial Divide
Ronald Fernandez
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America Beyond
Black and White
} } }

How Immigrants and Fusions Are

Helping Us Overcome the Racial Divide

Ronald Fernandez

The University of Michigan Press • Ann Arbor

America Beyond Black and White: How Immigrants and Fusions Are Helping Us Overcome the Racial Divide
Ronald Fernandez
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The University of Michigan Press

Copyright © by the University of Michigan 2007

All rights reserved
Published in the United States of America by
The University of Michigan Press
Manufactured in the United States of America
c Printed on acid-free paper
2010 2009 2008 2007 4 3 2 1

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored

in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form
or by any means, electronic, mechanical, or otherwise,
without the written permission of the publisher.

A CIP catalog record for this book is available from the British Library.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Fernandez, Ronald.
America beyond black and white : how immigrants and fusions are
helping us overcome the racial divide / Ronald Fernandez.
p. cm. — (Contemporary political and social issues)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
isbn-13: 978-0-472-11609-6 (cloth : alk. paper)
isbn-10: 0-472-11609-6 (cloth : alk. paper)
1. United States—Race relations. 2. United States—Ethnic
relations. 3. United States—Emigration and immigration—Social
aspects. 4. Immigrants—United States—Social conditions.
5. Minorities—United States—Social conditions. 6. Racially-mixed
people—United States—Social conditions. 7. Assimilation
(Sociology)—United States. I. Title.
e184.a1f473 2007
305.800973—dc22 2007019355

A Caravan book. For more information, visit www.caravanbooks.org

America Beyond Black and White: How Immigrants and Fusions Are Helping Us Overcome the Racial Divide
Ronald Fernandez
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The University of Michigan Press

To jacob morton fernandez

A fantastic fusion of Colombian, French,

Irish, Japanese, & Spanish heritages
America Beyond Black and White: How Immigrants and Fusions Are Helping Us Overcome the Racial Divide
Ronald Fernandez
http://www.press.umich.edu/titleDetailDesc.do?id=268662
The University of Michigan Press

Acknowledgments

I owe a great debt to Luis Nieves Falcon (in Puerto Rico) and Rex Net-
tleford (in Jamaica). Like two brothers, they introduced me to their
Caribbean worlds, and, in the process, they changed my life. With
love, thank you.
Research for this book included visits to the Kennedy, Johnson,
and Reagan Presidential Libraries. The libraries are true arsenals of
democracy, staffed by archivists who always do everything they can to
get scholars all available documents.
Rather than risk missing someone, I would like to say thanks to all
the people who helped at the Intercollegiate Conference on Mixed
Race Students, at the seventy-‹fth anniversary meeting of the Japanese
American Citizenship League, at the Unity Conference of Journalists
in Washington, D.C., and at the Borderlands Conference in Laredo;
to everyone who helped arrange the visit to the Arab American com-
munity in Detroit; to our dancer hosts in Jamaica; to the Hartford-
based West Indian Foundation; to our many guides in Puerto Rico and
Vieques; to our hosts in Mexico, San Diego, and Los Angeles; and to
all the folks in Cuba, who, through four trips, extended a warm wel-
come and a wonderful introduction to Cuba’s spectacular culture.
Antonio Garcia Lozada, Martin Espada, Elaine Cartland, and
Susan Pease all offered comments about the manuscript in process.
Their comments and criticisms were both helpful and necessary. So
too the very thorough peer reviews commissioned by the University of
America Beyond Black and White: How Immigrants and Fusions Are Helping Us Overcome the Racial Divide
Ronald Fernandez
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The University of Michigan Press
viii } Acknowledgments

