physiographic divisions of India:

India has every possible landscape that the earth has from cold mountains to arid deserts,
vast plains, hot and humid plateau and wide seashores and tropical islands.
This geographical diversity also contributes to the socio-economic diversity in the country.
Major Physiographic Divisions in India are:
1. The Himalayan Mountain ranges: The Himalayas are geologically young and structurally
fold mountains. The Himalayas consists of four mountain ranges (from north to south)
namely.
The Trans Himalaya or the Tibetan Himalaya: It consists of Karakoram, Ladakh, Zanskar
and Kailash Mountain ranges.
The Great Himalaya or Himadri: This is a continuous range consisting of the loftiest peaks
with an average height of 6000 metres. It is made of crude granite. It contains all prominent
Himalayan peaks Example: Mount Everest in Nepal – 8848 m.
The Lesser Himalaya or Himachal: This range lies to the south of Great Himalayas. The
altitude varies from 3700 m and 4700 m and the average width is 50 km. It is divided into
many ranges such as Pir Panjal range, Dhaula Dhar, Mussoorie range, Kumaon range
and the Mahabharat ranges.
The Shivalik or the outer Himalaya: They extend over a width of 10 – 15 km and have
altitudes varying between 900m & 1000m.

2. The Northern Plains: These lies in between Himalayas and peninsular India. It is formed
due to the sediments of the rivers Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra, and their tributaries. It
spreads over an area of 7 lakh sq. km. The Northern Plains are about 2400km long and 240 –
320 km broad. Northern plains are broadly divided into three sections:
 The Punjab Plains – The western part of the Northern Plains is referred to as the Punjab
Plains. It is formed by the Indus and its tributaries.
 The Ganga Plains – It extends between the Ghaggar and Teesta rivers. It is spread over the
states of Haryana, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, partly Jharkhand and West Bengal to its east.
 The Brahmaputra Plains – It is due to the deposits of river Brahmaputra and its tributaries.
It lies mainly in Assam.

3. Peninsular Plateau: The Peninsular upland forms the largest physiographic division of
India. With a general elevation between 600 – 900 m, the region constitutes an irregular
triangle. The Peninsular plateau can be divided into three broad groups.
 The Central Highlands
 The Deccan plateau
 The North-Eastern plateau

4. Great Indian Desert/Thar Desert: To the northwest of the Aravalli hills lies the Great
Indian Desert/Thar Desert. It is the state of Rajasthan. It has with longitudinal dunes and
barchans (crescent-shaped dunes). The region receives very low rainfall (below 150 mm per
year). It has an arid climate with low vegetation cover. Owing to these characteristic
features, it is also known as Marusthali.

5. The Coastal Plains: The Peninsular India is divided into two coastal plains Western Coastal
Plains and Eastern Coastal Plains.
Western Coastal Plains:
 The Western Coastal Plains sandwiched between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea
is a narrow plain. The western coast is divided into the following divisions –
1. Kachchh and Kathiawar coast in Gujarat.
2. Konkan coast in Maharashtra.
3. Kannad coast in Karnataka.
4. Malabar coast in Kerala.
Eastern Coastal Plains:
 The Eastern Coastal Plains lies between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal.
 The Eastern Coastal Plains are wider than the Western Coastal Plains and is an example of
an emergent coast.
 The Eastern Coastal Plain is divided into two divisions:
1. The Northern Circar – These plains consist of deltas of Mahanadi, Godavari, and Krishna.
These rivers have broken the Eastern Ghats in many places.
2. The Coromandel Coast – it extends from the delta of river Krishna to Kanyakumari.

6. Islands: There are two major island groups in India – Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the
Bay of Bengal and Lakshadweep Islands in the Arabian sea.
 Andaman and Nicobar Islands: Andaman and Nicobar Islands consist of about 572
islands/islets. These are situated roughly between 6°N – 14°N (latitude) and 92°E – 94°E
(longitude). The two principal groups of islands include Andaman group and Nicobar group.
The Andaman group of islands is in the north and Nicobar is in the south. They are
separated by a water body which is called the Ten Degree Channel (10° latitude passes
between the Andaman and Nicobar groups of islands).
 Lakshadweep Islands: These are scattered between 8°N – 12°N latitude and 71°E – 74°E
longitude. There are about 36 islands of which 11 are inhabited. Kavaratti Island is the
administrative headquarters of Lakshadweep.
Conclusion:
There are many geographical differences in India. In accordance with these geographical
difference socio, economic, cultural differences are also found in India. But this diversity
provides unity in India.
Mountains

A Mountain is a large landform that rises above the surrounding land or earth’s surface
usually forming a peak. Mountains cover about 30% of land in India. Based on the origin,
mountains can be of several types.

Different types of mountains in India:

a. Volcanic Mountains: When tectonic plates move about, volcanoes are formed. A volcanic
mountain starts out as a simple crack in the Earth called a volcanic vent. Magma erupts out
of the ground as lava flows, clouds of ash, and explosions of rock. This material falls back to
Earth around the vent, and piles up around it. Over time (and sometimes quite quickly) a
volcanic mountain builds up, with the familiar cone shape. E.g. The only known instance of a
Volcanic mountain is located on Barren Island in the Andaman Sea

b. Fold Mountains: Fold Mountains are created where two or more of Earth’s tectonic plates
are pushed together. At these colliding, compressing boundaries, rocks and debris are
warped and folded into rocky outcrops, hills, mountains, and entire mountain ranges. E.g.
The Mountains of Himalayas are an example of Fold Mountains.

c. Block Mountains: The raising of a fault block leads to the formation of Block Mountains.
Higher blocks are called horsts and troughs are known as grabens. When the surface is
spread apart, the tensional forces causes the centre block to drop down. E.g. The Mountains
of Satpura and Vindhya found in the central-western part of India are an example of Block
Mountains.

d. Residual Mountains: Through an erosion of an elevated area residual mountains are

formed. Alternatively such formations are also known as mountains of denudation. E.g.
Aravalis

e. Dome Mountains: Dome Mountains are formed when large globs of magma push up from
beneath the crust and push up surface rocks, creating a rounded swelling in the crust. Once
the magma cools, it creates a large dome of harder rock under the surface, which erosion
sometimes reveals. E.g. Kedar Dome peak is a dome shaped mountain in the Garhwal range
of the Himalayas in Uttarakhand

Provide a comprehensive overview of the landforms found in the

Peninsular plateau region of India and their impact on the river
drainage system.
The Peninsular Plateau of India is a vast region of elevated land that covers almost the
entire southern half of the country. It is an aggregation of several smaller plateaus, hill
ranges interspersed with river basins and valleys, and largely displays an erosional
landscape. It consists of the Deccan Plateau at its heart and is bordered by the Eastern
Ghats and the Western Ghats on the east and west, respectively.

Landforms found in the peninsular plateau region of India:

 Plateaus: The Peninsular India is made up of a series of patland plateaus such as the
Hazaribagh plateau, the Palamu plateau, the Ranchi plateau, the Malwa plateau, the
Coimbatore plateau, and the Karnataka plateau, etc.

 Hills: The Peninsular Plateau has several hill ranges, including the Aravalli Range, the
Satpura Range, the Vindhya Range, the Eastern Ghats and the Western Ghats. These hills
are mostly composed of igneous and metamorphic rocks.

 Valleys: The Peninsular Plateau is also home to several valleys, including the Narmada
Valley, the Tapti Valley, the Godavari Valley, and the Krishna Valley. These valleys are fertile
and are characterized by a rich alluvial soil.

 Caves: The Peninsular Plateau has several caves, including the Ajanta and Ellora Caves in
Maharashtra and the Belum Caves in Andhra Pradesh. These caves were formed due to the
weathering and erosion of the rocks.

 Waterfalls: The Peninsular Plateau has several waterfalls, including the Jog Falls in
Karnataka, the Dudhsagar Falls in Goa, and the Athirapally Falls in Kerala. These waterfalls
are formed due to the erosion of rocks by rivers.

 Volcanic features: The Peninsular Plateau has several volcanic features, such as the Lonar
Lake in Maharashtra, which was formed by a meteorite impact and is one of the few known
meteorite impact craters in the world.

Impact of these landforms on the river drainage system:

 A line joining the Western Ghat and Aravalli Hills via Gawilghar-Maikal- Vindhyan Ranges
constitutes the major water divide that separates the Arabian Sea drainage from the Bay of
Bengal drainage.

 The general elevation of the plateau is from the west to the east, which is also proved by
the pattern of the flow of rivers. (East flowing rivers such as Krishna, Godavari, etc.)

 Flowing through rift valleys: The courses of Narmada, Tapi, and Son are strongly controlled
by rift valleys they flow in.

 Influence on river courses: The Peninsular Plateau has several hard rocks, such as granite
and basalt, which have resisted erosion. These rocks have led to the formation of gorges and
canyons in the rivers and have influenced the courses of the rivers. Hard rock surface
permits very little scope for meanders. Rivers follow a straight course.
 Stable channels: By and large, the channels are stable and floodplains are narrow,
discontinuous, or absent, except in the deltaic portions. Flowing in the oldest plateaus, the
rivers have reached maturity.

 Nature of river: Smaller, fixed course with well-adjusted valleys. Valleys are comparatively
as a result rivers have little erosional activity to perform.

 Influence on river water availability: Receive water only from rainfall and hence seasonal
in nature. The rivers have small basins & catchment areas.

Conclusion

Overall, various landforms of the peninsular plateau of India have significant impact on the
drainage pattern of that region. By and large, divergent weathering and differential erosion
during its long geological history have fashioned the peninsular landscape and influenced
the course of peninsular drainage system.

Geographical features of Andhra Pradesh

Andhra Pradesh is a southern state of India lies in between 12°41’ N and 19° 07’N latitude
and 77°E and 84°40’E longitude. It is 8th largest state in area and 10th largest state in
population. The geographical features are characterised by:
Andhra Pradesh is bordered on the south by Tamilnadu, on west by Karnataka, on north and
North West by the Maharashtra, on the north east by the Orissa and Madhya Pradesh and
east by the Bay of Bengal
Topography: State is divided into three physiographical division like coastal plains,
peninsular plateau and Eastern Ghats
Coastal plains:
 It stretches between eastern ghats and the Bay of Bengal along the Godavari and
Krishna doab form coastal plains in Andhra Pradesh.
 These plains extend from Mahendragiri in north to Pulicat lake in south.
 Elevation ranges from 0-150 metres.
 Narrow in the north and south and broad in the central part.
 Godavari Krishna doab is fertile forming granary of the state.
Eastern Ghats:
 These are discontinuous hill ranges extending in N – S direction to the west of coastal
plains all along Andhra Pradesh.
 These hills are dissected by rivers like Godavari, Krishna, Penna etc.
 Average height 52o meters.
 Jindagada is the highest peak of eastern ghats in Andhra Pradesh.
 Eastern ghats dissected into Papikondalu, Kondapalli hills, Nallamala hills, Velikonda,
Lankamalla, Palakonda, Seshachalam, Kondapalli, Kondaveedu, Seshachalam,
Madakasiri hills etc.
Deccan Plateau:
 Eastern Deccan plateau also called as Telangana Rayalaseema plateau made of
massive granite rocks.
 This region contains many minerals like Limestone, Iron ore etc.
 This plateau contains black soil.
• Climate:
✓ The climate is hot and humid in lowland coastal regions and semi-arid in parts of
Anantapur, Kurnool, and Kadapa.
✓ These districts are in the rainshadow area of Western Ghats.
✓ The summers in Andhra Pradesh range from March to May and June, and the moisture
level during these months is relatively higher than in the winter months. Moreover, the
coastal areas are more humid.
• Drainage systems and river basins of the state:
✓ Three major perennial rivers run through the state Godavari, Krishna and pennar.
✓ These river flow through the Krishna, east and west Godavari and Visakhapatnam
districts.
• Soils: Red soil, black soil, delta alluvial soil, coastal soil , laterite soils are majorly found
• Plant and animal life:
✓ With Mangrove swamps, thorny vegetation one fifth of the total state is forest covered,
and along with dense wood land of eastern Ghats.
✓ Forests consists of both moist deciduous and dry savannah.
✓ Vegetation covers teak rosewood, wild fruit trees etc
v. Lakes: Kolleru lake is a large freshwater lake situated in between rivers Godavari and
Krishna. Pulicat lake is a saltwater lake on the border with Tamil Nādu.
vi. Hill stations:Araku valley in the north and Horsley hills in south are popular hill
stations known for their scenic beauty and cooler climate.
Conclusion :Andhra Pradesh has a promising land scape with 974 km coastline, rich alluvial
delta of Godavari and Krishna rivers, diverse minerals, and vibrant demography to
transform Andhra Pradesh into Swarna Andhra.
Compare western and eastern coastal plains? What is the significance of coastal plains in
India

Peninsula has a coastline of about 6100km.It had a varied coastal plain along the
coast.Based on location and geomorphologic processes coastal plains are divided into
western and eastern coastal plains.
The Western Coastal Plain:
1. The Western Coastal Plains are a thin strip of coastal plains with a width of 50 kms
between the Arabian Sea and the Western Ghats.
2. Extending from the Gujarat coast in the north to the Kerala coast in the south,
the western coast may be divided into following divisions:
 Kachchh and Kathiawar coast in Gujarat
 Konkan coast in Maharashtra
 Kannad Coast in Karnataka
 Malabar coast in Kerala
3. The western coastal plains are an example of submerged coastal plain except Malabar
coast. It is believed that the city of Dwaraka which was once a part of the Indian mainland
situated along the west coast is submerged under water.
4. The western coastal plains are narrow in the middle and get broader towards and
south. Except for the Kuchchh and Kathiawar coastal region, these are narrower than their
eastern counterpart.
5. The coast is straight and affected by the South-West Monsoon winds over a period of six
months.
6. The western coastal plains are thus wetter than their eastern counterpart. .
7. The western coast being more indented than the eastern coast provides natural
conditions for the development of ports and harbours. Kandla, Mazagaon, JLN port Nava
Sheva, Marmagao, Mangalore, Cochin, etc. are some of the important natural ports located
along the west coast.
8. The western coastal plains are dotted with a large number of coves (a very small bay),
creeks (a narrow, sheltered waterway such as an inlet in a shoreline or channel in a marsh)
and a few estuaries. The estuaries, of the Narmada and the Tapi are the major ones.
9. The rivers flowing through this coastal plain do not form any delta. Many small rivers
descend from the Western Ghats making a chain of waterfalls.
10. The Malabar Coast has a distinguishing feature in the form of "Kayals' (Backwaters).
These backwaters are the shallow lagoons or the inlets of the sea and lie parallel to the
coastline. These are used for fishing, inland navigation and are important tourist spots. The
largest of these lagoons is the Vembanad Lake. Kochi is situated on its opening into the sea.
The Eastern Coastal Plains:
1. The Eastern Coastal Plains is a strip of coastal plain with a width of 100-130 kms between
the Bay of Bengal and the Eastern Ghats.
2. It can be divided into two parts:Northern Circar: The northern part between Mahanadi
and Krishna rivers. Additionally, the coastal tract of Odisha is called the Utkal plains.
Coromandel Coast: The southern part between Krishna and Kaveri rivers.
3. A coastline of emergence: The eastern coastal plain is broader and is an example of an
emergent coast
4. The eastern coastal plains are wider and drier resulting in shifting sand dunes on its
plains.
5. There are well-developed deltas here, formed by the rivers flowing eastward into the Bay
of Bengal. These include the deltas of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the
Kaveri.
6. Because of its emergent nature, it has less number of ports and harbours. The
continental shelf extends up to 500 km into the sea, which makes it difficult for the
development of good ports and harbours.
7. Chilaka Lake is an important feature along the eastern coast. It is the largest saltwater
lake in India.
Significance of the Coastal Plains region:
1. These plains are agriculturally very productive. The western coast grows specialized
tropical crops while easterncoasts witnessed a green revolution in rice.
2. The delta regions of eastern coastal plains have a good network of canals across the river
tributaries.
3. Coastal plains are a source of salt, monazite (used for nuclear power) and mineral oil and
gas as well as centres of fisheries.
4. Although lacking in adequate natural harbours, with a number of major and minor ports,
coastal plains are centres of commerce and have attracted dense human settlements.
5. The coastal regions of India are noted for tourist centres.
Conclusion: Thus, coastal plains in India are of great importance in country’s economic,
environmental and social development

Geographical features of Eastern ghats in Andhra Pradesh.

The Eastern Ghats are a collection of irregularly shaped low ranges that typically run parallel
to the Bay of Bengal’s shoreline from northeast to southwest.

