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Grammatical Borrowing in Cross-Linguistic Perspective

≥
Empirical Approaches
to Language Typology
38

Editors
Georg Bossong
Bernard Comrie
Yaron Matras

Mouton de Gruyter
Berlin · New York
Grammatical Borrowing
in Cross-Linguistic Perspective

Edited by
Yaron Matras
Jeanette Sakel

Mouton de Gruyter
Berlin · New York
Mouton de Gruyter (formerly Mouton, The Hague)
is a Division of Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG, Berlin.

앪
앝 Printed on acid-free paper which falls within the guidelines of the
ANSI to ensure permanence and durability.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Grammatical borrowing in cross-linguistic perspective / edited by Yaron

Matras, Jeanette Sakel.
p. cm. ⫺ (Empirical approaches to language typology ; 38)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-3-11-019628-3 (cloth : alk. paper)
1. Language and languages ⫺ Foreign elements. 2. Grammar, Com-
parative and general. I. Matras, Yaron, 1963⫺ II. Sakel, Jeanette,
1973⫺
P324.G73 2007
410⫺dc22
2007042917

Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek

The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie;
detailed bibliographic data is available in the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de.

ISBN 978-3-11-019628-3
ISSN 0933-761X

© Copyright 2007 by Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG, D-10785 Berlin.
All rights reserved, including those of translation into foreign languages. No part of this book
may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopy, recording or any information storage and retrieval system, without per-
mission in writing from the publisher.
Printed in Germany.
Contents

List of contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Yaron Matras and Jeanette Sakel

Types of loan: Matter and pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Jeanette Sakel

The borrowability of structural categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Yaron Matras

Grammatical borrowing in Tasawaq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Maarten Kossmann

Grammatical borrowing in K’abeena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Joachim Crass

Grammatical borrowing in Likpe (Sɛkpɛlé) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Felix K. Ameka

Grammatical borrowing in Katanga Swahili. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

Vincent A. de Rooij

Grammatical borrowing in Khuzistani Arabic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

Yaron Matras and Maryam Shabibi

Grammatical borrowing in Domari. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

Yaron Matras

Grammatical borrowing in Kurdish (Northern Group) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

Geoffrey Haig

Arabic grammatical borrowing in Western Neo-Aramaic. . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

Werner Arnold
vi Contents

Grammatical borrowing in North-eastern Neo-Aramaic . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

Geoffrey Khan

Grammatical borrowing in Macedonian Turkish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

Yaron Matras and Şirin Tufan

Grammatical borrowing in Kildin Saami . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

Michael Rießler

Grammatical borrowing in Yiddish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

Gertrud Reershemius

Grammatical borrowing in Hungarian Rumungro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261

Viktor Elšík

Grammatical borrowing in Manange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283

Kristine A. Hildebrandt

Grammatical borrowing in Indonesian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301

Uri Tadmor

Grammatical borrowing in Biak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329

Wilco van den Heuvel

Sino-Vietnamese grammatical borrowing: An overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343

Mark J. Alves

Recent grammatical borrowing into an Australian

Aboriginal language: The case of Jaminjung and Kriol. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Eva Schultze-Berndt

Grammatical borrowing in Rapanui . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387

Steven Roger Fischer

Grammatical borrowing in Nahuatl. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403

Una Canger and Anne Jensen

Grammatical borrowing in Yaqui . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419

Zarina Estrada Fernández and Lilián Guerrero
 Contents vii

The case of Otomi: A contribution to grammatical borrowing

in cross-linguistic perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
Ewald Hekking and Dik Bakker

Grammatical borrowing in Purepecha. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465

Claudine Chamoreau

Grammatical borrowing in Imbabura Quichua (Ecuador) . . . . . . . . . . . . 481

Jorge Gómez-Rendón

Grammatical borrowing in Paraguayan Guaraní. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523

Jorge Gómez-Rendón

Grammatical borrowing in Hup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551

Patience Epps

Mosetén borrowing from Spanish. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567

Jeanette Sakel

Index of subjects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581

Index of authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
List of contributors