Michigan Press. The last chapter now includes a discussion of the

2005–2006 immigration debates because of a pointed suggestion by
one of the reviewers.
At Central Connecticut State University, Paul Altieri, Steve Cox,
Debbie Peterson, and Mary Wood also provided much needed assis-
tance.
At the University of Michigan Press, Jim Reische is an editor who
became a friend. He copyedited the manuscript with great skill and
empathy. Jim is so good that he should serve as a model for anyone
editing someone else’s work. It was a pleasure to work again with Phil
Pochoda, director of the University of Michigan Press. He and his staff
operate with an enviable degree of both transparency and profession-
alism. Sarah Remington was always helpful, kind, and very ef‹cient.
Kevin Rennells coordinated the publishing process with great skill and
much understanding. Finally, my thanks to Anne Taylor for an excel-
lent copyedit of the manuscript.
Tammy Morton and Adam Fernandez helped me in countless
ways, not the least of which was providing the idea for the book. Car-
rie and Benjamin Fernandez listened to their father’s ideas with
patience and a smile, even when I was guilty of acting too much like a
professor.
This book would not exist without Brenda Harrison. She provided
the book’s original title. She acted as my partner at the presidential
libraries; and she was also my partner on each of the research trips.
There is no part of this book that has not bene‹ted from her acute
intelligence, curiosity, support, and love. I, of course, am alone
responsible for any errors.
The book is dedicated to our grandson, Jacob Morton Fernandez.
America Beyond Black and White: How Immigrants and Fusions Are Helping Us Overcome the Racial Divide
Ronald Fernandez
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The University of Michigan Press

Contents

Introduction 1

One A Historical Opportunity

immigrants, fusions, and
the reconfiguration of
american culture 9

Two Dead End

the white/black dichotomy 28

Three Murals and Mexicans

chicanos in the united states 60

Four Asian Americans

non-european and nonwhite 94

Five The Other Others

indians and arabs 125

Six The Caribbean

puerto ricans, west indians,
cubans 159

Seven The Question Marks

mixed-race americans 192

Eight A Heart Transplant 220

Epilogue
our fusion family 252

Notes 255
Select Bibliography 274
Index 277
America Beyond Black and White: How Immigrants and Fusions Are Helping Us Overcome the Racial Divide
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Introduction
}

Emilie Hammerstein has a problem. Her dad is German, her mother is

Chinese, and she constantly gets the same question from total
strangers: “What are you?”
Emilie generally responds in a polite manner, but once the intrud-
ers leave she questions herself as forcefully as the daily gauntlet of
strangers. “I have often felt that the world is not ready for someone
like me, someone who is a walking contradiction to their cultural
de‹nitions. They don’t understand that it can be confusing for me to
be constantly asked, ‘What are you?’”1
Emilie’s question—America’s question—is one signi‹cant indica-
tion of an unprecedented challenge to U.S. culture. Millions of other
American combinations share Emilie’s sense of being a walking con-
tradiction to the white/black dichotomy. In everyday life, U.S. culture
still calls these (mostly younger) men and women “mixed-race” Amer-
icans. Many stoically endure that label, but others de‹antly reject it
and its everyday associates, negative markers like “half ”; “exotic”;
“tragic mulatto”; or, perhaps worst of all, “half-breed.”
One term they do embrace is fusion, an idea I ‹rst became aware of
at the 2004 National Student Conference on the Mixed Race Experi-
ence. Fusions argue that all human beings are ethnic combinations.
America Beyond Black and White: How Immigrants and Fusions Are Helping Us Overcome the Racial Divide
Ronald Fernandez
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The University of Michigan Press
2 } America Beyond Black and White

They believe that there is one race, the human race, and that the
human race is, by de‹nition, a ceaseless series of human unions.
Fusions also deliberately refuse to use skin color as an important way
to identify anyone on earth. They believe that, instead of being self-
segregating barriers to interaction, somatic differences are delightful
and diverse manifestations of the underlying and indissoluble unity of
six billion people.
From the fusion’s perspective, assimilation is a form of masochism:
why embrace a society that lacks positive words to describe them? As
“walking contradictions,” these Americans try to recon‹gure the cul-
ture. They want to instigate a mutiny. When the rest of us ask them,
“What are you?” they respond with questions of their own. What kind
of culture cuts people into mixtures and halves? Since even the small-
est group of people manifests meaningful genetic differences, what is
the basis for the idea of racial purity? How can anyone have the audac-
ity to talk about me as a “mixture,” when the idea of racial purity is as
valid as the beliefs of the Flat Earth Society?
These questions will not disappear. On the contrary, the often con-
tentious debates about the “racial” identities of ‹gures like Senator
Barack Obama and Tiger Woods suggest that the future promises more
discussion than ever. Here are the Census Bureau’s estimates for the
next ‹fty years. As the Census Bureau indicates, “All other races” are
growing at a rapid pace because, among other things, close to 60 per-
cent of Asian Americans under the age of 25 marry outside of their eth-
nicity.2 Emilie Hammerstein represents an integral part of America’s
future, and, in her need to ‹nd positive words to describe herself, Emi-
lie and her cohort pose questions that may fundamentally recon‹gure
American culture. Put differently, Emile and her cohort hope to eman-
cipate everyone from slavery’s most lasting ideological legacy, the
white/black dichotomy that, 140 years after the end of the Civil War,
still de‹nes Americans by what poisonously divides Americans.

