Urban Planning

2025 • Volume 10 • Article 8576

https://doi.org/10.17645/up.8576

ARTICLE Open Access Journal

From Vision to Reality: The Use of Artificial Intelligence in

Different Urban Planning Phases
Frank Othengrafen , Lars Sievers , and Eva Reinecke

Department of Spatial Planning, TU Dortmund, Germany

Correspondence: Lars Sievers (lars.sievers@tu‐dortmund.de)

Submitted: 30 April 2024 Accepted: 4 July 2024 Published: 21 January 2025

Issue: This article is part of the issue “AI for and in Urban Planning” edited by Tong Wang (TU Delft) and Neil
Yorke‐Smith (TU Delft), fully open access at https://doi.org/10.17645/up.i388

Abstract
In an urban context, the use of artificial intelligence (AI) can help to categorise and analyse large amounts of
data quickly and efficiently. The AI approach can make municipal administration and planning processes
more efficient, improve environmental and living conditions (e.g., air quality, inventory of road damages,
etc.), or strengthen the participation of residents in decision‐making processes. The key to this is “machine
learning” that has the ability to recognise patterns, capture models, and learn on the basis of big data via the
application of automated statistical methods. However, what does this mean for urban planning and the
future development of cities? Will AI take over the planning and design of our cities and actively intervene in
and influence planning activities? This article applies a systematic literature review supplemented by case
study analyses and expert interviews to categorise various types of AI and relate their potential applications
to the different phases of the planning process. The findings emphasize that AI systems are highly
specialised applications for solving and processing specific challenges and tasks within a planning process.
This can improve planning processes and results, but ultimately AI only suggests alternatives and possible
solutions. Thus, AI has to be regarded as a planning tool rather than the planning solution. Ultimately, it is
the planners who have to make decisions about the future development of cities, taking into account the
possibilities and limitations of the AI applications that have been used in the planning process.

Keywords
artificial intelligence; decision‐making; digital participation; planning phases; smart city; urban planning

1. Introduction: Artificial Intelligence and Its Utilisation for Urban Planning Practice

Artificial intelligence (AI) is changing cities and urban development processes comprehensively and at
breakneck speed (Cugurullo et al., 2024a; Pellegrin et al., 2021; Wu et al., 2024). The fundamental potential

© 2025 by the author(s), licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY). 1
of AI as a methodological tool for urban planning was already considered 15–20 years ago, but the
implication of AI tools could only have been observed in recent years with the increasing availability of ever
more powerful information and communication technology systems and more complex data volumes
(Lazaroiu & Harrison, 2021; Sanchez et al., 2022).

Even if there is no standardised definition of AI (Cugurullo, 2021; Son et al., 2023), there is consensus that
AI systems can perform tasks that typically require human intelligence (Pellegrin et al., 2021, p. 7). AI systems
can learn and develop knowledge directly by capturing and analysing a specific environment with sensors
such as cameras and microphones, or indirectly by evaluating large data sets in real‐time (Cugurullo et al.,
2024b, p. 2; see also Batty, 2023, p. 1046). AI systems then make sense of the information that they acquire
by extracting concepts from it or by developing new content in the form of texts, images, or videos. In this
context, the systems can automate, repeat, learn, discover, and adapt large amounts of data. These capacities
are characteristics of their intelligence as they show the ability of the systems to act autonomously in real‐life
environments without human supervision, finding meaning, recognising ideas, or generating predictions about
what is being observed (Cugurullo et al., 2024b, p. 4).

The possibility of AI systems to collect and analyse large data sets, the capacity to solve problems logically,
the ability to learn from historical data, and the intelligent search for better solutions are also triggering urban
planning practices (Popelka et al., 2023; Son et al., 2023). Digital platforms such as machines and robots are
increasingly used to offer and control urban services or infrastructure systems, monitor public spaces, or draw
spatial renderings and master plans (Caprotti et al., 2022; Marvin et al., 2022; Park et al., 2023; Zheng et al.,
2023). The key to this is “machine learning,” which is able to recognise patterns, capture models and learn on
the basis of big data, and synthesize data with automated statistical methods. However, there is little research
to date regarding the potential benefits and possible effects of AI on urban development. Does the use of
AI mean, for example, that our cities will be planned by machines in the future and that everyday planning
activities will be replaced? Will AI take over the planning and design of our cities? Or is AI only used in certain
cases and planning phases to supplement existing planning tools? Up to now, AI systems in urban planning are
mainly used in more technologically oriented fields, offering a wide range of possible applications (see Table 1):