The geographical extent of the Eastern Ghats is about 75,000 kilometres, with a range of
broken hills spread over the states of Odisha (25%), Andhra Pradesh (40%), Telangana (5%),
Karnataka (5%) and Tamil Nadu (25%) starting from the Mahanadi in Odisha to the Vaigai in
Tamil Nadu, with an average elevation of 1,000 metres.

a. Mountains:

 The tallest mountain in the Eastern Ghats is Jindhagada, located near Araku, Andhra
Pradesh.
  Southwest, the hills become gentler as the Godavari River cuts through a gorge that
is 65 kilometres (40 miles) long.
 The Eastern Ghats can be seen as a collection of low ranges and hills, including the
Erramala, Nallamala, Velikonda, and Palkonda, further southwest, beyond the
Krishna River.
 Due to fractured hills, the Eastern Ghats’ altitude is uneven from a topographic
perspective. The typical altitude is 600 m. (2000 ft).

b. Rivers:

 The Eastern Ghats are interwoven by major rivers like the Godavari, Krishna and
Pennar.
 Source of many small East flowing Rivers that include Vegavathi, Gosthani,
Suvarnamukhi, Thandarai, Sarada, pampa, Gundlakamma, swarnamukhi…etc.,

c. Climate:

 The region’s mean annual temperature ranges from a low of 14.5 °C to a high of 36.5
°C.
 Both the South-West and the North-East retreating monsoons bring rain to this area.
 In the Northern Ghats, the mean annual rainfall distribution exceeds 1500 mm.
 In and surrounding the Nallamala highlands, it progressively drops to 1000 mm.
Along the East Coast’s Coastal plain, rainfall also tops 1000 mm.

d. Soil and natural vegetation:

 Red, Black, Laterite, and Alluvial soils are the most common types of soil in this
region of Eastern Ghats.
 The forests include tropical dry scrub forests, dry savannah forests, semievergreen
forests, and dry evergreen forests, among others.

challenges posed to the Eastern Ghats of Andhra Pradesh due to climate change include:

 Increased Temperatures:

can lead to the loss of species, as some are unable to adapt, while also rendering trees more
vulnerable to pests and disease. It affects the capacity of Eastern Ghats in moderating
climate, sustaining biodiversity and providing sustenance.

✓ Changes in the water cycle:

Rainfall reduction in the driest quarter of the year, along with a rise in seasonal
temperature, can have a significant impact on the productivity of these forests, as
evidenced by reduced plant species diversity and a predominance of herbs over trees.
Furthermore, extreme weather events such as floods and droughts can lead to soil erosion,
vegetation loss, and disruption of wildlife habitats, all of which can decrease the ability of
these forests to store carbon and provide subsistence material.

✓ Altered precipitation patterns:

Changes in precipitation patterns have an impact on the livelihood of the tribals to an

extent. Tribals who are more adapted with the vegetation and who mainly depends on
minor forest produce is facing threat. Lack of prey base may even force carnivore animals to
turn to humans which often results in man animal conflict.

✓ Increased risk of forest fires:

Fire is a significant threat to the forests of the Eastern Ghats in India, as it has been
observed that approximately 14% of forest fires occur in the state of Andhra Pradeshalone
and are believed to have increased in frequency over the past decade. Fire not only reduces
the abundance and diversity of species, but also changes the species composition and
successional patterns due to its varied effects on different species, such as survivorship,
flowering, and seed dispersal.

Other challenges-commercial activities, intensive agriculture, shifting agriculture, logging

activities, over exploitation

• Thus, these challenges have the potential to disrupt ecosystems, displace communities,
and damage infrastructure and it demonstrate that conservation actions are needed to
prevent further degradation of forests in this region that support local livelihood and other
valuable ecosystem services.

Define monsoon and discuss any three theories related to the origin of Indian monsoons?

Monsoon is characterized by seasonal reversal of wind direction at regular intervals at a

level of 20km from the earth’s surface. The origin of Indian monsoon is a complex concept
because of the variation of the wind, air pressure, jet stream, oceanic factor along with the
geographic location of India. Monsoon winds are mainly of two types:
1. South-West monsoon winds
2. North-Eastern monsoon winds
Body:
Various Principles for the Origin of Indian Monsoon. Several attempts have been made
to explain the mechanism of the monsoonsare generally divided into following two
broad categories:
1. Classical Theory
2. Modern Theories.
1. Classical Theory Al Masoodi , an Arab explorer from Baghdad, gave an account of the
reversal of ocean currents and the monsoon winds over the north Indian Ocean. In 1686,
the famous Englishman Sir Edmund Hailey explained the monsoon as resulting from
thermal contrasts between continents and oceans, due to their differential heating.
Accordingly, he conceived summer and winter monsoons, depending upon the season.
(a) Summer Monsoon: In summer, the sun shines vertically over the tropic of Cancer,
resulting in high temperature and low pressure in Central Asia while the pressure is
still sufficiently high over Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal. This induces air flow from sea to
land and brings heavy rainfall to India and her neighbouring countries.
(b) Winter Monsoon: In winter, the sun shines vertically over the Tropic of Capricorn. The
north-western part of India grows colder than Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal and the flow of
the monsoon is reversed.
2. Modern Theories:
a) Air Mass Theory:
i. The south-east trade winds in the southern hemisphere and the north-east trade winds in
the northern hemisphere meet each other near the equator. The meeting place of these
winds is known as theInter-Tropical Convergence Zone
(ITCZ).
ii. This is the region of ascending air,maximum clouds, and heavyrainfall.
iii. The location a ITCZ shifts north and south of equator with the change of season.
iv. In the summer season, the sun shines vertically over the Tropic ofCancer and the ITCZ
shifts northwards. The south-east trade winds of the southern hemisphere cross the
equator and start flowing from south-west to north-east direction under the influence of
Coriolis force. These displaced trade winds are called south-west monsoons when they blow
over the Indian sub-continent.
v. In the month of July, the ITCZ shifts to 20°-25° N latitude and is located in the Indo-
Gangetic Plain and the south-west monsoons blow from the Arabian Sea and the Bay of
Bengal. The ITCZ in this position is often called the Monsoon Trough
b) Jet Stream Theory:
i. Jet stream is a band of fast-moving air from west to east, usually found in the middle
latitudes in the upper troposphere at a height of about 12 km. The wind speeds in a
westerly jet stream are commonly 150 to 300 kmph with extreme values reaching
400 kmph. Jet stream is the latest theory, regarding the origin of the monsoons and has
earned worldwide acclaim from the meteorologists.
ii. M.T. Yin expressed the opinion that the burst of monsoon depends upon the upper air
circulation. The low latitude upper air trough shifts from 90° E to 80° E longitude in response
to the northward shift of the western jet stream in summer.
iii. The southern jet becomes active and heavy rainfall is caused by southwest monsoons. It
shows that in winter, the western jet stream flows along the southern slopes of the
Himalayas but in summer, it shifts northwards, rather dramatically and flows along the
northern edge of the Tibet Plateau.
iv. The periodic movements of the Jet stream are often indicators of the onset and
subsequent withdrawal of the monsoon.
c) Role of Tibetan Plateau:
i. Tibet is a plateau at an altitude ofabout 4,000 m above sea level with an area of about 4.5
million surrounded by mountain ranges.
ii. It gets heated in summer and is 2°C to3°C warmer than the air over the adjoining regions.
The Tibet plateau is a source of heat for the atmosphere, it generates an area of
rising air.
iii. During its ascent, the air spreads outwards and gradually sinks over the equatorial part of
the Indian Ocean. At this stage, the ascending air is deflected to the right by the
earth's rotation and moves in an anti-clockwise direction leading to anti-cyclonic conditions
in the upper troposphere over Tibet.
iv. It finally approaches the west coast of India as a return current from a south-westerly
direction and is termed as equatorial westerlies. It picks up moisture from the Indian
Ocean and causes copious rainfall in India and adjoining countries.
d) Teleconnections, the Southern Oscillation and the El Nino:
i. Recent studies have revealed that there seems to be a link between. meteorological
events, which are separated by long distances and large intervals of time. They are called
meteorological teleconnections.
ii. The one which has aroused considerable interest among the meteorologists is the
difference between an El Nino and the Southern Oscillation.
iii. The El Nino phenomena, which influence the Indian monsoon, reveal that when the
surface temperature goes up in the southern Pacific Ocean, India deficient rainfall.
However, there had been some years during which the El Nino phenomena did not occur,
but India still got deficient rainfall, and conversely, India received sufficient rainfall
during an El Nino year.
Conclusion: A good monsoon boosts agriculture, replenishes ground water and brings
prosperity to whole country. So monsoonal study is very important in Indian context

Factors Influencing South-West Monsoon Formation

The differential heating and cooling of land and water creates a low pressure on the
landmass of India while the seas around experience comparatively high pressure.

The shift of the position of Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) in summer, over the
Ganga plain (this is the equatorial trough normally positioned about 5°N of the equator. It is
also known as the monsoon-trough during the monsoon season).

The presence of the high-pressure area, east of Madagascar, approximately at 20°S over the
Indian Ocean. The intensity and position of this high-pressure area affect the Indian
Monsoon.

The Tibetan plateau gets intensely heated during summer, which results in strong vertical air
currents and the formation of low pressure over the plateau at about 9 km above sea level.

The movement of the westerly jet stream to the north of the Himalayas and the presence of
the tropical easterly jet stream over the Indian peninsula during summer.

Tropical Easterly Jet (African Easterly Jet).

Southern Oscillation (SO): Normally when the tropical eastern south Pacific Ocean
experiences high pressure, the tropical eastern Indian Ocean experiences low pressure. But
in certain years, there is a reversal in the pressure conditions and the eastern Pacific has
lower pressure in comparison to the eastern Indian Ocean. This periodic change in pressure
conditions is known as the SO
Factors influencing intensity of SW monsoons:

 Strengths of the low pressure over Tibetan plateau and the high pressure over the south
Indian Ocean
 Somali Jet
 Somali Current
 Indian Ocean dipole
 Indian Ocean branch of the Walker Cell Mechanism
 Onset of the South-West Monsoon

The location of ITCZ shifts north and south of the equator with the apparent movement of
the Sun.

During the month of June, the sun shines vertically over the Tropic of Cancer and the ITCZ
shifts northwards.

The southeast trade winds of the southern hemisphere cross the equator and start blowing
in southwest to northeast direction under the influence of Coriolis force.

These winds collect moisture as they travel over the warm Indian Ocean.

In the month of July, the ITCZ shifts to 20°-25° N latitude and is located in the Indo-Gangetic
Plain and the south-west monsoons blow from the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. The
ITCZ in this position is often called the Monsoon Trough.

The shift in the position of the ITCZ is also related to the phenomenon of the withdrawal of
the westerly jet stream from its position over the north Indian plain, south of the Himalayas.

The easterly Jet Stream (Somali Jet) sets in along 15°N latitude only after the western jet
stream has withdrawn itself from the region. This easterly jet stream is held responsible for
the burst of the monsoon in India.

As these winds approach the land, their southwesterly direction is modified by the relief and
thermal low pressure over northwest India. The monsoon approaches the Indian landmass
in two branches:

The Arabian Sea branch - The monsoon winds originating over the Arabian Sea.

The Bay of Bengal branch - The Arakan Hills along the coast of Myanmar deflect a big
portion of this branch towards the Indian subcontinent. The monsoon, therefore, enters
West Bengal and Bangladesh from south and southeast instead of from the south-westerly
direction.

Another phenomenon associated with the monsoon is its tendency to have ‘breaks’ in
rainfall. The monsoon rains take place only for a few days at a time. They are interspersed
with rainless intervals. These breaks in monsoon are related to the movement of the
monsoon trough.

Despite an overall unity in the general pattern, there are perceptible regional variations in
climatic conditions within the country.

Retreating Monsoon Season

The retreating southwest monsoon season is marked by clear skies and rise in temperature.

The land is still moist. Owing to the conditions of high temperature and humidity, the
weather becomes rather oppressive. This is commonly known as the ‘October heat’.

In the second half of October, the mercury begins to fall rapidly, particularly in northern
India.

The weather in the retreating monsoon is dry in north India but it is associated with rain in
the eastern part of the Peninsula. Here, October and November are the rainiest months of
the year.

The widespread rain in this season is associated with the passage of cyclonic depressions
which originate over the Andaman Sea and manage to cross the eastern coast of the
southern Peninsula. These tropical cyclones are very destructive.

A bulk of the rainfall of the Coromandel Coast is derived from these depressions and
cyclones.

Unlike the rest of the country, which receives rain in the southwest monsoon season
between June and September, the northeast monsoon is crucial for farming and water
security in the south

Impact of Monsoons on Life in India

Positive

 About 64% of people in India depend on agriculture for their livelihood and
agriculture itself is based on monsoon.
 Agricultural prosperity of India depends very much on timely and adequately
distributed rainfall. If it fails, agriculture is adversely affected particularly in those
regions where means of irrigation are not developed.
 Regional variations in monsoon climate help in growing various types of crops.
 Regional monsoon variation in India is reflected in the vast variety of food, clothes
and house types.
 Monsoon rain helps recharge dams and reservoirs, which is further used for the
generation of hydro-electric power.
  Winter rainfall by temperate cyclones in north India is highly beneficial for Rabi
crops.

Negative

 Variability of rainfall brings droughts or floods every year in some parts of the
country.
 Sudden monsoon burst creates a problem of soil erosion over large areas in India.
 In hilly areas sudden rainfall brings landslide which damages natural and physical
infrastructure subsequently disrupting human life economically as well as socially.

Recent Indian Initiatives

It is crucial for farmers (sowing, harvesting, etc.) and policymakers (payment of

compensation, minimum support price, etc.) to know when and for how long the monsoon
will remain active over India. For that, better predictions and timely advisories are needed.

To achieve this following initiatives have been taken:

Monsoon Mission of India

This initiative of Ministry of Earth Sciences, launched in 2012, has utilized new approaches
(high resolution, super parameterizations, data assimilation etc.) so that forecast skill gets
quantitatively improved further for forecasting services of India Meteorological Department
(IMD).

For the first time, India Meteorological Department used the Monsoon Mission dynamical
model to prepare operational seasonal forecast of 2017 monsoon rainfall over India.

Objectives

To improve Seasonal and Intra-seasonal Monsoon Forecast

To improve Medium Range Forecast.

IMD in collaboration with Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) provides district-
level agro-meteorological advisories to farmers through 130 agro-met field units in
vernacular languages.

These advisories are used for critical farm operations such as:

Management of sowing (delayed onset of rains);

Changing crop variety (delay in rainfall);

Spraying Pesticides for disease control (occurrence of rainfall);

Managing Irrigation (Heavy rainfall Forecast).

India Meteorological Department (IMD) provides meteorological support to the Central
Water Commission (CWC) for issuing flood warnings.

Indo-US expedition

In 2018, The Indian Ocean Research Vessel, 'Sagar Nidhi', set out from Chennai, as part of an
Indo-US expedition seeking to find answers to the vagaries of the Bay of Bengal-fed
southwest monsoon by collecting various data to improve prediction models.

National Supercomputing Mission will fill the necessary gaps in the computing superpower
required to predict timely and accurate monsoon forecasts.

Global Warming and Monsoon

A drastic change in the monsoon rainfall intensity, duration, frequency and spatial
distribution can be attributed to the climate change. However, it is too soon to arrive at a
conclusion.

If all this is in response to global warming then it can be permanent and might accelerate. If
not then the monsoon system will revert to a more normal state.

More data and reanalysis is needed to get a clear picture on the complete separation of the
global warming impact from natural climate variability (such as El Niño).

Way Forward

The population of India is increasing and to provide food security to the population, a large
part of the monsoon water which is currently unutilized should be held at suitable locations
for irrigation and power generation purposes.

India needs to invest more resources in better prediction of Monsoon forecast in order to
achieve reliability and sustainability.

With a warming climate, more moisture will be held in the atmosphere, leading to heavier
rainfall, consequently, inter-annual variability of the monsoon will increase in future. The
country needs to prepare for this change.

Thus, to secure and bring sustainability to the climate pattern of India we need to take
effective and timely steps not just at the domestic front (National Action Plan on Climate
Change) but also at international front (UN Framework Convention on Climate Change), as
we live in a shared world with a shared future.

factors influencing the climate of India.

Location and Latitudinal Extent:

• India lies roughly between 6°N to 37°N latitudes. The Tropic of Cancer passes through the
middle of the country.

• The southern parts being closer to the Equator, experience high temperatures throughout
the year.