All Other Races in 2000 7.1 million and 2.5 percent of our people
All Other Races in 2020 11.8 million and 3.5 percent of our people
All Other Races in 2050 22.4 million and 5.3 percent of our people
America Beyond Black and White: How Immigrants and Fusions Are Helping Us Overcome the Racial Divide
Ronald Fernandez
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Introduction } 3

Emilie has company, lots of it. Like an obsolete computer running

new software, American society crashes when confronted with the
more than fifty million citizens who are incompatible with our operat-
ing system of racial beliefs. Latinos, Asians, West Indians, Arabs, Pak-
istanis, and Indians are neither black nor white; they can never fully
embrace the culture, and it never fully embraces them because the
nation’s dictionary of racial de‹nitions—what the sociologist Erving
Goffman called our “grammar of conduct”—offers no accepted,
much less positive, way to describe them. For example, many immi-
grants from Pakistan have darker skins than African Americans, but
we never call them black. So, what are they? “None of the above”
receives the check mark, because, from their perspective—one that
they share with bronze-skinned Latinos, Indians, and Arabs—the
operating system is a mystery, and so are they if they try to think in
white and black.
Consider three provocative paradoxes posed by many of America’s
most recent immigrants.

• According to the Census Bureau, white people attacked America

on September 11, 2001. That may sound absurd unless we remem-
ber that the U.S. Census Bureau de‹nes “white as referring to
people having origins in any of the original peoples of Europe, the
Middle East or North Africa.” From one perspective, this repre-
sents a reverse “one drop rule”; instead of one drop of black blood
making you black, one drop of white blood makes you white, even
if your skin is as dark as that of former Egyptian president Anwar
Sadat. The Census Bureau helps makes our cultural rules, so, if we
use it as a guide, the Arabs who executed the hideous attack on the
World Trade Center were white men. The idea of “white Arabs”
forces us to ask questions like these: are the census categories
rational, much less valid? Or, are they, as some Arab Americans
argue, “a peculiar ‹xation” of a culture so addicted to thinking in
two colors that it must squeeze brown people into white boxes?3
• The United States is home to more than one million West Indian
Americans, the majority from the Caribbean nation of Jamaica.
America Beyond Black and White: How Immigrants and Fusions Are Helping Us Overcome the Racial Divide
Ronald Fernandez
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The University of Michigan Press
4 } America Beyond Black and White

Jamaicans in Kingston or Ocho Rios certainly see the dark color of

their skin but rarely dwell on it. Instead, Jamaicans use their nation
and culture as all-important axes of social and personal self-esteem.
Jamaican pride is a delight to see but becomes a problem the
moment a Jamaican lands in New York. Now they are black; of
course, they already knew that. But until they arrived in the United
States, no one told them that they were only black. The realization
is often so jolting and uncomfortable that Jamaicans (and Trinida-
dians) resist assimilation. Instead, they ridicule American attitudes
toward color by asking two sometimes very angry questions. How
can dark-skinned people who use culture as an axis of identity
assimilate into a society that only wants to de‹ne them by the color
of their skin? And, why should they ‹t into American categories? If
Jamaicans make skin color a secondary or peripheral consideration
in judging themselves and others, maybe Americans should use
Jamaicans as role models rather than vice versa?
• A ‹nal example comes from a question posed by one of my col-
leagues who had attended the 2004 Unity Conference of seven
thousand “minority” journalists in Washington, D.C. Mexican,
Puerto Rican, Japanese, Chinese, Indian, and Iranian professionals
all agreed they were neither black nor white. Each group stood out-
side the dichotomy, but all still referred to themselves as “people of
color.” Stimulated by the immigrants’ choice, my colleague wanted
to know how Americans could ever create a color-blind society if
immigrants were taught to use color as the primary basis for self-
identi‹cation. Even more important, the immigrants’ choice led
my colleague to these perplexing conclusions: If Asians, Latinos,
and Arabs were people of color, then white people had no color
even though they and everyone else called them white. In essence,
white was not a color, but people of color only existed in relation to white
people, who did not get a color because they were white, which is not
a color.