• Mobility and Transport Optimisation: AI, for example, can help to observe traffic volumes and monitor
traffic flows and reroute them if necessary (Cugurullo et al., 2024a, p. 366). The condition of road
surfaces, such as potholes or manhole covers, can also be analysed using image capture with AI
(Matouq et al., 2024).
• Energy and Infrastructure: AI can contribute to the development of smart grids that increase the
security of supply (Kreutzer, 2023, pp. 375–376). Furthermore, AI tools can analyse aerial photographs
to determine the potential for solar panels on roof surfaces (Assouline et al., 2017).
• Public Management, Public Health, and Safety: AI, for example, can measure, map, and make predictions
about air quality (Barcelona Supercomputing Center, 2023). Additionally, AI can analyse aerial images
to mitigate the impact of extreme heat waves and to indicate where trees and vegetation should be
planted (Ghisleni, 2024).
• Real Estate, Urban Planning, and Land Use Policies: AI can be used to develop renderings of buildings,
streets, and public spaces on the basis of large datasets and neural models. AI can furthermore be used
to develop land use plans (Park et al., 2023; Zheng et al., 2023) or to monitor the rental of residential
space to detect illegal rentals (Pellegrin et al., 2021, p. 20).

Urban Planning • 2025 • Volume 10 • Article 8576 2

Table 1. Fields of AI application, examples, and functions in urban development.
Fields of AI‐ Examples References
Application
Mobility and Implementation of intelligent traffic light control (depending Alkhatib et al. (2022)
Transport on traffic volume) Fraunhofer IOSB (2022)
Optimisation Sepehr (2024)
Monitoring and forecasting traffic flows (on the basis Cugurullo et al. (2024a)
of sensors)
Monitoring of road conditions (identification and classification Jagatheesaperumal et al.
of road damage and subsequent reporting to the municipal (2023)
building department or the civil engineering department) Matouq et al. (2024)
Implementing the infrastructure conditions for autonomous Dowling et al. (2024)
vehicles and autonomous driving Hopkins (2023)
Energy and Development of smart grids that increase the security of Alsaigh et al. (2022)
Infrastructure supply and help to reduce costs for the end consumer Kreutzer (2023)
Identifying and analysing the potential of solar panels on roof Assouline et al. (2017)
surfaces (via aerial image analysis) Ortiz et al. (2022)
Public Surveillance of public spaces (use of neural networks for Bissarinova et al. (2024)
Management, real‐time threat detection) Narayanan et al. (2021)
Public Health,
Identification of deficiencies in public spaces by analysing Amsterdam Intelligence
and Safety
camera recordings (2024)
Monitoring air quality in city centres Barcelona Supercomputing
Center (2023)
Mitigating the impact of extreme heat waves via aerial image Ghisleni (2024)
analysis (indication suggestions for the planning of trees and Mazzeo et al. (2023)
vegetation) and predicting the potential of green roofs to
improve the thermal performance of buildings and reduce
urban heat islands
Calculating the water requirements of individual trees Rigal (2022)
depending on the weather (by using sensors) and determining
water requirements up to 14 days in advance
Real Estate, Classifying land use patterns with neural networks that can Kumar et al. (2022)
Urban process satellite and aerial imagery Wu et al. (2024)
Planning, and
Identification of potential building areas by analysing aerial Rahnemoonfar et al. (2021)
Land Use
photographs
Policies
Automated detection and mapping of informal settlements in Moreno González et al.
various locations (2022)
Generating spatial plans (on the basis of graph Park et al. (2023)
neural networks) Zheng et al. (2023)
Rendering buildings, streets, and public spaces on the basis of Lin et al. (2023)
large datasets and neural models Pisu and Carta (2024)
Sanchez et al. (2022)
Control of illegal letting of housing by scanning the real Pellegrin et al. (2021)
estate platforms
Predicting neighbourhood change and gentrification Naik et al. (2017)
(or racial discrimination on the housing market) through Reages et al. (2018)
machine learning Rosen and Garboden (2024)

Urban Planning • 2025 • Volume 10 • Article 8576 3

AI is also already being used in participatory planning processes, e.g., to provide up‐to‐date information in
chatbots (Senadheera et al., 2024), to analyse comments in urban land‐use planning procedures, or to create
visualisations in participatory processes (Sanchez et al., 2022), often using digital twins, AR and VR
applications, climate models, and other digital applications (Batty & Yang, 2022; Brüggemann et al., 2023;
Pisu & Carta, 2024). However, the focus of most of the AI studies or research articles is often on specific
AI systems or technologies and the functionality of these systems for solving concrete problems in an urban
context. In contrast, the effects of AI systems on planning processes have been less considered or
researched to date. This particularly applies to the consideration of different AI systems and applications in
the course of a planning process and the extent to which AI influences decision‐making processes,
opportunities for participation, and the results of planning across the various planning phases and specific
technical AI applications (Du et al., 2024; Liang & Kang, 2021). This is the starting point for this article, which
considers the following research questions: How can AI systems and applications in the field of urban
planning and development be classified? What tasks can AI solve in planning processes and projects? Which
AI systems and applications are used in which planning phases? How does AI change our understanding
of planning?