• The northern parts on the other hand lie in the warm temperate zone. Hence they
experience low temperatures particularly, in winter.

Altitude:

• The Himalayan and adjoining mountain ranges which extend from Kashmir in the
Northwest to Arunachal Pradesh in the Northeast, separate India from the rest of Asia.

✓ These ranges protect India from the bitterly cold and dry winds of Central Asia during
winter.

✓ Further more, they act as an effective physical barrier for the rain bearing southwest
monsoons winds to cross the northern frontiers of India.

✓ Thus, these ranges act as a climatic divide between Indian Sub Continent and Central

Physiography:

• Various physical features like Plateau, River system, Valleys, Mountain, Desert affects the
climate in India.

• The physical features influence the air temperature, atmospheric pressure, direction of
winds and the amount of rainfall in different parts of the country.

Distance from the Sea:

• Southern or peninsular India is surrounded by the Arabian Sea, the Indian ocean and the
Bay of Bengal, hence the climate of coastal regions of India is equable or maritime.

• Contrary to this, the climate of the regions located in the interior of the country are cut off
from the oceanic influence. As a result, they have an extreme or continental type of climate

Pressure and Winds:

• Monsoon Winds:

✓ The complete reversal in the direction of winds over India brings about a sudden change
in seasons, the harsh summer season suddenly giving way to the eagerly awaited monsoon
or rainy season.

✓ These winds which change their direction completely are called monsoon winds
✓ They are named as North east monsoon and south west monsoon winds.

• Upper Air Circulation:

✓ Westerly jet stream during winter and easterly jet stream during summer

• Western Disturbances and Tropical Cyclones:

✓ The inflow of western disturbances moves under the influence of westerly jet streams
from the Mediterranean Sea.

✓ It influences winter weather conditions over most parts of Northern Plains and Western
Himalayan region.

✓ It brings little rain in winter months. This rain is considered to be very good for wheat
crops in northern plains.

✓ The tropical cyclones also develop in the Bay of Bengal. The frequency and direction of
these cyclones influence weather conditions along the eastern coast during October,
November and December.

El Niño and La Niña:

• El Niño and La Niña are climate patterns in the Pacific Ocean that can affect weather
worldwide.

• During El Niño, trade winds weaken. Warm water is pushed back east, toward the west
coast of the Americas.

• It is a temporary replacement of the cold Peru current which normally flows along this
coast.

• This warming of tropical Pacific waters affects the global pattern of pressure and wind
systems including the monsoon winds in the Indian Ocean.

• La Niña has the opposite effect of El Niño. During La Niña events, trade winds are even
stronger than usual, pushing more warm water toward Asia.

Explain the critical role played by the different jet streams in

Indian monsoon.
The Indian monsoon is a complex weather phenomenon that brings significant amounts of
rainfall to the Indian subcontinent each year. While several factors contribute to the onset
and intensity of the monsoon, the interaction between different jet streams plays a critical
role in this process.

Jet streams are strong, narrow, meandering air currents found in the higher part of
atmosphere near tropopause. Jet streams play very important role in the formation,
steering, and intensifying of monsoon in the Indian subcontinent.
Jet Streams - influence on Indian monsoons:

 Role of Sub-Tropical Westerly Jet Stream (STWJ): Also known as the westerly, it flows
between 25-35 degrees N at an altitude of 12-14 km. Its influence on the monsoons is as
follows:

 Attracting south-west monsoon: When STJ shifts northward in summer, it also pulls the
ITCZ and the south-east trade winds northwards, which enter India as the South-West
monsoon after changing direction due to Coriolis force.

 Reinforcing tropical easterly: The STWJ reenergize the hot air mass system over Tibet,
which restrengthens the Tropical Easterly Jetstream (TEJ). This causes the monsoon winds to
blow with greater strength over Indian subcontinent.

 Monsoon breaks: Re-establishment of STWJ over Gangetic plains results in Monsoon

breaks.

 Returning Monsoon: With southward shift in pressure belts during winter, STWJ returns to
its position over Northern Plains. This helps North East monsoon which brings rains to
Coromandel coast.

 Role of Tropical Easterly Jetstream (TEJ):

 The tropical easterly jet stream is located at around 10°N and flows from east to west
across the southern hemisphere.

 It flows roughly along Kolkata-Bangalore Axis. TEJ sinks into permanent high-pressure
present in Southern Indian Ocean (Mascarene Basin).

 This intensifies the high-pressure making the pressure gradient steeper. Winds diverging
from this high pressure crosses the equator and comes in India in form of South-West
Monsoon bringing rains in India.

 The frequency, direction and intensity of depressions dictate the rainfall pattern during
South-west monsoons.

 Role of Somali jet stream:

 It is a narrow, temporary jet stream in middle and lower troposphere. It gets bifurcated by
Ethiopian highlands and a branch of this Jetstream flows over Indian ocean.

 Strengthens the South-west monsoon: It enhances the progress of South-west monsoons,

creating an early set in of the rains.

 Inter-hemispheric circulation: It links the wind patterns, and sea surface temperatures
from southern Indian ocean and India, including the effects of ENSO.
Conclusion

However, any changes or disruptions to these jet streams can have significant impacts on
the timing and intensity of the monsoon rainfall. For example, a delay in the weakening and
shifting of the westerly jet stream can delay the onset of the monsoon, leading to drought
conditions in parts of the country. Similarly, a shift in the path of the easterly jet stream can
alter the distribution of monsoon rainfall, leading to floods in some areas and drought in
others. In recent years, there has been growing concern about the impact of climate change
on the Indian monsoon

Elaborate on how the climate of India is influenced by tropical

cyclones and western disturbances.
India's climate is influenced by various factors, including tropical cyclones and western
disturbances. These weather phenomena bring significant changes in temperature, rainfall,
and wind patterns across the country.
Tropical cyclone and its impact on the climate of India

 A Tropical cyclone is an intense circular storm that originates over warm tropical
oceans and is characterized by low atmospheric pressure, high winds, and heavy
rain.
 Tropical cyclones move in anti-clock wise direction in the northern hemisphere.
 Majority of the cyclones originate in the Bay of Bengal and influence the weather
conditions during the south-west monsoon season.

Impact on Climate of India

 Impact on the immediate weather system:

  Cyclones are usually accompanied by violent storms and bad weather.

  Heavy rainfall is usually spread over a wide area and causes large-scale flooding
and torrential rainfall.
  Tropical cyclones can also have an impact on India's temperature and wind
patterns. Cyclones bring strong winds that can disrupt normal wind patterns, causing
changes in temperature and atmospheric pressure.
  These changes can lead to a temporary cooling effect on the surrounding areas,
providing relief from the intense heat of the summer months.

 Impact on retreating monsoon:

  Some cyclones are born during the retreating monsoon season, i.e., in October and
November (high-intensity cyclones), and influence the weather conditions along the
eastern coast of India.
  This is due to low sea surface temperature and exit of ITCZ farthest south.
  The storms which are born in the Bay of Bengal strike Tamil Nadu and bring heavy
rainfall.

 Impact on marine ecosystem:

  Cyclones can also contribute to the formation of storm surges, which can lead to
coastal erosion and impact marine ecosystems.
  Inundation from these storm surges results in destruction of vegetation, and
reduction in soil fertility.

Western Disturbances and its impact on the climate of India:

 They are extratropical storms that bring winter rain to the northwestern parts of
Soils of India the Indian subcontinent.
 The western cyclonic disturbances originate in the Mid- latitude region near the
Atlantic Ocean and Europe.
  The low pressure typically forms over the Mediterranean Sea and travels under the
influence of westerlies, over Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan and Pakistan before entering
India loaded with moisture.
 In India they usually influence the weather of the north and north-western regions.

Impact on Climate of India:

 Pre-monsoon and winter rainfall:

  Western Disturbances are the cause of the most winter and pre-monsoon season
rainfall across North-West India. It benefits the Rabi crop of wheat.
  It is estimated that India gets close to 5-10% of its total annual rainfall from
western disturbances.
 Impact on the temperature and immediate weather:
  This phenomenon is usually associated with a cloudy sky, higher night
temperatures, and unusual rain.

 Snowfall in the Himalayan Belt:

  Western disturbances cause light rain in the Indus-Ganga plains and snowfall in the
Himalayan belt.
 Aftereffect of western disturbances:
  It results into the widespread fog and cold waves lowering the minimum
temperature by 5° to 10°C below normal are experienced.

 Western Disturbances in Summer Season:

 Their frequency and intensity gradually decrease with the advancement of summer.
 During the summer months of April and May, they move across North India and at
times help in the activation of monsoon in certain parts of northwest India.
 They also cause dust storms in April.

Conclusion

Tropical cyclones and western disturbances play an important role in shaping India's climate
and weather patterns, particularly in the coastal and northern regions of the country. These
weather phenomena can bring both positive and negative impacts to the region.

‘+1’ Value Addition

 Tropical cyclones can also have long-term effects on India's climate. For example, these
storms can alter ocean currents, which can influence the monsoon season and affect the
overall temperature and rainfall patterns in the region.

 An average of 4-5 western disturbances form during the winter season and the rainfall
distribution varies in every western disturbance.
 Natural disasters like cloudburst in Leh (2010), the Kashmir floods in 2014 and even 2013
floods in Uttarakhand were caused by the Western Disturbances

SOILS OF AP

Soils are formed due to various exogenic and endogenic factors. In Andhra Pradesh
there are mainly five types of soils are present. They are red soils, black soils,
laterite soils, Alluvial soil and Coastal sandy soil

Red Soils: Red soils, occupying about 66 percent of the State’s land area, are
formed from granites, gneisses and dharwars (schists, mica schists and green
stones).There are few sub-groups, which include red sandy soils, loamy red-soils,
clay red-soil ,etc. The red soils are generally deficient in organic matter, rich in
phosphoric content and poor in plant nutrient. The moisture holding capacity of
the red soils is also poor due to high leaching activity. A greater part of the
Rayalaseema districts and the upland and western segment of Nellore, Prakasam,
and interior parts of coastal Andhra districts of NTR, ELURU, ALLURI
SITHARAMARAJU, VISAKHAPATNAM, MANYAM AND SRIKAKULAM are covered by
red soils. Horticulture is favoured and crops like cotton, sugarcane, rice and vegetables
are favourable in case of irrigation.Pulses and oil seeds like groundnut and castor grows well

b. Black Soils: Black soils cover nearly 25% of the land area, are also called as Regurs
or Vertisols. These are moderately deep to very deep, calcareous as well as noncalcareous,
fine and heavy in textured, and poor in nitrogen and phosphorus. This
type of soil is rich in calcium and potash. The districts of Western portion of
Anantapur district and good parts of Kurnool, Nandyal, Prakasam and few parts of
Nellore and Kadapa district, have a fair amount of black soils in Palnadu, NTR,
Eluru and East Godavari districts. cotton is most favoured crop in these
soils.Other suitable crops like Jowar, Bajra, Millets, Tobacco, Turmeric, Onions and
chillies.Assured irrigation facilities also facilities rice and sugar cane cultivation.

c. The Deltaic alluvial soils: They are the most fertile soils in the State, having been
periodically renewed by the silt brought down by the river. Soils are rich in limestone and
potassium. These soils are of the recent origin and richer in plant nutrients. These soils
occur extensively in the deltas of Krishna and Godavari basins. These soils also occur along
the coast in the Visakhapatnam and Srikakulam districts and along the valley of Vansadhara
and Nagavali rivers and also along Pennar in Nellore district. crops like rice and sugar can be
grown in this soil. Suitable for banana plantation, pulses, fruits and vegetables.

d. Lateritic Soils: Lateritic soils occupy 1 % of the state area. The laterite soils vary from deep
reddish to brown or black in colour. They are generally poor in organic matter and plant
nutrient. They are porous, medium to fine textured, acidic, poor in fertility and well drained.
Lateritic soils consist primarily of hydrated oxides of aluminium and iron. Lateritic soils are
typically more acidic than soils used for farming. It occurs in Srikakulam, Visakhapatnam,
East Godavari, Alluri Stiramaraju, Eluru, NTR, and Nellore and Kadapa districts . Soil used for
making bricks and tiles. Less fertile but applying organic fertilizers will help in Horticulture
cultivation crops like mango, cashew nut, tamarind can be grown.
e. The Coastal Sandy soils: The coastal sands are formed from sand stones and
quartzites, deep, course (sandy) textured and neutral. These soils are found all
across the coastline from Srikakulam to Tirupati. Andhra Pradesh 974 km of coast.
Around the coast coastal Sandy soils are present. The soils are of with more sand and little
alluvium.They are spread across 3 to 12 km of coastline.soils are saline due to Ocean
influence and not fertile.water table 5 to 15 feet below the ground surface. Soil is suitable
for rice and tobacco cultivation.Readily flooded during cyclones and tides mostly useless and
Barren with little vegetation.

Conclusion:
Andhra Pradesh state is bestowed with multiple soils, which enables conducive
environment for production of various crops throughout the year.

SOILS OF INDIA

India has varied relief features, landforms, climatic realms and vegetation types.
These have contributed in the development of various types of soils in India.

 On the basis of genesis, colour, composition and location, the soils of India have
been classified into: (i) Alluvial soils (ii) Black soils (iii) Red and Yellow soils (iv) Laterite soils
(v) Arid soils (vi) Saline soils (vii) Peaty soils (viii) Forest soils.

Soil is the top layer of earth surface made up of organic and inorganic materials. Soil
erosion is movement of soil from one place to another due to wind, water or some other
erosion agents. According to a 2015 report of Indian institute of remote sensing, 147 million
hectares of land is eroded in India. Every year India loses 68 billion rupees due to soil
erosion.

Factors controlling formation of soils

1. Parent material: When soils are very young they show strong links with the type of
parent rock. Also, in case of some limestone areas soils will show clear relation with the
parent rock. Parent material is a passive factor in soil formation.

2. Topography: It decides amount of exposure of a surface to sunlight and to

drainage. Soils will be thin on steep slopes and thick over flat upland areas. In middle
latitudes, North facing slopes with cool, moist conditions have different soils than South
facing soils.

3. Precipitation: Precipitation gives soil moisture content which makes the chemical
and biological activities possible which change composition of soil.
 4. Temperature: Chemical activity is increased in higher temperatures. That is why,
tropical soils show deeper profiles and in the frozen tundra regions soils contain largely
mechanically broken materials. Hot summer and low rainfall leads to black soil in TN
irrespective of parent rock.

5. Biological activity: Humus accumulates in cold climates as bacterial growth is slow.

In humid tropical, leaching is intense leaving very low humus content in the soil. Further,
bacteria (Rhizobium) fix gaseous nitrogen. Animals like ants, termites, earthworms, rodents
rework the soil up and down.

6. Time: Determines maturation of soils and profile development. Soils developing

from recently deposited alluvium or glacial till are considered young and they exhibit no
horizons or only poorly developed horizons.

Soil profile

1. Horizon A: It is the topmost zone, where organic materials have got incorporated
with the mineral matter, nutrients and water which are necessary for the growth of plants.

2. Horizon B: It is a transition zone between the horizon A and horizon C, and

contains matter derived from below as well as from above. It has some organic matter in it,
although the mineral matter is noticeably weathered.

3. Horizon C: It is composed of the loose parent material. This layer is the first stage
in the soil formation process and eventually forms the above two layers.

Soil is a mixture of parent rock material and some organic humus present in the
Earth. India is a land of diverse soil types, ranging from alluvial to mountain soils. The Indian
Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has classified Indian soils into eight types on the
basis of their formation, colour, composition and location.

Major Soil Types present in India:

 Alluvial soil: It is a depositional soil formed by silt deposited by Indo-Gangetic-

Brahmaputra rivers. It varies in nature from sandy loam to clay. It is generally rich in potash
but poor in phosphorus. The colour varies from light grey to ash grey and is suitable for a
wide range of crops, including rice, wheat, sugarcane, and cotton.

 Black soil is also known as the ‘Regur Soil’ or the ‘Black Cotton Soil’. It is generally
clayey, deep and impermeable. It shows a feature of ‘self-ploughing’. It is rich in lime, iron,
magnesia and alumina and also contain potash. But they lack in phosphorous, nitrogen and
organic matter. It is suitable for crops such as cotton, oilseeds, and sugarcane.

 Red and yellow soil wherein the soil develops a reddish colour due to a wide
diffusion of iron in crystalline and metamorphic rocks. It looks yellow when it occurs in a
hydrated form. These soils are generally poor in nitrogen, phosphorous and humus. They
are suitable for crops such as tea, coffee, spices, and fruits.