In this book, none-of-the-above immigrants are a blessing, never in

disguise. In trying to comprehend or ‹t into the white/black
dichotomy, Asians, Latinos, West Indians, Arabs, and (India) Indians
America Beyond Black and White: How Immigrants and Fusions Are Helping Us Overcome the Racial Divide
Ronald Fernandez
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Introduction } 5

ask us to rethink what the sociologists Robert and Helen Merrell Lynd
called America’s “of course” assumptions. Many immigrants suggest
that our operating system of racial beliefs is weird or even a form of
cultural insanity; and many of them are as eager for a full-scale mutiny
as are Emilie and millions of other mixed-race Americans.
For the ‹rst time in U.S history, the white/black dichotomy faces a
challenge, not from a small and insigni‹cant minority but from the
fastest-growing and arguably most vocal segment of the increasingly
diverse American people. Consider the broad demographic outlines
of America’s future from the 2000 census.

Latinos in 2000 35.6 million and 12.6 percent of our people

Latinos in 2020 59.7 million and 17.8 percent of our people
Latinos in 2050 102.5 million and 24.4 percent of our people

Asians in 2000 10.6 million and 3.8 percent of our people

Asians in 2020 17.9 million and 5.4 percent of our people
Asians in 2050 33.4 million and 8 percent of our people

Blacks in 2000 35.8 million and 12.7 percent of our people

Blacks in 2020 45.3 million and 13.5 percent of our people
Blacks in 2050 61.3 million and 14.6 percent of our people

Whites in 2000 195.7 million and 65 percent of our people

Whites in 2020 205 million and 61.3 percent of our people
Whites in 2050 210 million and 50.1 percent of our people

All Other Races in 2000 7.1 million and 2.5 percent of our people
All Other Races in 2020 11.8 million and 3.5 percent of our people
All Other Races in 2050 22.4 million and 5.3 percent of our people

More than ‹fty million Americans and their children cannot or will
not assimilate into American culture. In cities like Detroit (Arab
Americans); San Diego (Mexican Americans); Edison, New Jersey
(Indians); Seattle (mixed-race Americans); and Hartford (Puerto
Ricans and Jamaicans), millions of new Americans busily engage in a
America Beyond Black and White: How Immigrants and Fusions Are Helping Us Overcome the Racial Divide
Ronald Fernandez
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The University of Michigan Press
6 } America Beyond Black and White

series of parallel monologues. Working within their own ethnic

groups, newcomers encounter what Harvard’s Samuel Huntington
calls “Anglo-Protestant culture,” and, in the process of trying to com-
prehend how Americans think, Chicanos or West Indians regularly
engage in tightly bounded acts of de‹ance. Each group provides more
or less mutinous answers for its own members, but none seeks to pro-
vide a new cultural consensus for the nation as a whole.
This book argues that a new consensus can emerge if we consider
what these parallel monologues tell us about U.S. culture as it is seen
by none-of-the-above immigrants and fusions. Since a cultural mutiny
is already under way, Americans have only two choices: understand
why none-of-the-above Americans think as they do or stumble into a
future that continues to de‹ne Americans by what divides them rather
than by what unites them.
Some Americans will understandably question the need for a
mutiny. Many of my students, for example, claim that they do not
think in terms of race and ethnicity. They judge people by their char-
acter, not by the set of prejudices that guided their parents and grand-
parents. “Get over it,” say many younger Americans. Why do we need
to listen to multiculturalism lectures that only echo what we already
think?
There has been substantial change over the last forty or ‹fty years.
Many Americans are much more comfortable with difference than
our predecessors were. But, to those who argue that a mutiny is unnec-
essary, I would ask these questions. If radical change is not required,
why do the children of mixed-race marriages encounter some of the
ugliest “racial” prejudice that America has to offer? Emilie Hammer-
stein’s parents, a German man and a Chinese woman, married
because they happily transcend the bigoted past; yet Emilie, as the
child of color-blind Americans, every day faces the terrible discrimi-
nation and pain that occur because “halves” do not ‹t into a culture
still dominated by race and the white/black dichotomy.
Put differently, if everything is OK, why was it necessary for Donna
Jackson Nakazawa to publish (in 2003) a book titled Does Anybody Else
Look Like Me? A Parents Guide to Raising Multiracial Children. This book
helps parents protect their mixed-race children from the rest of us!
America Beyond Black and White: How Immigrants and Fusions Are Helping Us Overcome the Racial Divide
Ronald Fernandez
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The University of Michigan Press
Introduction } 7