2. Research Design and Methodology

In a first step, we classify AI systems and applications in the field of urban planning and development
following the knowledge map of Corea (2019), which was further developed by Son et al. (2023). As shown
above, “AI‐enabled technologies are employed to address specific problem‐solving activities” (Son et al.,
2023, p. 3). Utilising large data collections, either obtained directly via IoT‐enabled infrastructures or
indirectly via access to data sets (Batty, 2023; Cugurullo et al., 2024b), various AI paradigms can be
formulated for different problems and solution capabilities (Corea, 2019, p. 26):

• Logic‐based tools: Tools that are used for knowledge representation and problem‐solving;
• Knowledge‐based tools: Tools that are based on ontologies and huge databases of notions, information,
and rules;
• Probabilistic methods: Tools that allow agents to act with incomplete information and data;
• Machine learning: Tools allowing agents and systems to learn from historical data and to use the gained
knowledge to interpret new data;
• Embodied intelligence: An engineering toolbox having the ability to affect the physical environment;
• Search and optimisation: Tools that allow intelligent search with many possible solutions.

It is from these approaches that different AI‐enabled “technologies” are developed and utilised (Corea, 2019;
Sarker, 2022; Son et al., 2023), leading to the categorization of different types of AI, including analytical,
functional, textual, visual, and interactive systems (see Figure 1). Analytical AI embraces practices of
identifying, interpreting, and communicating meaningful patterns of data (Sarker, 2022, p. 157). In this
regard, analytical AI aims to discover new insights, patterns, and relationships or dependencies in data and to
assist data‐driven decision‐making. Subsequently, logic‐based and knowledge‐based tools as well as
analytical processing capabilities are of central importance here. The same applies to reasoning, i.e., the
capability to solve problems, as underlying the problem‐solving classification of AI systems (Corea, 2019).
Functional AI is similar to analytical AI but executes actions rather than making recommendations (Sarker,
2022, pp. 157–158). Here, perception as underlying the problem‐solving classification of AI systems plays a

Urban Planning • 2025 • Volume 10 • Article 8576 4

 Arficial Intelligence

Analycal AI Funconal AI Textual AI Visual AI Interacve AI

Figure 1. Various types of AI.

key role, referring to the ability of AI to transform raw sensorial inputs (e.g., images, sounds, etc.) into usable
information and action (Corea, 2019). At the same time, the embodied intelligence of AI systems is
addressed here.

Textual AI covers textual analytics or natural language processing for text recognition, speech‐to‐text
conversion, machine translation, as well as content generation (Sarker, 2022, p. 158). Subsequently,
logic‐based and knowledge‐based tools as well as analytical processing capabilities are of central importance
here. The same applies to the ability of the AI system to act with incomplete information. Visual AI is able to
recognize, classify, and sort items, as well as convert images and videos into insights. This sort of AI is often
used in fields such as computer vision and augmented reality (Sarker, 2022, p. 158). Here, the ability to
transform raw sensory inputs into usable information and the ability to understand, interpret, and
communicate the images and videos accordingly are key conditions for practical use. Interactive AI enables
efficient and interactive communication models, for example in chatbots and smart personal assistants
(Sarker, 2022, p. 158). Here, a variety of techniques such as machine learning, frequent pattern mining, or
reasoning are relevant. This also includes the use of various AI problem‐solving domains (Corea, 2019), such
as the ability to understand language and communicate or the capability to solve problems.

However, our research questions focus not only on the classification of AI, but on different AI systems and
applications in the course of a planning process, i.e., the extent to which AI influences decision‐making
processes, opportunities for participation, and the results of planning. This is of central importance insofar as
decision‐making processes in urban planning can be defined as a transformation of information that takes
place in phases, which are characterised by the search for and selection of information to reduce the degree
of uncertainty regarding the decisions to be made. At the same time, different actors are involved during
the various planning phases where divergent approaches to information procurement, processing,
communication, and knowledge transfer can be observed. This raises key questions particularly with regard
to the use of AI in planning decision‐making processes, including the availability of data (training data); the
accuracy of a problem representation; data protection (protection of personal data); and the acceptance and
transparency of planning processes.