 Laterite soil develops due to intense leaching in areas with high temperature and
high rainfall. These soils are poor in organic matter, nitrogen, phosphate and calcium, while
iron oxide and potash are in excess. Hence, laterites are not suitable for cultivation;
however, are widely used as bricks in house construction.

 Arid soils range from red to brown in colour. They are generally sandy in structure
and saline in nature. Due to the dry climate, high temperature and accelerated evaporation,
they lack moisture and humus. Nitrogen is insufficient and the phosphate content is normal.
These soils are poor and contain little humus and organic matter. Suitable for crops such as
millets, pulses, and oilseeds.

 Saline soil is also known as Usara soil. It contains a larger proportion of sodium,
potassium and magnesium, and thus, is infertile, and does not support any vegetative
growth. Saline soils have more salts, largely because of dry climate and poor drainage. They
lack nitrogen and calcium.

 Peaty soil is found in the areas of heavy rainfall and high humidity, where large
quantities of dead organic matter accumulate. This gives a rich humus and organic content
which may go even up to 40-50 per cent. These soils are normally heavy and black in colour.

 Forest soils vary in structure and texture depending on the mountain environment
where they are formed. They are loamy and silty on valley sides and coarse-grained in the
upper slopes.

Spatial distribution of these soils in India:

 Alluvial soil: It covers about 40 per cent of the total area of the country and mainly
widespread in the northern plains and the river valleys. Also, in the peninsular region, they
are found in deltas of the east coast and in the river valleys.

 Black soil: It covers most of the Deccan Plateau which includes parts of
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and some parts of Tamil Nadu.

 Red and yellow soil: Red soil is found in the eastern and southern part of the
Deccan Plateau. Yellow and red soils are also found in parts of Odisha and Chhattisgarh and
in the southern parts of the middle Ganga plain.

 Laterite soil: They are found in the higher areas of the peninsular plateau such as
Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh and the hilly areas of Odisha and Assam.

 Arid soil: These are characteristically developed in western Rajasthan, which

exhibit characteristic arid topography.
  Saline soil: These are more widespread in western Gujarat, deltas of the eastern
coast and in Sunderbans of West Bengal.

 Peaty soil: It occurs widely in the northern part of Bihar, southern part of
Uttarakhand and the coastal areas of West Bengal, Odisha and Tamil Nadu.

 Forest soil: It is formed in the mountain ranges of Himalayas, Purvanchal, and

Sahaydri etc. where sufficient rainfall is available.

Conclusion

There is rapid change in the features of soils due to soil erosion, climate change and
also the change in the land usage pattern like Urbanization, excessive use of fertilizers.
Schemes like soil health cards, neem coated urea, paramparagat krishi vikas yojana, Zero
Budget Natural Farming… are essential to preserve the soils.

Andhra Pradesh's drainage system is part of the Peninsular drainage system, which
is older than the Himalayan River system. Andhra Pradesh is a riverine state with 40 major,
medium, and minor rivers.

The drainage system of Andhra Pradesh is a complex network of rivers and streams that
drain into the Bay of Bengal. The state has two major river systems, the Godavari and
the Krishna. The state also has numerous small rivers that contribute to the overall
drainage system.
Body:
The Godavari River - Southern Ganga:
o The Godavari originates in the Western Ghats near Nashik Maharashtra, It flows
first eastwards across the Deccan Plata and enters Andhra Pradesh.
o The river upon reaching the plains begins to widen out until it splits distributaries .
o It acts as a border between East and West Godavari districts and splits into 5
branches (north) namely Gouthami, Vashista, Vaintheya, Thulya, and Bhardwaja by farming
a huge delta and merges in the Bay of Bengal.
o Among these five north branches, Gouthami-Godavari near Yanam port merges into the
Bay of Bengal. The middle branch Vashista- Godavari merges into the sea near Narasapur.
The Southern branch Vaintheya Godavarialso merges into sea at Komaragiripatnam the
Fourth and fifth branches Thulya Godavari Bhardwaja Godavari merge into sea at
Bendamurulanka.
o In 1852, an English engineer named Sir Arthur Katan built a dam on river Godavari at
Dhawaleswaram. Polavaram project is being built on this river.
The Krishna River:
o The river Krishna originates in the Western Ghats near Mahabaleshwar in the state of
Maharashtra and empties into the Bay of Bengal at Hamasaladeevi in Andhra Pradesh on
the east coast.
o It flows through Maharashtra, Karnataka and Telangana states in eastern direction and
enters Andhra Pradesh. It is one of the longest rivers in India.
o The delta of this river is one of the most fertile regions in India and was the home to
ancient Satavahana and Ikshvaku Dynasty kings.
o Vijayawada is the largest city on the river Krishna.
o Tungabhadra is an important among its tributaries. They are Dindi, Pateru, Koyna, Varna,
Panchaganga, Musi, Bheema, Ghataprabha, Malaprabha and Munneru are other tributaries
of it.
o Sir Arthur Katan built a barrage on this river in 1852 at Vijayawada.
o One of the biggest projects of the country Nagarjuna Sagar, was built on this river
near Nandikonda. Srisailam hydroelectric power station was built on this river near
Srisailam.
o The Krishna River splits into two branches at Puligadda, 64kms down to Vijayawada and
combines as one stream 24km down from here. It again splits into three branches and
merges into the sea.
The Penna River:
o The river Penna rises in Nandidurga Hills (Mysore) in Chikballapur district of Karnataka
state and runs north and east through the states of Karnataka and enters Andhra Pradesh at
Hindupur.
o It flows through Anantapur, Kadapa, Nellore districts.
o It empties into the Bay of Bengal.
o The river basin lies in the rain shadow region of Eastern Ghats and receives 500 mm
average rainfall annually.
o Important ones among its sub-rivers of the Penna River are Jayamangala, Chitravathi,
Kunderu, Papagni. Cheyyeru, and Sagileru.
o Since it flows through Rayalaseema districts, its usefulness is very high as it receives less
rainfall. All the water sources in the basin are fully harnessed by constructing nearly 5
billion cubic meters capacity water storage reservoirs.
The Tungabhadra River:
o The Tungabhadra River is formed by the confluence of the Tunga River and the Bhadra
River at Koodli.
o There are many holy places all along the rivers: primarily temples of Saiva Cult on
the banks of the Bhadra and all the cults on the banks of the Tunga Sringeri, Sarada Peetam,
established by the Adi Shankaracharya is the most famous one on the left bank of the
Tunga, Manthralayam Sree Raghavendra Swamy Mutt is in Kurnool District .
The Vamsadhara River:
o The river originates in Jayapur hills in Odissa and enters into Srikakulam district at
Pathapatnam where it joins the Bay of Bengal at Kalingapatnam, Andhra Pradesh.
o This is a big river that starts in the Eastern Ghats and merges with Bay of Bengal.
o The river basin receives high annual average rainfall as magnitude 1400 mm.
o The Vamsadhara project is designed to meet the irrigation needs of North Easter Coastal
Andhra.
The Nagavali River:
o This is born in Rayagarh hills in Orissa and flows in Orissa for 96km and in Srikakulam
district for 112km before merges with Bay of Bengal at Mopasu.
o Ottigadda, Janjhavathi, Swamamukhi, Vedavathi are its tributaries.
o The river basin receives 1.000 millimetres average rain fall annually. It drains parts of the
Kalahandi, Rayagada and Koraput districts of Odisha and Srikakulam, Vizianagaram districts
of Andhra Pradesh.
The Mach Khand River:
o The Mach Khand River is a tributary of the Godavari in India born in the hills near Gudem
area in the Mudugal hills of Visakhapatnam District and nearby OndraGadda it becomes the
boundary between Andhra Pradesh and Odisha.
o Popular waterfall known as Duduma Falls is on this river.
o The Jalaput Dam is a hydroelectric dam built on the Machkund River. Electricity
produced here is being supplied to Visakhapatnam and other districts in Andhra Pradesh
state.
The Swarnamukhi River:
o The Swamamukhi is a river in southern Andhra Pradesh. The holy Hindutemples of
Tirumala and Srikalahasti are located in the river basin.
The Gundlakamma River:
o The Gundlakamma is a seasonal river that flows through the east central part of the state
of Andhra Pradesh. It originates in the Nallamalla Hills, an offshoot of the Eastern Ghats.
o Gundlakamma is the largest of all the rivers that originate from the Nallamalla Hills. A
15th-century dam built by the Gajapati kings straddles the river on its entry into the plains.
It is an earthen dam that plugs the river flows through.
Conclusion:
Drainage system of Andhra Pradesh is a vital component of the states geography and
economy. The proper management of the drainage system is crucial for the sustainable
development and prosperity of the state.
Drainage Patterns and Drainage Systems of India

Drainage: The flow of water through well-defined channels is known as ‘drainage’ and the
network of such channels is called a ‘drainage system’.

Drainage Pattern: It refers to the system of flow of surface water mainly through the forms
of rivers and basins.

The drainage system depends upon factors such as slope of land, geological structure,
amount of volume of water and velocity of water.

Types of Drainage Patterns

Dendritic Drainage Pattern:

 It is the most common form and resembles the branching pattern of tree roots.
 The dendritic pattern develops where the river channel follows the slope of the
terrain.
 The pattern develops in areas where the rock beneath the stream has no particular
structure and can be eroded equally easily in all directions.
 Tributaries join larger streams at acute angles (less than 90°).
 E.g. The rivers of the northern plains; Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra.

Parallel drainage pattern:

 It develops in regions of parallel, elongated landforms where there is a pronounced

slope to the surface.
 Tributary streams tend to stretch out in a parallel-like fashion following the slope of
the surface.
 E.g. The rivers originating in the Western Ghats; Godavari, Kaveri, Krishna, and
Tungabhadra.

Trellis Drainage Pattern:

 Trellis drainage develops in folded topography where hard and soft rocks exist
parallel to each other.
 Down-turned folds called synclines form valleys in which reside the main channel of
the stream.
 Such a pattern is formed when the primary tributaries of main rivers flow parallel to
each other and secondary tributaries join them at right angles.
  E.g. The rivers in the upper part of the Himalayan region; Indus, Ganga and
Brahmaputra.

Rectangular Drainage Pattern:

 The rectangular drainage pattern is found in regions that have undergone faulting.
 It develops on a strongly joined rocky terrain.
 Streams follow the path of least resistance and thus are concentrated in places
where exposed rock is the weakest.
 The tributary streams make sharp bends and enter the main stream at high angles.
 E.g. Streams found in the Vindhya mountain range; Chambal, Betwa and Ken.

Radial Drainage Pattern:

 The radial drainage pattern develops around a central elevated point and is common
to conically shaped features such as volcanoes.
 When the rivers originate from a hill and flow in all directions, the drainage pattern is
known as ‘radial’.
 E.g. The rivers originating from the Amarkantak range; Narmada and Son (tributary
of Ganga).

Centripetal Drainage Pattern:

 It is just the opposite of the radial as streams flow toward a central depression.
 During wetter portions of the year, these streams feed ephemeral lakes, which
evaporate away during dry periods.
 Sometimes, salt flats are also created in these dry lake beds as salt dissolved in the
lake water precipitates out of solution and is left behind when the water evaporates
away.
 E.g. Loktak lake in Manipur.

Drainage System of India

Himalayan Drainage System:

 Rivers of this system are fed both by melting of snow and precipitation and hence,
are perennial.
 These rivers form V-shaped valleys, rapids and waterfalls in their mountainous
course.
 While entering the plains, they form depositional features like flat valleys, ox-bow
lakes, flood plains, braided channels and deltas near the river mouth.

Indus River System:

 It is one of the largest river basins of the world.

  It is also known as the Sindhu and is the westernmost of the Himalayan rivers in
India.
 It originates from a glacier near Bokhar Chu in the Tibetan region in the Kailash
Mountain range.
 In Tibet, it is known as ‘Singi Khamban’; or Lion’s mouth.
 The Indus flows in India only through the Leh district in the Union Territory of
Ladakh.
 Important tributaries of the Indus are Sutlej, Ravi, Jhelum, Chenab (largest tributary
of Indus) and Beas.

Ganga River System:

 It rises in the Gangotri glacier near Gaumukh (3,900 m) in Uttarakhand where it is

known as Bhagirathi.
 At Devprayag, the Bhagirathi meets the Alaknanda; hereafter, it is known as the
Ganga.
 The Ganga enters the Northern plains at Haridwar.
 Ganga flows through the states of Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West
Bengal.
 Son is the major right bank tributary and the important left bank tributaries are
Ramganga, Gomati, Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi and Mahananda.
 Yamuna is the western most and the longest tributary of the Ganga and has its
source in the Yamunotri glacier.
 Ganga flows into the Bay of Bengal near the Sagar Island.

Brahmaputra River System:

 It is one of the largest rivers of the world and has its origin in the Chemayungdung
glacier (Kailash range) near the Mansarovar lake.
 In southern Tibet, it is known as the Tsangpo, which means ‘the purifier.’
 The river emerges from the foothills of Himalayas under the name of Siang or
Dihang.
 It enters India west of Sadiya town in Arunachal Pradesh.
 Its main left bank tributaries are Dibang or Sikang, Lohit, Burhi Dihing and Dhansari.
 Important right bank tributaries are the Subansiri, Kameng, Manas and Sankosh.
 In Bangladesh, it merges with the river Padma, which falls in the Bay of Bengal.

Peninsular Drainage System

 The peninsular rivers are characterised by fixed course, absence of meanders and
nonperennial flow of water.
 The drainage system is older than the Himalayan one.
 The Western Ghats running close to the western coast act as the water divide
between the major Peninsular rivers.
  Most of the major Peninsular rivers except Narmada and Tapi flow from west to
east.
 The other major river systems of the Peninsular drainage are Mahanadi, Godavari,
Krishna and Kaveri.

Narmada:

 It is the largest west flowing river of the peninsular region flowing through a rift
valley between the Vindhya (north) and the Satpura Range (south).
 It rises from Maikala range near Amarkantak in Madhya Pradesh.
 Major Tributaries of the river are Hiran, Orsang, Barna and Kolar.
 The Narmada basin covers parts of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Gujarat.
 The Sardar Sarovar Project has been constructed on this river.

Tapi:

 Another important westward flowing river, originates from the Betul district of
Madhya Pradesh in the Satpura ranges.
 It flows in a rift valley parallel to the Narmada but is much shorter in length.
 Its basin covers parts of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Maharashtra.

Mahanadi:

 It rises in Raipur district of Chhattisgarh and runs through Odisha to discharge its
water into the Bay of Bengal.
 53% of the drainage basin of this river lies in Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh,
while 47% lies in Odisha.
 Major tributaries: Seonath, Hasdeo, Mand, Ib, Jonking and Tel rivers.
 Its basin is bounded by the Central India hills on the north, by the Eastern Ghats on
the south and east and by the Maikala range on the west.

Godavari:

 It is the largest Peninsular river system and is also called the “Dakshin Ganga”.
 It rises in the Nasik district of Maharashtra and discharges its water into the Bay of
Bengal.
 Its tributaries run through the states of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
Odisha and Andhra Pradesh.
 Penganga, Indravati, Pranhita, and Manjra are its principal tributaries.

Krishna:

 Krishna is the second largest east flowing Peninsular river which rises near
Mahabaleshwar in Sahyadri.
 Koyna, Tungbhadra and Bhima are its major tributaries.
  It flows through the states Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh
before flowing into the Bay of Bengal.

Kaveri:

 Kaveri rises in Brahmagiri hills of Kodagu district in Karnataka.

 It is a sacred river of southern India.
 Its important tributaries are Arkavathi, Hemavathi, Bhavani, Kabini and Amravati.
 It flows in a southeasterly direction through the states of Karnataka, Kerala and
Tamil Nadu and drains into Bay of Bengal through Pondicherry.
INTERLINKING OF RIVERS:

In 1919, Arthur Cotton, the British chief engineer proposed a plan to interlink major rivers in
India to fasten the transport of goods and to address the water shortage issues. National
Water Development Agency (NWDA) has suggested the interlinking of rivers of the country.
It has two components: the Himalayan and the Peninsular components. From 2021 budget
the Ken-Betwa River Linking Project started.