Mark Alves Wilco van den Heuvel

Montgomery College University of Manchester
Felix Ameka Kristine Hildebrandt
Leiden University University of Manchester
Werner Arnold Anne Jensen
University of Heidelberg University of Copenhagen
Dik Bakker Geoffrey Khan
University of Lancaster University of Cambridge
Una Canger Maarten Kossmann
University of Copenhagen Leiden University
Claudine Chamoreau Yaron Matras
CELIA (CNRS-IRD-INALCO- University of Manchester
PARIS VII)/CIESAS-Mexico
Gertrud Reershemius
Joachim Crass Aston University, Birmingham
University of Mainz
Michael Rießler
Viktor Elšík Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin
Charles University, Prague
Vincent de Rooij
Patience Epps Amsterdam School for
University of Texas at Austin Social Science Research,
Zarina Estrada Fernández University of Amsterdam
Universidad de Sonora Jeanette Sakel
Steven Roger Fischer University of the West of England
Auckland, NZ Eva Schultze-Berndt
Jorge Gómez-Rendón University of Manchester
University of Amsterdam Maryam Shabibi
Lilián Guerrero University of Manchester
Universidad de Sonora Uri Tadmor
Geoffrey Haig MPI for Evolutionary Anthropology/
University of Kiel Jakarta field station
Ewald Hekking Şirin Tufan
Universidad de Querétaro University of Manchester
Introduction
Yaron Matras and Jeanette Sakel

1. Borrowing in cross-linguistic perspective1

Like any metaphor, the term “borrowing” has its drawbacks. We have decided
to ignore possible reservations about the term, both in the title of this collec-
tion and in the advice on the use of terminology which we have given to the
contributors. Whether the “borrowed” substance is perceived as belonging
or as alien, whether its source is described as a “donor” and the language
into which it is integrated as the “recipient”, “copier”, or “replica”, seems
immaterial as long as clarity prevails as to the kind of phenomena that we
are addressing when talking about contact-induced change. We use the term
“borrowing” as a cover-term for the adoption of a structural feature into a
language as a result of some level of bilingualism in the history of the rele-
vant speech community.
This collection is about the structural effects of language contact. We have
asked each contributor (or pair of contributors) to focus on the diachronic im-
pact that language contact has had on the structure of a particular language.
Accompanying these descriptions are comments on societal multilingualism,
the roles that are assigned to various languages in the community, patterns
of language mixing, and issues of language policy and language education,
which are dealt with in relation to each case study in the introductory sections
of each chapter. The purpose of the compilation is to be able to compare the
effects of different kinds of contact on different kinds of languages, and so to
help forward our understanding of universal effects of language contact.

2. Sampling in contact linguistics

Linguistic typology tries to make generalizations about human languages.

For this purpose, typologists rely on sampling methods. Language samples
make it possible to make generalizations without studying each and every
individual language, which would be a costly and time-consuming endeav-
our. Since Greenberg (1966) it has been accepted that samples should try
and reflect at least the present-day diversity of languages in order to be truly
2 Yaron Matras and Jeanette Sakel

representative of human language. Most researchers have therefore made

an effort to avoid areal or genetic biases when compiling a sample, though
basic typological parameters and extralinguistic factors have played less of
a role (cf. Comrie 1981, Stassen 1985, Dryer 1989; Rijkhoff et al. 1993).
At times samples have been used by a group of studies in a coordinated
fashion, to study the distribution of several different phenomena across the
same set of languages; this was partly the case in the EUROTYP project;
and in the World Atlas of Linguistic Structures – see Comrie, Dryer, Gil and
Haspelmath 2005). Nevertheless, it is fair to say that on the whole linguistic
samples have been used in order to study a particular structural phenomenon
or structural category.
The cross-linguistic study of structural borrowing is a challenge at a dif-
ferent level. Firstly, borrowing can affect many different categories. A com-
prehensive, comparative study of borrowing must therefore take into account
both the “horizontal” diversity of sample languages, and the “vertical” diver-
sity of structural categories on which contact can have an impact. This already
makes the sampling of borrowing phenomena a much more complex task
than the comparative study of any particular domain of linguistic structure.
Second, borrowing is a historical dimension, which can only be identified and
assessed if diachronic information on the relevant language(s) is available.
This factor seriously disadvantages the consideration of entire areas of the
world from which we lack secure and reliable information on linguistic dia-
chrony, and so in effect it counteracts the need to maintain areal diversity in a
representative sample. Finally, there is general agreement that the outcomes
of language contact (or, to be more precise: of widespread bilingualism in a
community) depend not just on structural factors, but to a great extent on ex-
tralinguistic factors. The duration and intensity of cultural contact, the roles
and status of the participating languages, the degree of institutional support
awarded to languages in various stages of their history (e.g. the presence of
literacy or use in the public, acrolectal domain), and speakers’ attitudes to-
ward their own and their neighbours’ forms of speech – all these play a vital
role in determining the direction of change and so in shaping the structural
outcome of language contact constellations. In order to investigate the univer-
sal possibilities of contact-induced change, one needs to take sociolinguistic
factors into account. The ideal sample for the investigation of contact is there-
fore one that is, like other samples, stratified to take into account various
language-genetic groupings, structural types, and regions of the world; but in
addition it must also be informed about diachronic depth and allow the author
or user to control factors that are external to language.
 Introduction 3