In a second step, we thus divide the planning process into distinctive planning phases (see Figure 2). In the
Preparatory or Exploration Phase, the initial planning situation is analysed. During this phase, informal
participation processes and preliminary political consultations take place, resulting in visions and scenarios
as well as a joint definition of planning objectives (Diller et al., 2017; Schönwandt, 2008; Yigitcanlar &
Teriman, 2015). In the Feasibility and Master Planning Phase, feasibility studies are conducted and a (strategic)
master plan is developed, which is discussed with relevant stakeholders and builds the basis for the next
steps. The Formal Planning Phase refers to the development and approval of the formal planning documents
(e.g., land use plans, zoning plans, building regulation plans) in accordance with the master plan and the

Urban Planning • 2025 • Volume 10 • Article 8576 5

 PREPARATORY OR EXPLORATION PHASE
assessment of inial situaon, pre-checks, analysis of basic data
etc. | informal parcipaon process, collecon of inial ideas |
dialogue with policy-makers and cizens, commitment | visions
and scenarios, joint definion of planning objecves

FEASIBILITY & MASTER PLANNING PHASE

delimitaon of the scope of acon | feasibility studies (feasibility
of different themes like mobility) | development of a (strategic)
masterplan | presenng and discussing masterplan with
stakeholders (working on specific themes)

FORMAL PLANNING PHASE

development of a preparatory planning document (land use plan,
zoning plan, detailed plan etc.) | public presentaon of the plan,
parcipaon of stakeholders | balancing of conflicng interests,
preparaon of the final plan | polical approval of the plan

DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION PHASE

final design of buildings and public spaces | realisaon of the
plan | building permission, environmental permission etc. |
construcon of the planned project | communicaon with
clients and investors

OPERATIONAL OR MONITORING PHASE

impact assessment | monitoring

Figure 2. Principal phases of a simplified urban planning process. Source: Own illustration based on Diller et al.
(2017) and Urban Learning (2024).

relevant national regulations. This phase includes the participation of stakeholders in public presentations
and the balancing of conflicting interests. After the formal plan is approved, the plan will be realized. In the
Design and Implementation Phase, the final design of buildings and public spaces will be discussed and
determined in accordance with the provisions of the formal plan (Baltic Urban Lab, n.d.‐b; Urban Learning,
2024). Then the building permit is issued and the planned project can be implemented or constructed.
Continuous and transparent communication is important here to inform the public at regular intervals about
milestones in the realisation and progress of a project. Feedback in the Operational or Monitoring Phase can
also optimise subsequent planning processes and contribute to more efficient planning. The illustration
depicts the phases of a planning process in an idealised and simplified manner. In line with Diller et al. (2017,
p. 8), we have chosen a linear model with circular feedback between individual phases, which is often found
in practice (see also Baltic Urban Lab, n.d.‐a; Urban Learning, 2024).

In a third and final step, we merge the two classifications or models into a conceptual framework (see
Figure 3). The planning phases can be found on the horizontal axis and the various types of AI systems
including the AI problem‐solving domains on the vertical axis. The framework then allows us to analyse and
evaluate different AI systems and applications in terms of their functions, the fit accuracy of the
problem‐solving approaches, and their impact on decision‐making processes in different planning phases
considering the role of urban planners (see Section 3).

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 Interacve AI
Visual AI
Textual AI
Types of AI
Funconal AI
Analycal AI

Preparatory or Feasibility and Formal Planning Design and Operaonal or

Exploraon Phase Master Planning Phase Implementaon Monitoring Phase
Phase Phase
Planning Phases

Established AI applicaons in planning phases Oponal use of AI applicaons in planning phases

Figure 3. Use of AI tools in different planning phases. A proposal for the use of AI tools related to urban
planning in different planning phases.

To analyse the impact of AI on planning practices, particularly with regard to the design of planning
processes and decision‐making, we conducted a systematic literature review based on published articles in
the Web of Science, ScienceDirect, and Scopus databases. First, relevant articles were identified using the
specific keywords “artificial intelligence,” “machine learning,” “artificial intelligence and planning processes,”
“artificial intelligence and urban planning,” and “artificial intelligence and decision‐making.” Second, we read
the abstracts of articles from step one to narrow the selection of papers to those in which the terms and
concepts in the abstract strongly overlap with the subject of our study. Finally, we identified and analysed
32 articles with the aim of deriving criteria for classifying AI applications and assessing the potentials and
weaknesses of AI in urban development processes.

We then transferred and applied these criteria to an internet‐based desktop research for practical examples.
The identification of relevant examples of AI applications in urban planning for the in‐depth analysis
followed a rather pragmatic research approach. We combined (a) local practice examples where AI
applications have been recently developed and tested, and (b) AI technologies and applications that are
typical of current use in urban planning and that in turn represent the different types of AI. Our

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internet‐based desktop research has shown that various metropolitan regions, such as Helsinki, Vienna, and
Amsterdam, are among the pioneers in the application of AI systems in urban planning and development,
and that different approaches are being pursued to integrate AI into planning processes. Here, we
conducted interviews with representatives of the respective municipal planning authorities and with
representatives who are responsible for the implementation of AI strategies. Additionally, we identified
companies or research institutions that deal with the development and use of AI systems and
applications—thus representing specific AI systems and tools without a specific local context—and
conducted corresponding interviews with leading experts there. In total, we conducted eight interviews with
regard to different AI technologies or AI problem‐solving areas to identify the opportunities and challenges
of AI in urban planning processes. The interviews were analysed using qualitative content analysis according
to Mayring (2015). The results were then grouped and analysed using the conceptual framework (see
Figure 3) and compared with the findings from the literature review.