Body: Need for interlinking:

 This will cut farmers dependence on monsoon rains by bringing millions of hectares
of cultivatable land under irrigation.
 Crop productivity would increase and so would revenues for the State.
 The river linking project will ease the water shortages in western and southern India
while mitigating the impacts of recurrent floods in eastern India.
 The Ganga Basin, Brahmaputra basin sees floods almost every year. In order to avoid
this, the water fromthese areas has to be diverted to other areas where there is
scarcity of water. This can be achieved by linking the rivers. There is a two-way
advantage with this – floods will be controlled, and scarcity of water will be reduced.
 Simultaneous floods and droughts continue to wreak havoc, destroying the lives and
livelihoods of millions.
 India needs clean energy to fuel its development processes, and river water can be
leveraged for this.
 Fulfilling water needs impact socioeconomic life of people which will help end
poverty.
 Need for interlinking of rivers to prevent inter-state water disputes.
 Potential benefits to transportation through navigation, as well as broadening
income sources in rural areas through fishing.

Challenges:

 Interlinking of rivers is a very expensive proposal. The amount required for these
projects is so huge that government will have to take loans from the foreign sources
which would increase the burden on the government and country will fall in a debt
trap.
 The river interlinking project will adversely affect land, forests, biodiversity, rivers
and the livelihood of millions of people.
 The Ken-Betwa link threatens about 200 sq. km of the Panna tiger reserve.
 Interlinking of rivers will lead to destruction of forests, wetlands and local water
bodies, which are major groundwater recharge mechanisms.
 Less than positive experience that other countries have, like diversion of Amu Darya
and the Syr Darya or the Australia’s experiments in its Murray Darling basin.
  It causes massive displacement of people. Huge burden on the government to deal
with the issue of rehabilitation of displaced people.
 Due to interlinking of rivers, there will be decrease in the amount of fresh water
entering seas and this will cause a serious threat to the marine life.
 The Shah committee pointed out that the linking of rivers will affect natural supply of
nutrients for agricultural lands through curtailing flooding of downstream areas.
 There are political challenges as well. Water transfer and water sharing are sensitive
subjects.
 If the glaciers don’t sustain their glacier mass due to climate change, the interlinking
project will have limited benefit.
 Usually, rivers change their course and direction in about 100 years and if this
happens after interlinking, then the project will not be feasible for a long run.

Conclusion: The River Linking project is a great challenge and an opportunity to address the
water issues arising out of climate change. The long-term solution to water scarcity lies in
making the River Linking project work by building a network of dams and canals across the
length and breadth of the country. However, inter-linking has to take place after a detailed
study so that it does not cause any problem to the environment and society.

OR

Inter-linking of Rivers is mission of this programme is to ensure greater equity in the

distribution of water by enhancing the availability of water in drought prone and rain-fed
area.

 The Indo-Gangetic rivers are perennial since they are fed by rains as well as the
glaciers from the Himalayas.
 The peninsular rivers in India are, however, not seasonal because they are rain-fed
mainly from the south-west Monsoons.
 Due to this, the Indo- Gangetic plains suffer from floods and the peninsular states
suffer from droughts.
 If this excess water can be diverted from the Plains to the Peninsula, the problem of
floods and droughts can be solved to a large extent.
 Hence, the interlinking of rivers will bring about an equitable distribution of river
waters in India.

On-going inter-linking projects:

✓ Ken-Betwa project is aimed at providing irrigation benefits to 9.08 lakh hectare farmers’
lands, drinking water supply for 62 lakh people, 103 MW of Hydro, and 27 MW of solar
power.

✓ The Par-Tapi-Narmada link project envisages transfer of surplus waters of rivers in

Maharashtra and South Gujarat to feed the command area of the Miyagam branch of
Narmada Canal. It will conserve water in Narmada dam, which will be taken to Saurashtra
and Kuch.

Advantages of river linking:

 The share of irrigated land can be increased by about 15 percent which will help
increase the productivity.
 15,000 km of river and 10,000 km of navigation will be developed which will reduce
the transportation cost.
 Large scale afforestation and about 3,000 tourist spots will be built.
 It will help in employment generation for landless farmers in rural areas.
 Interlinking will reduce the problems of drinking water.
 This project can reduce the problem of drought and flood because the water can be
stored or water can be transferred from water surplus area to the deficit.
 Ganga and the Brahmaputra region can get rid of floods that come every year with
the help of this project.

Limitations of river linking:

 As per NITI Aayog report, inter-linking of rivers may have far reaching impact
adverse impact on monsoon cycles and biodiversity and pose socio-economic
challenges
 The surrounding land will become swampy and will not be suitable for agriculture.
 The Par-Tapi-Narmada link project was widely opposed particularly by tribal
communities threatened with displacement and other adverse impacts.

✓ The Ken-Betwa link project has already become one of the most highly criticized projects
for its basic non-viability due to lack of surplus water in Ken River and loss of over 2.3 million
trees.

• Inter linking of rivers is an ambitious program to solve multiple problems but the
opportunity cost seems to be high because it is difficult to evaluate the damage done for
every individual projects. So, care should be taken such that it does not affect social,
economic and ecological effects.
What is Rock?

The earth’s crust is composed of rocks. A rock is an aggregate of one or more minerals. Rock
may be hard or soft and in varied colors.

For example: Granite is hard, soapstone is soft. Gabbro is black and quartzite can be milky
white.

Rocks do not have a definite composition of mineral constituents. Feldspar and quartz are
the most common minerals found in rocks. There are many different kinds of rocks which
are grouped under three families on the basis of their mode of formation.

Igneous Rocks: Igneous rock is formed by the solidification of magma and lava. This is also
known as the primary rock. Ex. Granite and Basalt etc.

Sedimentary Rocks: Sedimentary rocks are the result of deposition of fragments of rocks by
exogenous processes. This is also known as the secondary rocks. Ex: sandstone, limestone,
shale etc.

Metamorphic Rocks: Metamorphic Rocks formed from already-existing rocks that are
undergoing recrystallization. Tertiary rocks are another name for metamorphic rocks. Ex:
phyllite, schist, gneiss, quartzite and marble etc.

Indian rock system:

✓ Indian rock system can be categorised into the Archean rock system, Purana rock system,
Dravidian rock system and the Aryan rock system.
1.The Archaean Rock System:Rocks that were created before the Cambrian system.

The rock system of the Archaean includes:

a.Archaean Schists and Gneisses

 The mineral makeup of gneiss ranges from granite to gabbro. Schists, which are
primarily crystalline, contain minerals like mica, talc, hornblende, chlorite, etc.
 These are the rocks of Oldest (pre-Cambrian) rocks [were formed approximately 4
billion years ago].
 When rocks formed, the earth’s surface was extremely hot and the molten lava
solidified.
 They are referred to as the “Basement Complex” and serve as the foundation for
future layers.
 Since they are volcanic in origin, azoic or non-fossiliferous, foliated (composed of
thin sheets), completely crystalline, and plutonic intrusions (volcanic rocks found
deep inside).

b.Dharwar System

 The Earth has formed 4 billion years ago, less than a billion years ago.
 Elevated metamorphic sedimentary rock system. [developed as a result of the
metamorphism of Archaean gneisses and schists]
 They are the first rocks that undergo metamorphism.
 Found in great quantity in the Karnataka district of Dharwar.
 The most significant rocks in terms of economics are those that contain precious
minerals like high-grade iron ore, manganese, copper, lead, gold, etc.

2.Purana Rock System:Formed about 1400 – 600 million years ago.Includes the Vindhyan
System and the Cuddapah System, two divisions.
a.Cuddapah System

The Cuddapah district of Andhra Pradesh is where outcrops can be best seen. Ores of iron,
manganese, copper, cobalt, nickel, etc. can be found in these rocks. Large limestone
resources of cement grade are present there.

b.Vindhyan System

The massive Vindhyan mountains are where this system gets its name. The system
comprises 4000 m-thick layers of old sedimentary rocks on top of an Archaean basis. They
are predominantly fossiliferous. The Deccan trap has a significant part of this belt covered.

Panna and Golconda diamonds were mined in the diamond-bearing regions of the
Vindhayan system. It lacks metalliferous minerals but is rich in limestone, clean glassmaking
sand, durable stones, and beautiful stones.

3.Dravidian Rock System:

 They are Palaeozoic in nature and Formed between 600 and 300 million years ago.
 They are extremely uncommon in peninsular India and are only found in the Extra
Peninsular region (the Himalayas and Ganga plain). [The term “Dravidian” does not
imply that they are indigenous to South India]
 It has many fossils.
 The Dravidian system includes the rocks from the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian,
Devonian, and Carboniferous periods. (None of these is significant; only the
Carboniferous is.)

a.Carboniferous rocks

 Approximately 350 million years ago, limestone, shale, and quartzite made up the
majority of the Carboniferous rocks.
 Limestones from the Upper Carboniferous period make up Mount Everest.
 The Carboniferous era saw the beginning of coal formation.
 In geology, carboniferous refers to coal-bearing. [The majority of the coal discovered
in India is not from the Carboniferous era; excellent coal from the Great Lakes region
in the USA, the United Kingdom, and the Ruhr region isfrom the Carboniferous era]

4.Aryan Rock System:Upper Carboniferous to the recent. It also has different types.

a.Gondwana System

 The Gondwana System gets its name from the first inhabitants of Telangana and
Andhra Pradesh, known as the Gonds.
 They are deposits that were formed in synclinal troughs on the surface of an old
plateau.
 The loaded troughs sank as the sediments built up.
  Terrestrial plants and animals flourished in these troughs where fresh water and
sediment accumulated.
 This has occurred since the Permian era (250 million years ago)

b.Jurassic System

A thick succession of shallow water deposits was created in Rajasthan and Kuchchh as a
result of the marine incursion that occurred in the later Jurassic period. In Kuchchh, you can
find coral limestone, sandstone, conglomerates, and shales. Between Guntur and
Rajahmundry, on the Peninsula’s eastern shore, there is another transgression.

c.Deccan Trap

 Deccan Traps were created by volcanic eruptions that occurred over a substantial
area of Peninsular India between the end of the Cretaceous and the beginning of the
Eocene.
 Fissures released basaltic lava that spread over a vast area of around 10 lakh sq km.
 These volcanic deposits are known as “traps” in Swedish, which means “stair” or
“step” because of their flat top and steep sides.
 The Deccan Trap is now approximately half the size it once was due to weathering
and erosion (denudation), a process that has been occurring for millions of years.
 About 5 lakh square kilometres of the Kuchchh, Saurashtra, Maharashtra, Malwa
plateau and northern Karnataka are currently covered by the Deccan Trap.
 The Deccan Traps are 3,000 metres thick in the west, 600–800 metres thick in the
south, 800 metres thick in Kuchchh, and barely 150 metres thick in the east.
 The long-term weathering of these rocks produced the “regur,” or black cotton soil.

d.Rocks of the Tertiary System:Between the Eocene and Pliocene eras, these rocks were
created. The Himalayan mountain range has grown in the following ways:

 The Oligocene period saw the formation of the Great Himalayas.

 The Miocene era saw the formation of the Lesser Himalayas.
 The Pliocene and Upper Pliocene epochs saw the formation of shiwaliks.
 Eocene and Oligocene-era structures in Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Assam contain
mineral oil.
 The Tertiary epoch has been divided into four temporal sections: the Eocene,
Oligocene, Miocene, and Pliocene.

e.Rocks of the Quarternary System:These rocks can be found in the Ganges and Indus River
plains.

The Pleistocene and Holocene epochs are separated temporally into two portions that make
up the Quarternary epoch.
The term “Bangar” refers to an old alluvial soil that was produced during the Upper and
Middle Pleistocene.

At the conclusion of the Pleistocene epoch, alluvial soil production started, and it is
currently ongoing in the current Holocene epoch. It is called “khadar.”

The valley in Kashmir was created during the Pleistocene epoch.

A lake once occupied this valley. The current form (valley), known as “kareva,” was created
as a result of the constant deposition of the earth.

The Thar Desert is where Pleistocene-era deposits can be discovered. The ocean once
contained the “Rann of Kachchh.” In the Pleistocene and Holocene eras, sedimentary
sediments filled it.

ConclusionThus, rocks systems play a vital role in not just as an economical sense but it also
carries a crucial information about the evolution of our planet geography and its formation.

MINERALS: Minerals are the naturally occurring substances of organic and inorganic origin
having definite chemical and physical properties. Generally, minerals are found in ores.
MINERALS OF AP:AP is well known globally for variety of rocks & minerals (particularly
industrial minerals) and called Ratnala Garbha Minerals form a major contributor to the
economic growth of the State (50% of non tax revenue for 2018- 19)

The State is a house for various minerals specifically Crude Oil & Natural Gas, Barytes,
Bauxite, Heavy Mineral Beach Sand, Manganese, Limestone, Dolomite, Quartz, Feldspar,
Silica Sand, Semiprecious Stones, Ball Clay, Laterite, Iron Ore, Gold and Diamonds etc

Mining hubs in AP
Major Minerals

Heavy Mineral Beach Sand found in the districts of Srikakulam, Vizianagaram,

Vishakapatnam, East & West Godavari, Krishna which accounts for 30% of the India’s
reserves. Bauxite found in Vishakapatnam and East Godavari districts accounts for 17% of
the India’s reserves, Lime stone majorly found in Kurnool, Kadapa, Guntur, Ananthapur
accounts for 9% reserves Diamond majorly found in Ananthapur, Kurnool, Krishna accounts
for 5% of reserves

Minor Minerals

Barytes found in the districts of Kadapa, Ananthapur and Nellore accounts for 94% of the
overall India’s reserves. Calicite and Mica approximately accounts for each 40% reserves
found in Vishakapatnam and Nellore districts respectively. Krishna Godavari basin areas
emerged as new p otential zones for hydrocarbons, especially natural gas. State known for
exclusive granite varieties- black galaxy, steel grey, ocean blue, moon white etc State
contains uranium deposits in Kadapa district Dharwar meta sediments contains rich deposits
of iron ore confining to Bellary reserves and surroundings of Anathapuram. Mica in Nellore,
lead in Guntur, Lime stone in Guntur, Bauxite in Visakhapatnam are available in abundance

Environmental impact OF MINING

Environmental Pollution:The Regular piped Gas leaks in Katrenikona region of East Godavari
district damages the mangrove forest ecosystem around it

Creates panic the densely populated region

Loss of Biodiversity: The Ecological Imbalances caused by improper mining activities will lead
to the natural Hazards.Mining activities around Sechachalam and Nallamalla causes severe
ecological damage

Issue of uranium mining in Kadapa district (Thummalapalle)

Water Pollution: Presence of heavy metals in the Uddanam region of Srikakulam causes
chronic Kidney disease that lead to the death of 4500 people during last decade.
Contaminated with high particulate matter (PM10):The industrial cluster Tadipatri,
Raidurg,Hindupur of Anantapur district are in highly polluting RED category of air quality
caused by cement and mines industries

Measures taken

 State is focusing on inventory of mineral resources, key issues of legislation,

objective and strategies in tune with the National Mineral Policy for accelerating
growth leading to overall development of the mining sector.
 Main aim of State Mineral Policy is to serve as a guiding force to translate the State's
mineral potential into reality with eco-friendly and sustainable mining
 Mining Surveillance System (MSS) for Minor Minerals:To identify encroachments and
mining outside the lease areas, thereby curb illegal mining activity, which causes
revenue loss to the state government as well as significant environmental impact on
the mining areas.
 CCTV cameras were installed at check posts for live monitoring of Mineral
Transportation
 Star Rating for Minor Minerals
 Use of Technology for monitoring of the leases
 Geo Referencing of the leases -Mines Surveillance System (MSS) has been
implemented for all major minerals leases.
 CCTV Cameras were installed at checkposts for live monitoring of Mineral
Transportation.
 Implementation of Drone surveys for 3D Mine Mapping to monitor mines
production and mineral stock
 Golden Master Database for all existing lease in the state
 Automated e-permit system

Initiatives taken to counter gaps

 AP Motor Vehicle Tracking Services (APMVTS) is an integrated vehicle tracking

system for all mineral carrying vehicles
 Only vehicles fitted with GPS devices can be issued an e-permit for carrying minerals
from the source to a pre-defined destination in a predetermined time frame
 Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS) survey is done to precisely earmark
lease boundaries thereby curbing illegal mining activity
 Establishment of MERiT (Mineral Exploration, Research and Innovation Trust)
Natural vegetation refers to a plant community, which has grown naturally without human
aid and has been left undisturbed by humans for a long time

Factor affecting the natural vegetation distributions and formations:

Land: Land affects natural vegetation directly and indirectly. Natural vegetation is different
in mountainous, plain, dry, and wet regions. For example, Undulating and rough terrains are
areas where grassland and woodlands develop and give shelter to a variety of wildlife.