Let me repeat: substantial change has occurred, and the young-

sters who argue that they no longer harbor prejudices are genuine. No
one is lying. But the “get over it” attitude leads people to assume that,
because they have changed, Americans have somehow leapfrogged
over ‹ve hundred years of history without discarding some of its most
basic and crucial forms of self-identi‹cation.
Here is my request. To those who argue that a radical recon‹gura-
tion is unnecessary, suspend judgment until we ‹rst analyze the
debates taking place throughout the United States. Latinos, Arabs,
and Asians, among others, argue that racial thinking is still a very vital
part of everyday American life. Whatever we may think is happening,
new immigrants still encounter a world aptly described by Senator
Richard Durbin in congressional debates that occurred on March 27,
2006: “America has two great traditions. We are a nation of immi-
grants and we are a nation intolerant of immigrants.”
In the chapters that follow, America Beyond Black and White listens
carefully to the series of parallel monologues now occurring in the dis-
united states of America. The book also examines the history of vari-
ous groups. This historical analysis serves three purposes: It helps
explain the diverse and often negative reactions of these groups to
American racial thinking; it underlines the continuing power of nine-
teenth- and early twentieth-century U.S. history to still set the parame-
ters of American beliefs about race, ethnicity, and the place of non-
European immigrants in American life; and, ‹nally, it helps “right”
American history.
The history of none-of-the-above immigrants argues that, ‹rst, the
melting pot is a myth and that, second, it is a myth that acts as a tow-
ering barrier to any future sense of national unity. In the past, groups
like Arabs, Indians, Mexicans, and Asians learned that American cul-
ture never included their ethnic ingredients. Today, still faced with
the rejection and confusion rooted in American history, millions of
none-of-the-above immigrants deliberately isolate themselves from a
society that treats them no better than it does Emilie Hammerstein
and her seven million fellow fusions.
In essence, the immigrants, their (increasingly fused) children,
and their experiences in the United States offer us an unprecedented
America Beyond Black and White: How Immigrants and Fusions Are Helping Us Overcome the Racial Divide
Ronald Fernandez
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The University of Michigan Press
8 } America Beyond Black and White

chance to, all together, provide a radically imaginative answer to a

question ‹rst posed by Randolph Bourne in 1916, “What shall we do
with our America?”
That is the monumental question posed by none-of-the-above
immigrants and mixed-race Americans. Should we abolish America’s
operating system of racial beliefs? Should we exchange the challenged
metaphor of the melting pot for another ideal? And, if so, where do
we all go from here? How, rooted in a more complete picture of U.S.
immigrant history, can we create a world where Americans de‹ne one
another by what unites them—their shared humanity— rather than by
what divides them: the color of their skin and a descending scale of
superior and inferior races?
We have meaningful cause for optimism, especially if we begin by
accurately grasping how and why the United States of America funda-
mentally transformed its immigration laws in 1965.
America Beyond Black and White: How Immigrants and Fusions Are Helping Us Overcome the Racial Divide
Ronald Fernandez
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One

A Historical Opportunity
}
Immigrants, Fusions, and the
Recon‹guration of American Culture

The rat is dead, exterminated, in a nineteenth-century newspaper ad,

by a pest-control product called “Rough on Rats.” For ‹fteen cents a
box, the poisonous pellets also cleared out mice, bed bugs, ›ies, and
roaches; nothing survived this pesticide except the Chinese coolie
carefully caricatured just below the dead pest. In the ad the Chinese
man relishes rats; he is about to pop a juicy specimen into his mouth,
and when he ‹nishes his appetizer he can reach for the main course,
another fat rat suspended from his pants.
Above him is emblazoned an anti-immigrant slogan then popular
throughout the nation: “They must go.” The Chinese need to leave
because they are rough on rats and rougher on the white race threat-
ened by the Chinese immigrants who, in 1886, provided almost 90
percent of California’s agricultural labor force.1
The conundrum is a constant of U.S. history. Groups of immi-
grants do the nation’s dirty, dangerous, and demanding work. Then,
when they prove to be “incapable of assimilation,” federal of‹cials tell

9
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