3. The Use of AI in Various Planning Phases

The aim of our study is to classify the use of various current AI systems in the field of urban planning. At this
point, relevant practical examples of AI in urban planning are considered on the basis of the literature analysis,
the internet‐based desktop research, and the expert interviews. These AI systems or tools are first assigned
to the basic types of AI before discussing them in individual planning phases and specific fields of application.
The results are interpreted qualitatively with regard to the formulated research questions.

3.1. Analytical AI in Urban Planning: AI for Generating Data‐Based Analysis and Scenarios

Analytical AI applications are used for creating data‐based scenarios and clustering ideas. Park et al. (2023),
for example, describe a pilot project to map urban density scenarios for a neighbourhood area in Seoul,
South Korea, using AI‐based construction of image datasets coded with urban data (Park et al., 2023, p. 1).
The aim was to develop an AI advisor that can support laypersons in urban planning participation processes
by generating land use plans for selected locations and possible density scenarios (Park et al., 2023, p. 1). In a
study on the development patterns of Delhi in India, Kumar et al. (2022) similarly describe the development
of an AI model for pixel‐based classification of land use data to map the land cover of developed and
undeveloped areas with the Google Earth Engine and to describe the changes in urban sprawl with the help
of machine learning and powerful computational platforms. Using crowdsourced data and generative
adversarial networks, a generational model was trained to create coloured renderings of master plans within
seconds that resemble those of experienced urban planners and can be used in participatory processes
(Ye et al., 2021). Digital city twins can also use AI to simulate, for example, the microclimate in a
neighbourhood. To do this, the AI generates climate models and wind flows and transforms them into the
city model. Wind flows can be generated in real‐time in every planning phase and analysed in the model in
the design variants. The aim is to analyse the microclimatic conditions of a neighbourhood and thus discuss
and make adjustments to the draft plans for possible extreme weather events (“AIT CoDeC‐Symposium,”
2023). For the simulation of wind in drafts, the first planning drafts must be available. According to some of
the respondents, participation with the help of an AI‐supported simulation takes place in the middle of the
participation process. However, it should be noted that, due to the specific orientation of various
AI applications, some Analytical AI applications also contain elements of Functional AI if certain knowledge
is produced through their use in the planning process, which is why they could also be assigned to this type.

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We can conclude here that Analytical AI tools in urban planning are particularly suitable for use at an early
planning stage in order to carry out data‐based analyses, explore possible scenarios, and prepare
decision‐making processes. Their use is therefore particularly conceivable in the Preparatory or Exploration
Phase as well as the Feasibility and Master Planning Phase, in which specific spatial analysis studies are
carried out, for example to prepare design concepts for planning (see Figure 3). The use of AI enables the
automated analysis and evaluation of data. This primarily relates to standardised data and evaluation
processes, which enable planners to make a comprehensive assessment of development opportunities at an
early stage of the planning process and thus support and accelerate the decision‐making process.

3.2. Functional AI in Urban Planning: AI‐Based Planning Processes

For the use of Functional AI in urban planning, digital tools can be identified that are used for the digital
participation of citizens in spatial planning procedures (Geertman, 2002). Such applications are already being
used in some municipalities, for example in Hamburg and Rostock in Germany. Here, AI‐supported tools are
used to organise the entire urban planning process, including the formal participation of authorities,
organisations, and citizens online (Lührs, 2017, p. 45). Planning documents can be imported digitally here,
plan drawings integrated into maps, users of the application authorised, and relevant organisations and
authorities informed of the participation by email. According to one of our interviewees, this makes it
possible in the formal participation process to carry out balancing processes in planning and approval
procedures in an efficient and transparent way and to facilitate cooperation with sectoral planning
authorities (e.g., transport, water, etc.) by supporting the evaluation of the received comments by using AI
information models. The AI tool identifies certain topics in the planning process, carries out AI‐based
keywording, groups similar comments, anonymises personal data, and sends an evaluation result to the
groups involved by email at the end of the process.