Soil: Different Types of soil provide different types of vegetation. Sandy soil of desert
support cactus and Thorny brushes. Wet, Marshy, delta soil support mangrove, and deltaic
vegetation.

Temperature: Different forests are found in different types of temperatures. For examples,

 tropical forest found where more than 24 degrees mean annual temperature.
 Subtropical forest; 17 to 24 degrees centigrade.
 Temperate; 7 to 17-degree centigrade
 Alpine vegetation: below 7 degrees centigrade.

Photoperiod (sunlight): Duration of sunlight is different at different locations due to

differences in latitude, altitudes, season on the duration of days. The tree grows faster in
summer due to the longer duration of sunlight. In the southern slopes of the Himalayas, the
light period is longer than in the northern slopes of the Himalayas, so the southern part of
the Himalayas has dense vegetation and rich wildlife.
Altitude: When elevation rises, so does the distribution of flora, which is comparable to that
seen as latitude rises. In general, ‘altitude mirrors latitude,’ and there is a strong correlation
between latitudinal and altitudinal climatic zonation, as well as natural vegetation.

Precipitation: Areas of heavy rainfall have more dense vegetation as compared to areas of
less rainfall. For examples,

 The southern slope of the Himalayan is more vegetation as compared to the

northern slope of vegetation.
 The western slope of western ghats has more vegetation as compared to the eastern
slope.

Major types of vegetation may be identified in our country is as follows:

✓ Tropical Evergreen Forests:

These forests are found in the Western Ghats and in the islands of Lakshadweep, Andaman
and Nicobar, as well as in upper parts of Assam and Tamil Nadu. They typically receive over
200 cm of rainfall per year and are characterized by trees that can reach up to 60 metres in
height.

The vegetation is abundant and includes trees, shrubs, and creepers giving it a multi-layered
structure. There is no definite time for trees to shed their leaves. As such, these forests
appear green all the year round.

Some of the commercially important trees of this forest are ebony, mahogany, rosewood,
rubber and cinchona. Animals such as elephants, monkeys, lemurs, deer, rhinoceros, birds,
bats, sloths, scorpions, and snails can be found in these forests.

✓ Tropical Deciduous Forests:

The monsoon forests of India are the most widespread and consist of moist and dry
deciduous forests. These forests are found in the eastern part of the country (north-eastern
states, foothills of the Himalayas, Jharkhand, West Orissa and Chhattisgarh) and on the
eastern slopes of the Western Ghats.

Teak is the most dominant species, with other commercially important species including
bamboos, sal, shisham, sandalwood, khair, kusum, arjun and mulberry. Dry deciduous
forests are found in areas with rainfall between 100 cm and 70 cm, mostly in the rainier
parts of the peninsular plateau and the plains of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. Common animals
found in these forests include lions, tigers, pigs, deer and elephants, with a wide variety of
birds, lizards, snakes and tortoises.

✓ Tropical Thorn Forests and Scrubs:

In regions with less than 70 cm of rainfall, the natural vegetation consists of thorny trees
and bushes. This type of vegetation is found in the north-western part of the country
including semi-arid areas of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Uttar
Pradesh and Haryana.

Acacias, palms, euphorbias and cacti are the main plant species. Trees are scattered and
have long roots penetrating deep into the soil in order to get moisture. The stems are
succulent to conserve water. Leaves are mostly thick and small to minimize evaporation.
These forests give way to thorn forests and scrubs in arid areas. In these forests, the
common animals are rats, mice, rabbits, fox, wolf, tiger, lion, wild ass, horses and camels.

✓ Montane Forests:

At increasing altitudes, there is a succession of natural vegetation belts from tropical to

tundra regions. Between 1000-2000m, wet temperate forests with broad-leaf trees
dominate, while conifers like pine, deodar, silver fir, spruce and cedar are found between
1500-3000m.

At higher elevations, temperate forests and grasslands give way to Alpine vegetation with
silver fir, junipers, pines and birches, merging into Alpine grasslands and tundra vegetation.
Common animals found include Kashmir stag, spotted dear, wild sheep, jack rabbit, Tibetan
antelope, yak, snow leopard, squirrels, Shaggy horn wild ibex, bear and rare red panda,
sheep and goats.

✓ Mangrove Forests:

The mangrove tidal forests are found in the areas of coasts influenced by tides. Mud and silt
get accumulated on such coasts.

Dense mangroves are the common varieties with roots of the plants submerged under
water. The deltas of the Ganga, the Mahanadi, the Krishana, the Godavari and the Kaveri are
covered by such vegetation. In the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta, Sundari trees are found,
which provide durable hard timber.

Palm, coconut, Keora, agar, also grow in some parts of the delta. Royal Bengal Tiger is the
famous animal in these forests. Turtles, crocodiles, gharials and snakes are also found in
these forests.

• In conclusion, the diversity of climatic conditions across India has led to a wide range of
natural vegetation, with different species of plants living in association with one another in
different environments.

 There is no precise national definition of 'forest' in India at the moment.

 States are in charge of defining what constitutes a forest.
 The T.N. Godavarman Thirumulkpad vs the Union of India decision of the Supreme
Court in 1996 established the states' right to define forests.
 The Supreme Court decided that the word "forest" must be interpreted in
accordance with its "dictionary definition."
 Forests are included in the Concurrent List in the (Seventh Schedule) of the
Constitution of India.
 Article 51 A (g) of the Constitution states that it shall be the fundamental duty of
every citizen to protect and improve the natural environment including forests and
Wildlife.
 Article 48 A in the Directive Principles of State policy, mandates that the State shall
endeavor to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and
wildlife of the country.
 Key Findings of ISFR 2021-17TH BIENNIAL ASSESSMENT OF INDIAN FORESTS BY FSI
UNDER MOEFCC
 The Total Forest and Tree cover is 24.62% of the geographical area of the country.
 The Total Forest cover is 7,13,789 sq km which is 21.71% of the geographical area of
the country.
 The Tree cover is 2.91% of the geographical area of the country.
  As compared to ISFR 2019 the current assessment shows an increase of:
 0.28% of forest and tree cover put together, at the national level.
 Forest Cover: 0.22%
 Tree Cover: 0.76%
 Change in Recorded forest Area/Green Wash (RFA/GW) as compared to previous
assessment of 2019.
 Forest Cover within the RFA/GW: A slight increase of 31 sq km.
 Forest Cover outside the RFA/GW: There is an increase of 1,509 sq km.
 The top five states in terms of increase in forest cover:
 Andhra Pradesh>Telangana>Odisha>Karnataka>Jharkhand.
 Forest cover in the hill districts is 40.17% of the total geographical area of these
districts. A decrease of 902 sq km (0.32%) in 140 hill districts of the country.
 The total forest cover in the tribal districts is 37.53% of the geographical area of
these districts.
 The current assessment shows a decrease of 655 sq km of forest cover inside the
RFA/GW in the tribal districts and an increase of 600 sq km outside.
 Total forest cover in the North-Eastern region is 64.66% of its geographical area. The
current assessment shows a decrease of forest cover to the extent of 1,020 sq km
(0.60%) in the region.
 Mangrove cover: The Mangrove cover in the country has increased by 0.34% as
compared to the previous assessment.
 Total Carbon Stock: The total carbon stock in forests is estimated as 7,204.0 million
tonnes an increase of 79.4 million tonnes since 2019.
 Forest Prone to Fire: The analysis reveals that 22.27% of the forest cover is prone to
forest fire.
 Bamboo Forests: The total bamboo bearing area of the country is estimated as
1,49,443 sq km. There is a decrease of 10,594 sq km in the bamboo bearing area as
compared to the estimate of ISFR 2019.

AP FOREST: The State has reported extent of recorded forest area (RFA) 37,258 sq. km
which is 22.86 % of its geographical area. The reserved, protected, and unclassed forests are
85.78 % and 13.60% and 0.62 % of the recorded forest area in the State respectively.

Body:

Forests in Andhra Pradesh are categorized in five types moist deciduous, dry deciduous,
thorny scrub, coastal forests, and mangroves.

1. Moist deciduous forests:

  Moist deciduous are spread across in those areas with 125 to 200 cm of mean annual
rainfall experienced in Srikakulam, Visakhapatnam, and agency areas of East
Godavari districts.
 The trees that grow in lush quantities in these forests arc Indian Kino, Indian Nettle
tree, Saffron teak and Rose wood.

2. Dry deciduous forests: Dry deciduous forests grow in such of those areas with 65 to 100
cm of mean annual rainfall usually recorded in YSR Kadapa and Kurnool districts and parts of
Chittoor and Sri Potti Sriramulu Nellore districts.

 The important trees that grow in these forests are Red Sanders, Indian nettle tree,
Elephant Apple, Indian Kino, Indian Black wood, Oil Calce tree, Silk Cotton tree,
Neem, Teak, Bamboo, White Siris tree, Parrot tree, etc.
 A sufficient amount of timber and other forest products is available from these
forests.

3. Thorny scrub forests:

 Trees of moderate height that grow in drought conditions, with leaf modifications to
thorns to reduce transpiration, are dominant in this type of forests.
 They are particularly found in YSR Kadapa, Kurnool, Chittoor and Anantapur districts.
acacia, bamboo, ziziphus, etc are the most common plants found in these forests.

4. Coastal forests:

 Evergreen forests but small in size, bushes grown in sandy soils of coastal zone is
called coastal forests.
 Marry gold, Casuarina, other twines, and creepers are the common plants that grow
in this region.

5. Mangroves:

 A diverse group of salt tolerant plants that grow in estuaries of Godavari and Krishna
in East Godavari, Krishna, and Guntur districts.
 These forests are always affected by tides and therefore called as Tidal forests.
 Stilted mangrove, Bruguiera cylindrical, Urada, round and White Mangrove, etc are
commonly growing trees.
 They have modified aerial roots that grow upward for want of oxygen. Most of these
forests are used as fuel wood.

Conclusion: Andhra Pradesh is a state in India that is rich in biodiversity and has a variety of
different types of forests. These forests are home to a diverse range of flora and fauna and
are an important source of livelihood for many local communities. The state is also home to
several wildlife sanctuaries, which provide critical habitat and protection for many
endangered species.
Benefits from dense forests are numerous Tangible benefits like Timber, Bamboo, Fuel
wood, Fodder, Non-Timber Forest Products etc are quantifiable.

Intangible benefits like maintenance of ecological balance, conservation of soil and

moisture, regulating the water flow, sequestering carbon-dioxide from the atmosphere etc.,
are not quantified but are of great significance

Forest Produce Departmental Extraction of Timber, Fuel and Pulp Wood, Faggot Wood, Long
Bamboo and Bamboo Industrial Cuts (BIC) from natural forests as well as plantations

Forest products in the state include Red Sander, Timber, Bamboo, Firewood & Charcoal etc

The income accrued from forestry sector in the State was Rs.15.8266 crore in 2019-20

Measures taken

 Social Forestry-> Vanamahostavam-Vanam-Manam, Prakruti Pilustondi ,Karthika

Vanamahostavam
 Eco-Tourism->Nagaravanams,Vana Vihari
 Neeru Pragathi Udyamam -> Soil and moisture conservation
 Mahathma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme -> Neeru Chettu
 Various Plantation activities, SMC works, Awareness Camps for Capacity Building are
being executed by FDAs through the Vana Samrakshna Samithies.
 Dr.Y.S.RajaSekhara Reddy SmruthiVanam in Nallakalva Village of Atmakur Mandal.
  Jagananna pacchatoranam—20cr seedlings every year
 Soil and Moisture conservation works
1. Mini Percolation Tanks (10mx10mx1m)
2. Check Dams, Rock Fill Dams
3. De-silting Percolation Tanks

Based on the latest satellite data (2018), Forest Cover in the State is 29,137.40 sq km which
is 17.88 % of the State's geographical area.

⮚ In terms of forest canopy density, the State has 1.22% under Very Dense Forest (VDF),
8.56% under Moderately Dense Forest (MDF) and 8.10 under Open Forest (OF).

⮚ Apart from this, 5.07% of the land is covered by scrub vegetation.

⮚ East Godavari district with 39.99% of forest cover stands first in the state and Anantapur
district with just about 5.22% stands last in the state (Before reorganisation of districts).

⮚ The reserved, protected, and unclassed forests are 85.78% and 13.60% and 0.62% of the
recorded forest area in the State respectively.

Recent trends:

 ⮚ AP stood first in the country in increasing forest cover, followed by its neighbour
Telangana.
 ⮚ According to the 17th India State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2021 released by Union
Minister for Environment, Andhra Pradesh has recorded an increase of 647 sq km of
forest cover.
 ⮚ However, the rise in forest cover is less compared to 990.40 sq km in 2019.
 ⮚ The total mangrove cover in the state has increased to 405 sq km, which accounts
for
 8.11% of the total 4,992 sq km in the country.
 ⮚ The total carbon stock of forests has raised to 230.22 million tons, which is 3.20%
of the total forest carbon of the country.

State Forest development agency:

1. SFDA is a registered society under the Andhra Pradesh Societies Registration Act, 2001
and functions as a federation of Forest Development Agencies (FDAs), constituted at
territorial/ wildlife forest divisions level.

2. The SFDA undertakes all core and allied activities involving policy support, programme
implementation, project execution etc. that are required for regeneration, development
and/or management of notified forests and adjoining areas inter alia with people’s
participation, including implementation of Centrally Sponsored/Central Sector Forestry
schemes.
3. The major schemes implemented through SFDA are those under the National
Afforestation Programme (NAP), National Green India Mission (GIM) and National medicinal
Plants board (NMPB).

4. In addition to forestry and allied activities, the SFDA also undertakes such other activities,
which promote development of forest-dependent or forest fringe village populations so as
to secure their willing and proactive cooperation in enhancing the green cover in the state
of Andhra Pradesh.

5. The proposals formulated by the FDAs (district level) are forwarded to the SFDA, which in
turn, scrutinizes and approves the proposals.

6. A State level summary statement of all approved FDA project proposals are then
submitted to the Ministry of Environment Forests & Climate Change, Govt. of India, which
finally accords approval of the SFDA's Plan.

7. The approved plans/Schemes executed by the FDAs are monitored by the SFDA at the
State level.

Jagannana Pachhatoranam :

1. The geographical area of Andhra Pradesh State is 1,62,968 sq.km. (ISFR2019). The
Recorded Forest area in the state is 37,258 sq.km which is about 23% of the total
geographical area.

2. The Government of Andhra Pradesh is keen to increase the green cover in the State to
33% of the Geographical area of the state in conformity with the National Forest Policy,
1988 by involving all the stake holders including line departments, Industries, NGOs, Public
etc.

3. In order to achieve the vision, a massive afforestation programme of planting nearly 20

crore seedlings are carried under the “JAGANANNA PACHHATHORANAM” every year.

4. The programme commences with the inauguration of Vanamahostavam by the Chief

Minister at state capital every year in the month of June/July with the onset of monsoon.

5. It is celebrated in a befitting manner to create large extents of green cover in the State
duly involving all Departments of the Government, Vana Samarakshana Samithi members,
Self-help groups, Industries, students, public etc.

6. The same day, simultaneously at district level also Vanamahostavam is inaugurated by the
respective Districtin- charge Ministers by involving all public representatives of the district.

7. About 20 crore seedlings of fruit, fodder, shade bearing and timber yielding species viz.
Neredu, Chinta, Ravi, Marri, Kanuga, Vepa, Teak, Red Sanders, Casurina, Bamboo etc., are
planted in and around forest lands, degraded lands, vacant government lands, government
offices, schools & college premises, agricultural lands and along canals, roads, railway lines
etc.

8. The services of Village/Ward secretariats and Village/Ward volunteers are utilized for
distribution, planting, and protection of planted seedlings.

Explain the objectives and components of social forestry

mentioned by National
commission on agriculture.

The term was first used in 1976 by the national commission on agriculture. Social forestry
means the management and protection of forest and afforestation of barren and deforested
lands with the purpose of helping environmental, social and rural development.

The objectives of social forestry adopted by the National commission on agriculture :

1. To fulfil the basic requirements such as fuel, fodder, small timber, supplementary food
and income from surplus forest products to the rural area and replacement of cow dung.

2. To provide employment opportunities and to increase family income considerable for

alleviating poverty.

3. To develop cottage industries in rural areas.

4. To organize them in their struggle for socio-economic development and to integrate

economic gains in the distribution of their benefits to the rural society.

5. To provide congenial environment and preserve their cultural identity as their life related
to forest.

6. To indoctrinate the value of village level self-sufficiency and self-management in the

production as well as distribution of forest products with social justice.

7. To form the villagers into a well-knit community and an effective functional unit of
society, which can shape its own destiny.