Given these difficulties of sampling it is not surprising that most attempts

to make generalizations about contact-induced change have been based on
casual observations, rather than on systematic comparative studies. This is
true of Moravcsik’s (1978) discussion of borrowing universals even within the
context of the Greenbergian project, as well as of Thomason and Kaufman’s
(1988) frequently-cited borrowing scale. Some generalizations about bor-
rowing have been proposed with reference to a case study of just one single
contact situation (cf. Haugen 1950, van Hout and Muysken 1994, Ross 2001,
Field 2002), while some have concentrated on identifying counter-examples
to generalizations proposed by others (cf. Cambpell 1993, cf. also Thomason
2001). To the extent that samples have been used in contact linguistics, they
have tended to control one of the key factors in the contact situation, such
as the donor or the recipient language, or even the type of category affected.
Stolz and Stolz (1996, 1998), for example, discuss the borrowing of Spanish
function words into a diverse set of languages in Central America and the Pa-
cific. Johanson (2002) discusses the contact behaviour of Turkic languages,
and Matras (2002) and Elšík and Matras (2006) evaluate structural borrowing
from a diverse set of European contact languages in the dialects of Romani.
It is noteworthy that in these samples the extra-linguistic parameters are also
kept constant. Thus, Spanish is the colonial language in the Pacific and in
Central America, Romani is an oral language of dispersed, socially marginal-
ized, bilingual ethnic minorites, and Persian has played a similar role in the
history of various Turkic languages.
A wealth of data for comparison from various contact situations can be
found in a number of collections devoted to case studies of language contact
(e.g. Gilbers, Nerbonne, and Schaeken 2000, Aikhenvald and Dixon 2001,
Matras, McMahon and Vincent 2005). Aikhenvald and Dixon (2006) espe-
cially contains contributions that cover a wide range of languages, regions,
and contact phenomena. These are accompanied by important summary ob-
servations on general factors and constraints that operate in language con-
tact situations (cf. Aikhenvald 2006). Put together, these and other excellent
contributions to the study of language contact have taken us a significant step
forward toward a typology of contact-induced language change.
Still missing, however, from the body of work produced in recent years
is an attempt at a systematic comparison of the behaviour of grammatical
categories across a sample of languages in contact. Of interest is the ques-
tion whether some grammatical categories are universally more susceptible
to contact-induced change than others. A further question is whether there
is any recurring correlation between the borrowing of structures in one cat-
4 Yaron Matras and Jeanette Sakel

egory, and those belonging to another. Both these issues can be expressed in
terms of hierarchies of borrowing. These in turn may contain either implica-
tional statements (if X is borrowed, then Y is also borrowed), or just plain
frequency statements (X is borrowed more frequently in the sample than Y,
and hence it can be said to be more prone to borrowing than Y). Equally of
interest is the correlation between a category and the type of contact-related
change that is more likely to affect it: a shift in meaning or in the distribu-
tion of existing structures (which we term “pattern replication” below), or
the actual adoption of a structure from another language for circulation in
the recipient system (“matter replication”). Finally, we are interested in the
interaction between the contact behaviour of a category, and other factors that
condition the nature of the contact situation, including both language internal
features (such as the typological parameters of the languages involved) and
extra-linguistic features (such as the type of bilingualism and the roles played
by the respective languages in various domains of communicative interac-
tion). The purpose of this collection is to facilitate a discussion of questions
of this kind, and to provide information on the basis of which these questions
can be addressed.

