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Cybersecurity Ethics
This textbook ofers an accessible introduction to the topic of cybersecurity ethics. The
second edition has been revised and updated, and contains new chapters on social justice,
AI, and Big Data.
The book is split into three parts. Part I provides an introduction to the feld of ethics,
philosophy, and philosophy of science, three ethical frameworks – virtue ethics, utilitarian
ethics, and communitarian ethics – and the notion of ethical hacking. Part II applies
these frameworks to particular issues within the feld of cybersecurity, including privacy
rights, surveillance, and intellectual property. The third part concludes by exploring
current codes of ethics used in cybersecurity, with chapters on artifcial intelligence, social
diversity, Big Data, and cyberwarfare. The overall aims of the book are to:
The textbook also includes three diferent features to aid students: “Going Deeper”
features provide background on individuals, events, and institutions in cybersecurity;
“Critical Issues” features contemporary case studies; and “Tech Talks” contain features
that assume some familiarity with technological developments.
The book will be of much interest to students of cybersecurity, cyberethics, hacking,
surveillance studies, ethics, and information science.
Mary Manjikian is Professor at the College of Arts and Sciences, Regent University in
Virginia Beach, USA, and a professor in the Fleet Seminar Program for the US Naval
War College. She is the author of several books, including, most recently, Introduction
to Cyber Politics and Policy (2020), and is co-editor of the Routledge Companion to Global
Cyber-Strategy (2021).
‘This book is a rich and valuable resource for students to learn more about non-technical
aspects of cybersecurity.’
—Markus Christen, Managing Director, Digital Society
Initiative, University of Zurich, Switzerland
‘The authoritative text on cybersecurity ethics, covering a wide selection of topics includ-
ing privacy, intellectual property theft, artifcial intelligence and big data. This is a terrifc
resource for students in Europe and beyond.’
—Max Smeets, ETH Zurich, Center for Security Studies
(CSS) and Director of European Cyber Confict Research Initiative
‘As cyber confict, espionage and crime increasingly challenge nations and their citizens,
Manjikian’s Cybersecurity Ethics provides a comprehensive and needed addition to the
cyber literature canon. This work constitutes a robust framework for decisions and actions
in cyberspace and is essential reading for policymakers, practitioners, and students engag-
ing the feld of cybersecurity.’
—Aaron F. Brantly, Army Cyber Institute,
United States Military Academy, West Point
‘Dr Manjikian has done a masterful job of outlining ethical standards to the constantly
evolving cybersecurity domain. This book is a vital reference for those who are con-
cerned with ethics related to hacking, privacy, surveillance, and cyberwarfare in an ever
changing virtual environment that transcends boundaries and cultures and challenges the
traditional ways that humans have dealt with each other. Ground-breaking and should be
required reading for any serious cybersecurity professional.’
—Keith Dayton, George C. Marshall European
Center for Security Studies, Germany
Second Edition
Mary Manjikian
Cover image: © Getty Images – Credit: monsitj
Second edition published 2023
by Routledge
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2023 Mary Manjikian
The right of Mary Manjikian to be identifed as author of this work has been asserted in
accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in
any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter
invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks,
and are used only for identifcation and explanation without intent to infringe.
First edition published by Routledge 2017
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Manjikian, Mary, author.
Title: Cybersecurity ethics : an introduction / Mary Manjikian.
Description: Second edition. | Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routeldge, 2023. |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifers: LCCN 2022036730 (print) | LCCN 2022036731 (ebook) | ISBN
9781032164991 (hbk) | ISBN 9781032164977 (pbk) | ISBN 9781003248828 (ebk)
Subjects: LCSH: Internet—Moral and ethical aspects. | Computer networks—Security
measures—Moral and ethical aspects. | Computer crimes.
Classifcation: LCC TK5105.878 .M36 2023 (print) | LCC TK5105.878 (ebook) |
DDC 005.8—dc23/eng/20221017
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022036730
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022036731
ISBN: 978-1-032-16499-1 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-16497-7 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-24882-8 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003248828
Typeset in Bembo
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
To my husband Ara, whose paranoia about everything internet
teaches us to be more careful.
Contents
List of Tables xi
List of Figures xii
List of Boxes xiii
List of Acronyms and Abbreviations xiv
Preface to the Second Edition xvi
Acknowledgments xix
PART I
1 What Is Ethics? 3
PART II
PART III
Glossary 243
Index 246
Tables
Welcome to the second edition of Cybersecurity Ethics: An Introduction. This textbook frst
appeared in 2017, and I was inspired to write it due to my dissatisfaction with existing
undergraduate and graduate texts in cybersecurity ethics. At that time, I was aware that
those who teach cybersecurity ethics come from various backgrounds – some from aca-
demic computer science or engineering, some from policy studies, and some from the
military. Some are philosophers by training, while others are practitioners in the computer
industry. Those who are not philosophers struggle to master what may seem like arcane
and abstract philosophical debates about the nature of existence, being, and agency. In con-
trast, those who are academic philosophers may struggle to understand and apply technical
concepts like Location-Based Privacy Mechanisms and Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs).