8. To play a vital role in the reclamation of degraded lands, conservation of soil and
moisture, improvement of agricultural production and prevention of environmental
deterioration.

9. To increase the natural beauty of the landscape, create recreational forests for the
benefit of rural and urban population.

10. To protection of agricultural fields against wind speed and natural calamity.

11. To solve the food problem of the rural area to a great extent. Certain edible fruits like
cashew, mango, coconut and palms have high nutritional value and grow under social
forestry programme.
12. To utilize the available land according to its carrying capacity.

Components of Social Forestry: The components of social forestry defined by the

Commission include farm forestry, extension forestry, reforestation in degradedforests and
recreation forestry:

Farm forestry: Farm forestry is the name given to programmes which promote commercial
tree growing by farmers on their own land. Farm forestry is the practice of forestry in all its
aspects in and the around the farms or village lands integrated with other farm operations.

Extension forestry: Extension forestry is the practice of forestry in areas devoid of tree
growth and other vegetation situated in places away from the conventional forest areas
with the object of increasing the area under tree growth.

Mixed forestry: Mixed forestry is the practice of forestry for raising fodder grass with
scattered fodder trees, fruit trees and fuel wood trees on suitable wastelands, panchayat
lands and village commons.

Rehabilitation of degraded forests: The degraded area under forests needs immediate
attention for ecological restoration and for meeting the socioeconomic needs of the
communities living in and around such areas.

Recreation forestry: Recreation forestry is the practice of forestry with the object of raising
flowering trees and shrubs mainly to serve as recreation forests for the urban and rural
population. This type of forestry is alsoknown as Aesthetic forestry, which is defined as the
practice of forestry with the object of developing or maintaining a forest of high scenic
value.

Conclusion: Government initiatives like MGNREGA, natural regeneration and enrichment of

forests, van Mahotsav are promoting social forestry. It helped in conservation and
afforestation of forest.

Issues of feminisation in the agriculture

In 1991, for every 10 men in the agricultural workforce, there were four women, then by
2011, there were six women for every 10 men. The phenomenon of increased participation
by women, particularly working as Agri-labourers, is referred to as the process of
feminisation of the Indian Agri-workforce.

Issues of feminisation of agriculture:

1. Access to land: Lack of access to land is the major challenge faced by women in Indian
agriculture. As per Census Agricultural Census (2015-16), out of a total 146 million
operational holdings, the percentage share of female operational holders is only 13.87%.
2. Access to credit: A lack of ownership of land does not allow women farmers to approach
banks for institutional loans as banks usually consider land as collateral.

3. Access to agricultural inputs: When compared to men, women generally have less access
to resources and modern inputs (seeds, fertilizers, pesticides) to make farming more
productive.

4. Access to technology: Mechanization of agriculture has resulted in confinement of

women in low paying traditional works. Further, most farm machinery is difficult for women
to operate.

5. Access to education, training and extension services: Access to education, agricultural

training and extension services for women has been predominantly low as compared to
men.

6. Managing different roles: In addition to intensive work on the farm all day, women are
also expected to fulfil domestic obligations like cooking, child rearing, water collection, fuel
wood gathering, household maintenance etc.

7. Wage: Despite more work for longer hours when compared to male farmers, women
farmers have lower wage rates and at times remain unpaid.

8. Marketing: Small and marginal farmers in India lack adequate access to marketing
facilities due to lack of basic infrastructure like market yards, roads and transportation, and
storage including freezers and presence of middlemen. Additional constraints for women
include seclusion, lack of literacy, knowledge, and information. Further, women have no
representation in agricultural marketing committees and other similar bodies.

9. Feminization of poverty: Women lack viable livelihood alternatives, and are forced to
undertake farm activities that have been left by men due to agrarian distress. According to
scholars, feminization of agriculture in India is actually “feminization of agrarian distress” or
can also be termed as “feminization of poverty”.

10. Violence: Violence and sexual harassment at workplace is a major issue faced by women
agricultural labours and cultivators in India which mostly goes unreported.

11. Health and Occupational Hazards: Women face health hazards in the cultivation of many
crops and plantations due to lack of training, lack of protective gears and long working
hours. Lack of nutritional security further perpetuates health issues.

Measures taken:

1. The government has earmarked at least 30% of the budget allocation for women
beneficiaries in all ongoing schemes/programmes and development activities.
2. Women centric activities have been initiated to ensure benefits of various beneficiary-
oriented programs/schemes reach them.

3. The government has been focusing on women self-help group (SHG) to connect them to
micro-credit through capacity building activities and to provide information and ensuring
their representation in different decisionmaking bodies.

4. Since, most farmers including women farmers are marginal farmers, the government has
proposed that crop land holdings must be consolidated to reap the benefits of agricultural
mechanisation including enhanced productivity, promote the rental model of farm
machinery and reduce the cost of operations.

5. Recognizing the critical role of women in agriculture, the Ministry of Agriculture and
Farmers Welfare has declared 15th October of every year as Women Farmer’s Day.

Conclusion: The agriculture sector provides an opportunity for female economic

empowerment. Yet, this potential remains unutilised due to various challenges that can be
addressed via education, skill development, encouraging technological adoption and digital
literacy. These can improve women workforce’s efficiency, profits, awareness, purchasing
power.

LIVESTOCK INDIA Livestock sector plays an important role in India. India has vast livestock
resources with 56.7% of the world’s buffaloes, 12.5% cattle, 2.4% camel and 3.1% poultry
(2nd largest poultry market in the world). Livestock sector contributes 4.11% of GDP and
25.6% of total Agriculture GDP.

Advantages:

Income: Livestock is a source of subsidiary income for many families in India who are
engaged in agriculture. Cows and buffaloes provide regular income to the livestock farmers
through sale of milk. Animals like sheep and goat serve as sources of income during
contingencies.

Employment: A large number of people in India being less literate and unskilled depend
upon livestock rearing for their livelihoods. It provides employment to about 8.8 % of the
population in India.

Food: The livestock products such as milk, meat and eggs are an important source of animal
protein to the members of the livestock owners, who otherwise wouldn’t be able to afford
nutritious food.
Social security: The animals offer social security to the owners in terms of their status in the
society. The families, especially the landless which own animals are better placed than those
who do not. Gifting of animals during marriages is a very common phenomenon in rural
India.

Gender equity: Animal husbandry promotes gender equality. More than 3/4th of the labor
demand in livestock production is met by women. The share of women employment in the
livestock sector is around 90% in Punjab and Haryana where dairying is a prominent activity.

Protection against disasters: Livestock are the best insurance against the drought, famine,
and other natural calamities. Further, agricultural productions get valuable organic manure
provided by the livestock.

Important Initiatives by the Government:

Rashtriya Gokul Mission: It aims to develop and conserve indigenous breeds of bovine
population. This is important to enhance milk production and to make it more remunerative
to the farmers.

National Livestock Mission: Its objective is to ensure quantitative and qualitative

improvement in livestock production systems and capacity building of all stakeholders.

National Artificial Insemination Program: To suggest novel methods of bringing about

impregnation in female breeds. Also, to prevent the spread of certain diseases which are
genital in nature, thereby enhancing the efficiency of the breed.

National Cattle and Buffalo Breeding Project: To genetically upgrade important indigenous
breeds on priority basis with a focus on development and conservation.

Animal Husbandry Startup Grand Challenge: To appreciate innovations coming from the
villages to expand the dairy sector in India.

LIVESTOCK/ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AP

Livestock sector plays a key role in the economy where the poor contribute to growth
directly. Being a source of livelihood and provider of draught power, manure and energy,
livestock forms an essential part of the socio economic structure of rural farmers.

Animal Husbandry in AP:

 Andhra Pradesh has some of the richest livestock resources in the country and is one
of the most advanced states in Livestock sector.
  As per the latest Livestock Census 2019, 46 lakh cattle, 62 lakh buffaloes, 176 lakh
sheep (first in India), 55 lakh goat, 0.92 lakh pigs and 1078 lakh poultry.
 During 2020-2021, Andhra Pradesh stood 1st in Egg Production, 2nd in Meat
production and 5th in Milk production
 Milk is the single largest commodity contributing highest economy to the State (6%
of GSDP) and more than 27 lakh women in rural areas are engaged in dairy activity
 Andhra Pradesh takes pride in having famous and world renowned Livestock breeds
like Ongole and Punganur in cattle, Godavari Buffaloes, Nellore in Sheep and Aseel in
Poultry.

Initiatives of Andhra Pradesh government:

 Under YSR Cheyutha, distribution of milch animals like cattle and buffaloes was taken
up
 Under Jagananna Jeeva Kranti, distribution of sheep and goat was taken up
 Under Jagananna Paala Velluva, strengthening cooperative sector in partnership with
Amul to get more remunerative prices to the farmers
 Under YSR Pasu Nashta Parihara Padhakam, compensating the livestock losses at
Rs.30,000/- per cattle/buffalo and Rs.6,000/- per sheep or goat
 YSR Deseeya Go Jaathula Pempaka Kendraalu to promote the indigenous breed and
multiply the number of available indigenous cows for better nutrition, health and
prosperity
 Branding the indigenous cow milk & other By-products with brand name of ‘Andhra
Go-Pushti’
 Under National Animal Disease Control Programme, Foot and Mouth Disease,
Brucellosis, Pestes des Petite Ruminants (PPR) Eradication programmes were taken
up
 Sheep & Goat deworming to reduce internal parasite burden, improved immunity,
and improved nutrient absorption
 RBKs are provided with essential medicines and equipment along with manpower to
provide Animal Husbandry services
 Implementing National Artificial Insemination Program, Rashtriya Gokul Mission
 Gokul Gram is established under Rashtriya Gokul Mission with an objective to
conservation and development of indigenous bovine breeds in the country. The
Project is established at Cattle Breeding Farm, Chadalawada, Prakasam district.
 In this context, Govt. of India has sanctioned National Kamadhenu Breeding Centre
to the State of Andhra Pradesh for Southern Region.
 National Livestock Mission (NLM) aims towards employment generation,
entrepreneurship development, increase in per animal productivity.
 APCARL (AP Centre for Advanced Research on Livestock) was established with a
vision to be a world class centre of excellence for advanced research on Livestock
 and transfer the latest technologies to end users thereby improving the animal
health and productivity for the benefit of farmers

Conclusion:Livestock is a natural capital, which can be easily reproduced to act as a living

bank with offspring as interest and the best insurance against the vagaries of nature.

PMMSY is a flagship scheme for focused and sustainable development of the fisheries
sector in the country as a part of the Aatmanirbhar Bharat Abhiyan. With an aim to double
the incomes of fish farmers, enhance fish production by an additional 70 lakh tonne and
increase fisheries export earnings to Rs.1,00,000 crore by 2024-25.

Important features of PMMSY:

1. The Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry and Dairying is

implementing a flagship scheme namely Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana (PMMSY)
with a highest ever investment of Rs. 20,050 crores for a period of 5 years with effect from
2020- 21 to 2024- 25 in all the States/Union Territories.

2. The PMMSY is an umbrella scheme with two separate Components:

 Central Sector Scheme (CS) and

 Centrally Sponsored Scheme (CSS).

3. The Centrally Sponsored Scheme (CSS) Component is further segregated into non-
beneficiary oriented and beneficiary orientated subcomponents/activities under the
following three broad heads:

 Enhancement of Production and Productivity

 Infrastructure and Post-harvest Management
 Fisheries Management and Regulatory Framework

4. Funding pattern is North-eastern & Himalayan States : 90% Central share and 10% State
share, other States : 60% Central share and 40% State share. Union Territories (with
legislature and without legislature): 100% Central share.

5. The PMMSY would be implemented through the following agencies:

 Central Government and its entities National Fisheries Development Board

 State/UT Governments and their entities
 State Fisheries Development Boards
 Any other End Implementing Agencies as decided by Department of Fisheries

6. PMMSY is designed to address critical gaps in fish production and productivity, quality,
technology, post-harvest infrastructure and management, modernization and strengthening
of value chain, traceability, establishing a robust fisheries management framework and
fishers’ welfare.
7. While aiming to consolidate the achievements of Blue Revolution Scheme, PMMSY
envisages many new interventions such as:

 fishing vessel insurance,

 support for new/up-gradation of fishing vessels/boats, Bio-toilets,
 Aquaculture in saline/alkaline areas, Sagar Mitras, FFPOs/Cs,
 Nucleus Breeding Centres,
 Fisheries and Aquaculture start-ups,
 Incubators,
 Integrated Aqua parks,
 Integrated coastal fishing villages development etc.

8. PMMSY scheme primarily focuses on adopting Cluster or Area based approaches and
creation of Fisheries clusters through backward and forward linkages.

9. Special focus will be given for employment generation activities such as seaweed and
ornamental fish cultivation.

10. It emphasizes on interventions for quality brood, seed and feed, special focus on species
diversification, critical infrastructure, marketing networks etc.

Conclusion: PMMSY is aimed at improving the livelihood of fish farmers, fishermen and fish
workers in India. The implementation of the PMMSYis expected to boost the Indian fish
industry and bring economic growth to the coastal and fishing communities

AP FOOD AND AGRO BASED PROCESSING

Food processing industry has gained prominence in recent years. This sector serves as a vital
link between the agriculture and industrial segments of the economy. Strengthening this
link is of critical importance to reduce wastage of agricultural raw materials, improve the
value of agricultural produce by increasing shelf-life, fortify the nutritive capacity of the food
products and ensure remunerative prices to farmers as well as affordable prices to
consumers.

Government of India initiatives:

• Pradhan Mantri Kisan SAMPADA Yojana

✓ A Scheme for Agro-Marine Processing and Development of Agro Processing Clusters

✓ It creates of modern infrastructure (mega food parks) with efficient supply chain
management from farm gate to retail outlet.
✓ It helps in doubling of farmers income, creating huge employment opportunities
especially in the rural areas, reducing wastage of agricultural produce, increasing the
processing level and enhancing the export of the processed foods.

• Operation Greeens: Initially launched for development of value chain for TOP (Tomato,
Onion and Potato), later extended to all fruits and vegetables.

• PM Formalisation of Micro Food Processing Enterprises Scheme (PM FME Scheme):

✓ For providing financial, technical and business support for upgradation of existing micro
food processing enterprises.

• Production Linked Incentive Scheme for Food Processing Industry (PLISFPI)

Government of Andhra Pradesh initiatives:

• AP food Processing Policy 2020-25

✓ Its objective is to develop Twenty-Five (25) Secondary Food Processing Units in each
parliamentary constituencies which shall be operated as plug & play units.

• Three Mega Food Parks namely, Srini Food Park in Chittoor, Godavari Mega Aqua Food
Park in West Godavari, and Andhra Pradesh Industrial Infrastructure Corporation (APIIC)
Mega food park in Krishna are operational in the State

Conclusion

Conclude by writing significance of food processing sector in the Economy.

Agro based Industries are those industries which use plant and animal-based products as
their raw materials. For example: Food Processing, Vegetable Oil, Cotton Textile, Dairy
Products, etc.

• Agro based industries increase the value of agricultural output by processing it and
creating goods that can be sold and used. The link or interdependence of agriculture and
industries is directed towards increasing the growth, development, and revenue of the
country.

Geographical Factors:

• Availability of raw material is the primary factor that is favourable for agro based
industries to locate it near to farms. Availability of water and availability of cheap labour is
also important for these industries.

• Andhra Pradesh has been fortunate with certain geographical advantages particularly in
the areas affiliated with agriculture and its allied sectors due to the following geographical
factors:
✓ Andhra Pradesh has the second largest coastal line of India. It is one of the top ranked
states in marine exports. Andhra Pradesh is the major producer of Fish in India. Andhra
Pradesh is contributing significantly to the production of fish in the country through an
effective strategy in both coastal and freshwater aquaculture and marketing. Andhra
Pradesh has fertile river basins conducive to agro climatic conditions, and an extensive canal
system for fishery promotion.

Fisheries sector has been identified by Andhra Pradesh Government as a Growth Engine for
the social economic development of the State. Andhra Pradesh also constitution 10% of the
fish production and in India 70% of Shrimp production is done from Andhra Pradesh.

✓ Andhra Pradesh is India’s largest producer of Mango, Papaya, Lemon, Tomato, Chilli,
Turmeric.

i. Andhra Pradesh is the second largest mango growing state in the country with an area of
about 4.31 lakh hectares and annual production of 43.5 lakh metric ton.

ii. The mango is grown extensively in Krishna, Vijayanagaram, Vishakapatnam, West and
East Godavari, Kadapa districts. Mango is well adapted to tropical climate and Alluvial and
sandy loams are ideal for mango cultivation.

iii. Mango pulp industries are mainly concentrated in these areas.