Accordingly, functional approaches often have elements of a Textual AI, although these can also be
integrated into Functional AI. In addition to the example of AI tools in formal urban land‐use planning
procedures, the use of AI in the granting of planning permission can also be categorised as Functional AI.
AI is used here when applying for and granting approval for building permits, meaning that AI is used late in
the planning process. During a research project in Vienna, building owners were able to submit their
documents for their building project online. Once the documents were submitted, an AI analysed the
documents and checked whether everything was complete and whether the client filled out the application
correctly. The AI scanned text elements, put them into their basic linguistic form, connotated them, set them
in relation to each other, and balanced them. In the final step, the AI then analysed the intention of the
content (Urban et al., 2021, p. 7). As one of our respondents confirmed, the AI also checked whether the
information in the application complies with the specifications of the city’s applicable planning documents
and legal texts. In addition, a model of the construction project was created as BIM (Building Information
Modelling). These generated models were intended to make the construction projects clearer and more
transparent for citizens (Stadt Wien, 2024). After extracting the relevant data, the AI summarised it into
meaningful categories.

Analysing different Functional AI applications in the context of urban planning, we can conclude that these
tools are mainly used in the Formal Planning Phase. As the examples indicate, the intention is to structure the
planning and approval process and to carry out steps that convert information into concrete actions to improve

Urban Planning • 2025 • Volume 10 • Article 8576 9

the planning processes as a whole. However, the AI applications could also be used in the directly subsequent
phases of formal processes, e.g., to organise participation processes at an early stage or to structure the Design
and Implementation Phase in order to speed things up.

3.3. Textual AI in Urban Planning: AI‐Based Evaluation of Text Elements

From a technical perspective, Pellegrin et al. (2021) describe the use of AI in the urban context of urban
planning and administration as collecting, interpreting, and analysing data for political decision‐making and
improving public services. Various forms of data analysis can be carried out and evaluated, having close links
to the possible applications of Textual AI that can be used, for example, to analyse documents and thus improve
participation opportunities or implement dynamic policies. For example: historical analyses of documents are
conceivable to predict future developments and trends on this basis; near real‐time analytics enable analyses
of indexed data to increase the transparency and monitoring of certain processes; real‐time analytics enable
the analysis of data directly in an ongoing process to enable immediate evaluation; and predictive analytics
encompass statistical models that classify data for the near future and predict events (Pellegrin et al., 2021,
p. 19). In this context, Textual AI can be used to analyse the opinions of parts of the urban population by using
AI in conjunction with social media. Here, public tweets can be collected and analysed to gain an overview
of current issues and needs that affect a large proportion of the population and fall within the remit of local
government (Pellegrin et al., 2021, p. 20).

Textual AI is also used in other systems and tools, for example in AI‐supported digital participatory platforms
that can be used by municipalities to organise participation processes. Here, citizens can find out about
planning concepts in their city and contribute with their ideas and opinions. Here, the AI first analyses the
citizens’ comments and then clusters the comments, for example, according to specific subject areas,
demographic data, or the mood conveyed by the comments. According to one of our interviewees, a
comparative evaluation of ideas and comments received from planners and a Textual AI shows that the AI
analysis process is very similar to the human analysis process and produces similar results. However, the AI
only needs a fraction of the time of the planners involved, so that planners gain capacity for the conceptual
development and planning realisation of the ideas.

To conclude, we see the use of text‐based AI applications particularly in those planning phases in which
text‐based analyses, for example of participation processes, appear to make sense. Accordingly, this type of
AI application is particularly suitable at the beginning of a planning process, e.g., in the Preparatory or
Exploration Phase, in order to obtain a basic assessment of the planning proposals from citizens and to
systematically analyse the assessments. Using text‐based AI applications in the Formal Planning Phase can
also accelerate the planning process and support decision‐making if citizens’ comments are analysed more
quickly. Textual AI could also be used in the Monitoring Phase to evaluate the implementation of the plan
concept, ensure ongoing citizen participation, and obtain relevant information.

3.4. Visual AI in Urban Planning: AI for Image‐Based Generation of Spatial Scenarios

The use of AI tools further enables the image‐based generation of various spatial scenarios and alternatives;
this is often based on web applications using self‐made photographs or images stored in Google Streetview.
This makes it possible to present and discuss, for example, different variants for the design of street spaces

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or public squares, the reutilisation of an old industrial hall, or the design of new residential buildings in
participatory planning and co‐design processes. The aim is to actively involve citizens and stakeholders in the
design of planning processes by allowing their ideas to be directly mapped by the AI. The tools are therefore
particularly suitable as a basis for discussion in planning workshops to interactively discuss ideas for urban
projects and give users the opportunity to visualise them without specialist and technical expertise.

In addition, AI is already being used to create urban planning designs and concepts (As et al., 2022; Pisu &
Carta, 2024). Here, generative design engines built on rule‐based systems, parametric design, and neural
networks enable the development and visualisation of development structures, building blocks, open spaces,
building heights, etc. (Landes, 2022; Sari et al., 2022). As a rule, the Visual AI first determines latent patterns,
i.e., identifying building blocks and building hierarchy, before designing and composing new city layouts
(3D representations of the corresponding area and buildings). According to various studies (Landes, 2022;
Pisu & Carta, 2024; Sari et al., 2022), generative Visual AI allows planners and designers to develop a large
number of possible design variants in the shortest possible time and to produce accurate urban models with
greater precision than ever before.