Thus, I have created a resource that appeals to this broad spectrum of professors and
students. This textbook assumes neither prior study in philosophy nor a high level of
technical knowledge. I hope that in providing this resource, I have created a place where
those who share an interest in the philosophy of technology, ethics, and cybersecurity can
begin to have conversations across disciplinary boundaries – so that philosophers may talk
with policy experts, lawyers, and engineers as we work together to model, create, and
practice ethical behavior in cyberspace.
An ethics course does not aim to teach you precisely what you should do in every
ethical dilemma you will encounter professionally. However, as much as possible, this text
focuses on real-world situations you might encounter in your day-to-day work. Part I
of this text (Chapters 1, 2, and 3) is the most abstract, but you will rely on the concepts
introduced here throughout the course.
This text contains ten chapters: Chapter 1 introduces the feld of ethics, describing
how it difers from either law or religion and why it is still necessary when we have both
law and religion. It lays out some of the diferences and debates between philosophers
as well. Chapter 2 introduces three stances that can be applied to thinking about ethics:
virtue ethics, utilitarianism, and deontological ethics. Chapter 3 introduces the notion
of ethical hacking, the hacker code, and the particular problem of penetration testing.
Chapter 4 examines ethical issues related to privacy, while Chapter 5 looks at surveil-
lance practices. Chapter 6 considers the problem of piracy and intellectual property theft.
Chapter 7 introduces ethical issues related to our ever-increasing reliance on artifcial
intelligence. In contrast, Chapter 8 considers ethical issues related to diversity, equity, and
inclusion (DEI) due to that reliance on artifcial intelligence. Chapter 9 considers Big
Data and ethical issues related to cybersecurity and Big Data. We conclude in Chapter 10
with a look at some emerging ethical issues in the feld of military cybersecurity, again
looking at developments in the feld of artifcial intelligence.
Preface to the Second Edition xvii
The book also contains three diferent types of added features. “Going Deeper” features
provide background on individuals, events, and institutions in cybersecurity. “Critical
Issues” features look at stories you might see in the news – from the ethical issues encoun-
tered in working with cryptocurrency and NFTs to issues related to new types of surveil-
lance like Body-Worn Cameras (BWCs) and Smart Cities. Finally, “Tech Talks” contain
features that assume some familiarity with technological developments. These features
allow those interested in, for example, privacy, to think about specifc new types of tools
like semantic cloaking, which they might wish to use in their work. My website, mary-
manjikian.com, also contains some additional materials for those who are more interested
in applied technical features related to cyber ethics, including additional discussion ques-
tions and resources by chapter.
For those who may have used the frst edition of this text, you will notice some changes
in this new edition. I am grateful to the anonymous reviewers who responded to a request
for feedback and for the lists of features which they requested that I include in a new edi-
tion. In response to their suggestions, I have included new material on neuro-privacy and
brain hacking as part of the Chapter 4 discussion on privacy. Chapter 5’s surveillance dis-
cussion now includes new material on “surveillance capitalism,” including how workers
encounter surveillance and how surveillance can occur in the “smart cities” of the future.
As technology progresses and becomes “democratized,” or more readily available to
all, including those with a nontechnical background, we will increasingly see nonstate
actors posing threats to national and commercial cybersecurity. Thus, the material on
disinformation, ransomware, and cryptocurrency pose questions about the roles played
by nonstate actors.
A brand-new Chapter 7 introduces defnitions of artifcial intelligence and autonomy
and raises new ethical issues associated with the agency humans retain and the agency and
autonomy granted to machines. Here you will encounter the ethical notion of meaning-
ful human control (MHC).
As the world faced the COVID pandemic, cybersecurity practitioners and scholars
have begun asking new questions about health data and how health data privacy can be
preserved. These questions are dealt with in special insets on COVID and intellectual
property, health data privacy, and health data surveillance practices.
As workplaces and societies have begun paying renewed attention to practices of diver-
sity, equity, and inclusion in the wake of movements like the Black Lives Matter move-
ment, cybersecurity practitioners have begun to consider the ethics of Big Data and
machine learning. How can we ensure that fairness, access, and equity are upheld? These
issues are examined in Chapter 8, which asks questions about diversity, equity, and inclu-
sion in relation to cybersecurity.
The role of the cybersecurity practitioner has also changed with the advent of Big Data
and artifcial intelligence. Some more routine cybersecurity tasks may now be automated
and outsourced to AI. Chapter 7 on artifcial intelligence and Chapter 9 on Big Data
allow cybersecurity practitioners to consider how data analytics can be used to understand
patterns of cybersecurity incident breaches better and to think about how their jobs now
intersect with those of data analysts and architects – as decisions about data pipelines and
data storage have real-world impacts on our ability to secure our data.
Finally, as you will see throughout this volume, the meaning and task of cybersecu-
rity have expanded exponentially with the advent of the Internet of Things. Protecting
individual, corporate, and government information and data from intrusion, theft, and
destruction has become more challenging as data and information fows through our
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