3. The data compilation tool

A major difficulty in sampling for the purposes of contact linguistic studies

is the accessibility of relevant information. Unlike synchronic structural facts
about language, the description of borrowing requires diachronic informa-
tion. Even if such information is available in principle for some languages, it
is not always the case that it is included into grammatical descriptions. Gram-
mar books do not generally tend to highlight borrowings at all. Identifying
borrowed structures requires a high degree of expertise and specialization in
the language and its history, and familiarity, at the very least, with the lan-
guages with which it has been in contact. Relevant extralinguistic informa-
tion is often missing from grammatical descriptions, too. For these reasons,
it is hardly feasible for a lone researcher to survey published descriptions
of various languages in order to compile a representative sample corpus of
grammatical borrowing. Sampling in this field is best achieved through team
effort, with experts contributing first-hand information on contact-induced
phenomena.
Underlying the team effort on which this volume is based is a uniform
questionnaire, formatted as a user-friendly database (in FilemakerPro 67).
 Introduction 5

The aim of the questionnaire was to obtain a representative and comparable

sample of data on contact-induced change in a variety of languages. For this
purpose it was distributed to the contributors as a detailed reference grid. The
questionnaire can of course continue to constitute a description standard for
language contact phenomena, serving as a checklist for information to be
covered in an exhaustive description of borrowing into any given language.
The questionnaire opens with information on relevant metadata (source
of information, affiliation to sub-samples, date of input, and so on), and con-
tinues to cover extralinguistic information about the language and the speech
community. The remaining chapters cover all principal domains of structure:
Phonology, Typology (a characterization of principal typological traits),
Nominal structures, Verbal structures, Other parts of speech (e.g. quantifiers,
indefinites, phasal adverbs, discourse markers and connectors), Constituent
order, Syntax (clause combining), and Lexicon (general information on the
presence of lexical loans in various semantic domains, as well as specific

Figure 1. Information page of the Language Convergence database (entry: Domari)

showing open chapter menu in the top left corner
6 Yaron Matras and Jeanette Sakel

Figure 2. Encoding the sociolinguistic situation (Mosetén)

questions on expressions of time and space). Using the “Layout” function

in FilemakerPro, each chapter is displayed on a separate page, accessible
through a menu box (Figure 1).
Individual records, each representing a language in contact, can be tagged
for different kinds of contact constellations or sub-samples. We can distin-
guish, for instance, borrowing situations where just two languages are in con-
tact, from observations on a more widespread regional distribution of shared
phenomena, or “linguistic areas”. Special attention is given to the coding
of a series of extra-linguistic indicators (Figure 2), allowing the user to as-
sess the correlations between sociolinguistic factors and the contact behav-
iour of a language. Depth of contact is taken into account by distinguishing,
where applicable, several different layers of contact (see also Matras 1998):
The Current contact language (i.e. the object of widespread bilingualism),
a Recent contact language (that may still be spoken by an older generation
of speakers), and an Old contact language that has made an impact on the
 Introduction 7

Figure 3. Coding of contact languages (Manange)

language in the past, but has little or no contemporary role in the speech com-
munity (Figure 3).
In order to be able to investigate the precise effects of contact on structural
compositions, a distinction is maintained throughout the questionnaire be-
tween the replication of linguistic matter (MAT) consisting of actual phono-
logical segments, and the replication of patterns (PAT), which pertains to the
semantic and grammatical meaning and the distribution of a construction or
structure (see Matras and Sakel 2007). This distinction is encoded alongside
every relevant description of a contact phenomenon in an individual category
(Figure 4).
The advantages of working with the questionnaire database are obvious:
While the checklist ensures uniform and comprehensive coverage of the same
phenomena, and so comparability throughout the sample, the database allows
to filter and to query the results, to retrieve examples of the various kinds of
contact phenomena, and to view correlations among the data sets (see e.g.
Figure 5).
8 Yaron Matras and Jeanette Sakel

Figure 4. Encoding MAT (matter) and PAT (pattern) replications (Domari)

A sample comparison – piloting just two languages, Kelderash Romani

and Mosetén – was already presented, based on the database questionnaire,
in Sakel and Matras (2007). The present collection features a case-by-case as-
sessment of borrowing. A preliminary assessment of some salient, common
patterns is provided in the two evaluation chapters, by Matras and by Sakel.
Our intention at this point is to continue to expand the data sample, and even-
tually to make the data accessible to users online.

4. Coverage of phenomena and languages

In assessing the diachronic impact of contact, many of the contributors faced

the dilemma of how to tell apart the ongoing effects of current bilingualism
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