According to our research, we can summarise that image‐based AI tools are mainly used in informal processes
at earlier stages of a planning process. It is therefore conceivable that they could be used in the Preparatory and
Exploration Phase as well as in the Feasibility and Master Planning Phase (see Figure 3). The aim of planners in
such phases is to have an innovative planning tool in a co‐design process to make participation interesting for
different target groups and to collect ideas from citizens for the planned area. The AI‐generated images and
variants contribute here to provide the same level of information for all participants; at the same time, AI can
ensure that participants can visualise their comments and suggestions on a project in an ongoing planning
process. Image‐generative AI approaches also offer the possibility of being used in later planning phases,
e.g., in the Formal Planning Phase, although it should be critically noted that planning processes are often
already well advanced at a later stage and generated images and ideas may no longer be taken into account in
the planning process and the development of design concepts. However, Visual AI offers the opportunity to
visualise and discuss specific changes in local land use plans (e.g., changes in building height) and regulations
on the ratio of developed and undeveloped areas, meaning that Visual AI can improve the information base
of all stakeholders involved in the planning process, as well as the transparency of planning decisions in the
Design Phase.

3.5. Interactive AI in Urban Planning: AI‐Based Chatbots for Communication and Information

AI language models as chatbots offer an efficient approach to relieve the burden on municipal
administrations, which can simultaneously break down access barriers to the administration (Hein &
Volkenandt, 2020, pp. 28, 44). The aim of using chatbots is to provide precise answers to citizens’ questions
in a timely manner and to offer the opportunity to address concerns to the city administration at any time
(Senadheera et al., 2024, p. 2). Bots can be embedded in natural language processing and work as a large
language model. The applications are trained in such a way that the AI captures the texts as part of a
semantic analysis, recognises keywords, and reacts to them. The AI system analyses which questions are
asked most frequently and whether its own answers were helpful and can thus continuously improve itself.
Chatbots can facilitate the allocation of appointments for registration and vehicle matters for the population,
for example, by being set up as a defect reporting and information system or be used as part of the dialogue

Urban Planning • 2025 • Volume 10 • Article 8576 11

process in planning procedures to collect and evaluate opinions (Hein & Volkenandt, 2020, pp. 44–45). This
means that defects can be reported, the current status of planning procedures can be requested, or
information on specific measures can be obtained. In the city of Berlin, for example, an AI‐based assistant
can be asked questions on administrative matters (e.g., “What measures are planned in Burgfrauenstraße in
13467 Berlin to change the traffic?”). The tool then searches, for example, documents from the main
committee meetings of the administration as well as written enquiries and generates short answers—based
on the content (as far as possible)—that match the question. Some cities, for example Vienna or Heidelberg,
now use AI‐based chatbots as citizen service that address urban planning processes. However, it is obvious
here that chatbots only have a supporting function for the administration and urban planning. They can
provide information on current planning procedures, administrative processes, etc.; however, they cannot
develop new plans or make further‐reaching decisions.

In the projects we are aware of, Interactive AI systems and particularly chatbots are currently being used for
rather limited procedures and phases. This includes tasks that are well suited to the programming of
AI systems due to their frequency, delimitation, and structure. Against this background, Interactive AI
systems are primarily found in the Formal Planning Phase, the Design Phase, and the Operational Phase.
At the same time, it is also conceivable that chatbots and other interactive applications will also be used in
earlier planning phases in the future (e.g., to support participatory processes) as there are no limits on the
use of chatbots in these phases.

4. Conclusion

AI has found its way into urban planning in recent years. The literature analysis and the analysis of various
practical examples show that the areas of AI applications in urban planning processes are as diverse as the
timing of its use in the individual planning phases. Wherever AI is currently used in the planning process,
innovative applications support the work of planners. For example, complex data‐based planning analyses
can be carried out with the help of AI in early planning phases to support decision‐making (Analytical AI) or
formal procedures of the planning process can be simplified and structured (Functional AI). AI can also be
used to effectively support the complex evaluation of comments in the participation process, making
time‐consuming activities easier (Textual AI). AI can take on routine tasks (for example, summarising and
evaluating statements, formulating pre‐draft documents or designs, creating textual justifications of formal
plans, etc.) and provide planners with scope for more strategic and conceptual considerations or
participation processes. Additionally, Analytical, Functional, and Textual AI in particular can support internal
administrative procedures and planning processes, e.g., checking procedural steps or checking whether the
documents required for the planning application are complete. This could—at least based on views
expressed by several of our interviewees—possibly lead to a kind of roadmap for administrations on how
administrative processes and therefore planning procedures could be systematically supported with AI.

AI can also help to generate planning and design variants quickly and easily (Visual AI), either to increase the
visualisation of planning content and planning intentions or to develop planning variants together with
citizens as an interactive tool in co‐design processes. Here, AI applications as digital tools can help planners
make decision‐making and planning processes more effective. By involving different stakeholders and using
visualization tools, AI applications can help to reduce power asymmetries, discrimination, and social
inequalities (Wilson et al., 2019, p. 287). AI‐based systems, for example, can carry out automated text

Urban Planning • 2025 • Volume 10 • Article 8576 12

analyses in participation processes by using algorithms to analyse and visually process citizens’ objections
and comments on plan concepts. In addition, AI can reduce the (unconscious) subjectivity and bias of
planners towards certain people or planning topics, for example, by automating anonymised evaluation of
comments in the participation process to increase the objectivity of planning decisions. However, this does
not mean that discrimination can be completely eliminated by AI, but the likelihood of discriminatory
decision‐making processes could be reduced by training which is a central prerequisite for AI in public
planning and participation processes (Pellegrin et al., 2021).

The growth of AI systems might also trigger further innovations and changes for planning (see Figure 3).
By linking, for example, Textual AI, Functional AI, and Visual AI it would be possible for planners to analyse
comments and documents and to create urban land use plans or concepts on this basis. This future is seen
by some interviewees as very realistic, especially with regard to the development of local land use plans.
In this vision, the AI first translates the written or verbatim objectives and (legal) framework conditions for a
plan into corresponding graphic specifications. The AI then uses the drawings to generate initial proposals
for formulating the textual explanations of the plan. Another possibility for the further and increased use of
AI could be digital twins that display temperature and wind systems (Analytical AI), communicate
interactively with users (Interactive AI), and record and analyse their discussions and comments (Textual AI)
into urban designs (Visual AI), considering all the relevant information and data from the other phases.

But what does this mean for the future of urban planners? Will they become redundant, similar to the
drivers that become redundant by the introduction of self‐driving cars? Does this not mean that urban
planners, designers, or architects will disappear eventually, just as the human driver will disappear (Leach,
2022, p. 175)? In our understanding, this question does not really arise. We are convinced that planning
processes will not be fully automated by AI. Planning is still dependent on the decisions and valuations of
planners, which is confirmed by all of our interviewees. AI‐based applications are used here as
supplementary tools for the work process: They can contribute to the collection and analysis of relevant
information and data, they can support decision‐making processes, and they can do this very efficiently,
freeing up planners for other tasks or decisions. However, results of AI systems have to be embedded or
interpreted against the background of political decision‐making processes, the way a society wants to
organize coexistence, participatory procedures, or questions of planning and building culture. This is where
purely technical systems reach their limits, despite their ability to think. This is one reason why planners can
use AI for the future development of cities in different phases, but AI will not replace planners. At the same
time, this also raises the question of how ethical concerns of AI, especially as urban planning activities
involve human‐centred approaches, could be mitigated (Son et al., 2023, p. 9). AI systems are set to act with
increasing autonomy and will probably be widely used in the future; consequently, responsible practices are
needed to ensure that the technological progress is in line with social values and norms (Pellegrin et al.,
2021; Wu et al., 2024). This requires planners to consider the ethical implications of using AI in participatory
planning carefully. Ensuring transparency, accountability, and inclusivity in AI decision‐making processes is
critical to achieving more equitable outcomes (Du et al., 2024, p. 193).

Acknowledgments
We would like to thank our four anonymous reviewers for their comments and helpful suggestions. We would
also like to thank Bryce T. Lawrence for proofreading our manuscript.

Urban Planning • 2025 • Volume 10 • Article 8576 13

Conflict of Interests
The authors declare no conflict of interests.

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About the Authors

Frank Othengrafen is, since April 2019, head of the research group Urban and Regional
Planning at the Department of Spatial Planning, TU Dortmund. His research interests
are planning practices, planning cultures, digitalisation of planning, and the sustainable
transformation of urban regions.

Lars Sievers studied spatial planning (BSc/MSc) at TU Dortmund. Since September 2019,
he is research assistant and PhD student at the research group Urban and Regional Planning
at the Department of Spatial Planning, TU Dortmund. His research interests are urban land
use planning, neighbourhood development, digitalisation of planning, and the sustainable
transformation of cities.

Eva Reinecke studied Geography (BA) at Ruhr‐Universität‐Bochum and spatial planning

(BSc/MSc) at TU Dortmund and the University of Bergamo, Italy. From 2021 to 2024,
she was research assistant at the research group Urban and Regional Planning at
the Department of Spatial Planning, TU Dortmund. Her research interests are digital
participation in urban development, smart cities, and neighbourhood development.

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