✓ The soil conditions of Guntur in Andhra Pradesh are ideal for growing red chili. The soil
should be neutral or mildly acidic, with a pH of 6 or 7, and should be sandy or loamy. It
should also drain well in order to promote healthy root growth.

These conditions create an ideal environment for the chiles to thrive in, allowing them to
reach their full maturity and the Guntur region of Andhra Pradesh is responsible for
producing upwards to 30% of India’s total chiles.

i. Spices Park at Guntur, Tobacco industries, Chilli processing factories, cotton industries are
mainly located in this area.

✓ Andhra Pradesh is one of the largest producers of paddy, groundnut, and maize.

i. In Andhra Pradesh paddy is the major crop cultivated in more than 22 lakh hectares during
Kharif and Rabi seasons.

ii. 13 districts of Andhra Pradesh are producing rice crop out of which West Godavari, East
Godavari, Krishna, Guntur, Srikakulam, Vizianagaram and Chittoor are the major producers.

iii. Paddy needs hot and humid climate with annual rainfall above 100 cm, rich alluvial soil
with intensive irrigation is needed for paddy cultivation.
✓ The Eastern Ghats of Andhra Pradesh is particularly suitable for coffee plantation due to
its climate and soil composition. The climate of the region is hot during the day and cool at
night, which helps in the growth of the coffee plantations and the soil is naturally rich in iron
which gives the coffee a unique body, intensity, and aroma.

i. The cultivation of coffee in this region has also been beneficial to the local tribes as the
Girijan Cooperative Corporation (GCC) has been promoting Araku coffee for the past three
years. It has got Geographical Indication (GI) tag.

✓ Tobacco is a tropical crop which is grown exclusively in Prakasam, Guntur and Godavari
regions of Andhra Pradesh. Andhra Pradesh is well suited for tobacco cropping due to its
favourable climate and soil conditions.

The annual rainfall through the south-west monsoon provides ample moisture to the soil.
The crop is grown exclusively in black soils during the winter season, extending from
October to March.

i. ITC Indian Leaf tobacco development is an industry located in Guntur.

• Geographical factors play a major role in promoting a crop in a particular location.

Availability of raw material in that area thereby pulls agro based industries into that area.

MINERAL BASED INDUSTRIES

Mineral-based industries are main industries that get their raw materials from mineral ores.
It provides employment to both rural and urban populations. In AP, Minerals are one of the
main sources of revenue and are also a major contributor for the economic growth of the
State.

Body

Andhra Pradesh is a mineral rich state containing a vast variety of mineral wealth
particularly industrial minerals.

Important Mineral Sources in AP

• Andhra Pradesh’s varied geology has a rich and wide variety of minerals suitable for
various mineral specific industries. The State is a treasure house for 48 minerals and more
specifically for Barytes, Uranium, Granite, Limestone, Bauxite, Beach Sand, Limestone, Coal,
Oil & Natural Gas, Manganese, Dolomite, Quartz, Feldspar, Iron Ore ,Gold, Diamond etc.

Major Mineral based clusters in AP

 Abundance of Quartz, Quartzite and Silica sand augurs in Anantapur, Guntur,

Kurnool, Prakasam and Nellore districts
 Clay in East Godavari and Srikakulam districts.
  Additionally, Ball Clay project already present in Dwaraka Tirumala in West Godavari
 Major granite resources in Anantapur, Guntur, Kurnool, Prakasam and Nellore
districts.
 Granite projects present in Prakasam and Srikakulam already Barytes project in
 Mangampet, Kadapa District

Significance of Mineral based industries in AP:

 1st in in production of Barytes, Limestone, Mica and Silica Sand in India

 93% share of India’s Barytes reserves
 30% share of India’s Heavy Mineral Beach Sand reserves
 18% share of India’s Bauxite reserves
 Over 1,700 mineral-based industries in State
 Leading granite producing state, with 132.5 MT granite resources
 2nd largest producer of cement with over 19.6 MT of limestone resources
 Potential to develop glass and ceramic industry due to Abundant availability of
Quartz, Quartzite, Silica Sand and clay resources

Gold: Andhra Pradesh is well known for Gold mining during various periods of history,
especially during the regime of Vijaynagaram Empire. Number of Gold bearing green stone
schist belts occur in Anantapur, Chittoor, kurnool and Nellore districts( before
reorganisation) of the State. So far 28 such belts were identified extending over lengths of
16 to 185 km with an estimated reserve of 6.9 million tons of gold ore.

Diamonds: Andhra Pradesh is known as Ratnalaseema (i.e. Land of Diamonds) for centuries
for the best diamonds occurrences. Some of world-renowned diamonds like Kohinoor,
Regent etc., are from the womb of the state. Diamond bearing areas are spread over
different pockets Of Anantpur, Kadapa Krishna Guntur, Kurnool, Prakasam and Nellore
districts of the State.

Uranium: Results from research conducted by the Atomic Energy Commission of India, in
2011, in Cuddapah led the analysts to conclude that mines in Thummappale might have one
of the largest reserves of uranium in the world. Also, recently a new ore has been found in
the region at Kanampalli.

Gem & Jewellery: Andhra Pradesh offers abundant opportunity with potential resource of
Gold, Diamond, Ruby, Aquamarine, Emerald, Cryso-Berly Cat's Eye, Silliminite Cat's Eye,
Alex, and other Semi-Precious Stones with cheap skilled master craftsmen have an
advantage over other states to establish a Gem & Jewellery Park in the exclusive export
zone in Visakhapatnam.

Conclusion

Conclude by saying that, State is well known globally

ROAD TRANSPORT SECTOR

India has about 63.73 lakh km of road network, which is the second largest in the world. It
plays a significant role in carrying goods and people in all parts of the country.

Particularly, the rural economy depends upon the road transport. The importance of roads
has increased with the advent of auto vehicles.

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Indian Roads are divided into three categories: National highways, State highways, and
District and village roads. • The length of various categories of roads is as under: ✓ National
Highways: 1,44,634 km ✓ State Highways: 1,86,908 km ✓ Other Roads: 59,02,539 km

Significance of Road Transport Sector in India

• Roads make a huge contribution to economic development and bring important social
benefits too.

• As per the National Transport Development Policy Committee, road transport carries
about 90 percent of the total passenger traffic and 67 percent freight traffic.

✓ It contributes about 3.10 percent of Gross Value Addition (GVA) as against the total
transport sector contribution of 4.63 percent to GVA at national level for the year 2018-19.

• Road transport alone accounted for about more than 64 per cent share in total transport
sector contribution to GVA followed by Railways during the period 2014-15 to 2018- 19.

• India's transport sector is large and diverse; it caters to the needs of 1.3 billion people. • It
gives major push to Logistics development in the country in line with National Logistics
Policy 2022 which aims to achieve ‘quick last-mile delivery', end transport-related
challenges.

Various initiatives by Government of India.

• PM GatiShakti: A master plan for integrated project planning

✓ Is a Rs. 100 lakh-crore multi-modal connectivity plan with the goal of coordinating
infrastructure project planning and execution to reduce logistics costs.

✓ It will cover the infrastructure projects worth over Rs 500 crore of various Ministries of
the Union and State Governments like Bharatmala, Sagarmala, inland waterways, dry/land
ports, UDAN (Ude Desh ka Aam Nagarik – subsidies for facilitating air travel), etc.

• Bharatmala Pariyojana :
✓ Umbrella program for the highways sector envisaged by the Ministry of Road Transport
and Highways that focuses on optimizing the efficiency of freight and passenger movement
across the country.

✓ The project plan includes the construction of Border Roads of strategic importance along
international boundaries and International Connectivity roads to promote trade with
Myanmar, Bangladesh, Bhutan, and Nepal.

• Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY) :

✓ The objective of PMGSY is to provide single all-weather road connectivity to all eligible
unconnected habitations of the designated population size (500+ in plain areas, 250+ in
North-Eastern and Himalayan States) in rural areas of the country.

✓ The scheme has helped immensely in providing access to basic services and lifting the
income of rural masses.

Various initiatives by Government of Andhra Pradesh

• The government has successfully launched many programmes in widening the roads in
Visakhapatnam, Vijayawada, Guntur, Tirupati, Kakinada and Eluru.

• It sanctioned a “Greenfield Express Way” that runs between Anantapur to Amaravati.

• It established a special transport department for the development of roads. The main
purpose of this department is to implement motor vehicles rules and regulations
successfully and provide transport facilities on public demand.

• The Andhra Pradesh state road corporation(APSRTC) is the largest state road transport
undertaking in the country which operates public bus services by the state Government.

Advantages of Road Transport:

• Railway transport limited to the railway heads while the roads provide door to door
services.

• Road transport is flexible, reliable and quick.

• Its cost of construction and maintenance is far less than that of the railway.

• Roads can negotiate higher gradient of slopes and can traverse the mountainous regions.
Construction of railway lines is difficult and expensive in hilly regions.

Disadvantages of Road transport:

• Accident rate: Road transport has the highest accident rate, but the sector is reducing it by
investing heavily in safety, renewing fleets and training drivers.
• Less load capacity: Even modern mega-trucks, with a capacity of about 60 tons, are much
more limited than a ship, a train, or a plane. This makes it much more cost-effective to use
another alternative for shipping large quantities of goods.

• Traffic restrictions: Traffic jams, especially on access to cities and industrial estates, can
lead to delays in delivery. However, professionals are increasingly relying on technological
assistants to anticipate these incidents and choose alternative routes.

Current Challenges

• One of the most important contributors to global warming due to its dependence fossil
fuels.

• Rising Fuel Prices and Impact on the Economy

• Complex Government Regulations

• The Growing Need for Sustainable Logistics Operations

Conclusion

Thus, National Highways play a very important role in the economic and social development
of the country by enabling efficient movement of freight and passengers and improving
access to market.

DEMOGRAPHIC DIVIDEND

Demographic dividend refers to the growth of population which produces more

people in their productive age. India has a very young population, that is, the majority of
Indians tend to be young, and the average age is also less than that for most other
countries.

• Demographic dividend is appreciable for proper utilisation of resources and growth

of the economy. It is the potential for economic gains when the share of the working-age
population (15 years – 64 years) is higher than the non-working age group.

• Demographic dividend occurs when the proportion of working people in the total
population is high because this indicates that more people have the potential to be
productive and contribute to growth of the economy.

• Demographic dividend is a product of balanced birth rate and mortality which may
occur during the transition from rural agrarian economy to urbanised industrial economy.

• Demographic Dividend is a result of change in population structure occur due to

Falling birth rate, Lower fertility rate and Increased longevity.
Population scenario in India:

• The population of India is estimated to be 1,389,637,446 by 2022.The preliminary

results of the 2011 census set India’s total population at 1.21 billion an increase of 180
million over the last 10 years. By 2026, the projected total population will be 1.40 billion.

• There is an increase in life expectancy at birth for males and females from 65.8 and
68.1 respectively, to 69.8 and 72.3 years in 2021-25 and a decline in the total fertility rate
(TFR) from 2.6 to 2.0.

• The share of the total population under age 60 marginally increased from 5.5% in
1970 to 8% in 2010 and is projected to reach 22% in 2050. The large decline in the share of
population under 19 years of age has been associated with a substantial rise in proportion of
working age population (19-59 years) from 43% to 51% from 1970 to 2010 and is projected
to be a maximum of 56% in 2045. It is evident that the age structure of India’s population is
likely to undergo remarkable transitions leading to a decline in the relative share of children
and an increase in the share of the elderly and working age population.

• Measures needed for sustaining demographics dividend:

✓ In Indian scenario, the window of demographic dividend opportunity is available

for five decades from 2005-06 to 2055-56.

✓ This demographic dividend window is available at different times in different

states because of differential behaviour of the population parameters. For example, in
Kerala, population is getting older but in Bihar it is relatively young.

✓ Better investment in health, education will empower the population to balance

the future population growth.

✓ Encouraging people to follow two child policy, use of contraceptives, termination

of pregnancy after having second child and more family planning measures will ensure the
population reaching to replacement level.

✓ Encouraging women education and employment opportunities for women also

helps in balanced population growth.

✓ Ensuring balanced infrastructure development and providing better quality of life

and employment opportunities in rural areas will help balanced distribution of population.

✓ Western migration for standard of living has to be balanced for ensuring the
availability of youngsters within the country by providing better living standard and job
opportunities with in the country.
 • Balanced population growth is the prime key for retaining demographic dividend in
India. India has to produce more babies at rate of replacement level of population to avoid
population explosion, at the same time existing population should be empowered to have
healthy population.

According to World population review projection, India has surpassed China to become
most populous country in the world. This presents both challenges and opportunities for
the country and its people.

On one hand, the population explosion is putting a strain on resources and infrastructure,
while on the other hand, the young and rapidly growing population presents an opportunity
for economic growth and development.

Body:

Challenges:

1. Burden on resources: India is facing a population explosion, leading to overburdened

resources and infrastructure.

2. Poverty: A significant portion of the population still lives below the poverty line and lacks
access to basic necessities.

3. Healthcare: The healthcare system is inadequate to meet the needs of a rapidly growing
population.

4. Education: The education system is facing challenges in providing quality education to all,
particularly in rural areas.

5. Unemployment: The job market has not been able to keep up with the rapidly growing
workforce, leading to high unemployment.

6. Environmental degradation: India's rapid development has come at a cost to the

environment, leading to pollution, deforestation, and other environmental problems.
7. Improving livelihood: with the limited resources it is difficult to improve livelihood status
of such huge population.

8. Ageing population: The number of elder people are expected to increase and it has social
and economic implication on country.

9. Pressure on Infrastructure.

10. Widen income inequalities.

Opportunities:

1. Economic growth: India has a large and growing economy with immense potential for
further growth.

2. Growing middle class: The expansion of the middle class offers a significant market for
goods and services.

3. Demographic dividend: India's young population can be a source of strength if provided

with the right opportunities and resources.

4. Emerging technology: India is at the forefront of the global technology revolution, and
this presents a significant opportunity for growth and innovation.

5. Diversified culture: India's diverse culture provides a wealth of opportunities for tourism
and cultural exchange.

Conclusion: India is facing a complex set of challenges as it continues to grow and develop.
However, with the right policies and investments in its people, the country has the potential
to turn these challenges into opportunities for a better future. It has the potential to
become a leading global player in the 21st century.

factors which influence the distribution and density of population in India.

India is the second most populous country in the world, with a population that is unevenly
distributed across its regions.

The uneven distribution is largely caused by factors such as soil, climate and socio-political
conditions, which can be broadly divided into four categories.

• physical factors
• socio-economic factors
• Demographic factors
• Political Factors

Factors that influence population distribution and its density

1.Physical Factors

Physical factors such as landforms, climate, soil, etc. play an important role in the density
and distribution of population.

• Land reforms: Land reforms have a major impact on population distribution, as seen by
comparing the densely populated Indo-Ganga plains and the mountainous state of
Arunachal Pradesh.

✓ Additionally, factors such as altitude, slope, water availability, drainage, and water table
also affect population distribution.

• Climate: Climate plays a major role in affecting population distribution, as temperature

and precipitation vary from region to region; deserts like Rajasthan are hot and dry, while
Eastern Himalayan regions are cold and wet.

✓ High population density is found in areas with higher rainfall, like Kerala and West Bengal,
while low density is seen in areas like Rajasthan and lee-ward sides of Western Ghats.

• Soil: India's population density and distribution is largely determined by soil quality, with
75% of the population living in rural areas and largely dependent on agriculture.

✓ Poor soil quality in desert regions, such as Rajasthan, the Rann of Kuchchh in Gujarat, and
the Terai region in Uttarakhand, leads to low population density.

✓ The North-East also has a low population density due to its high rainfall, rough terrain,
dense forests, and poor soil quality.

2.Socio-Economic Factors

• Historical and cultural factors: Migration patterns, religious and cultural practices, and
historical events have shaped the population distribution of different regions in India.

• Socio-Cultural: The Mumbai-Pune industrial complex is an example of how social, cultural,

historical and political factors can shape population density and growth.

✓ 200 years ago, the Thana Creek islands were insignificant but were gifted to the British
Royal Family by the Portuguese and developed by Parsi, Kuchchhi and Gujarati traders into
an industrial center.

✓ This was further accelerated with the opening of the Suez

Canal and the discovery of Bombay High oil and natural gas fields, making Mumbai the
closest Indian port to Europe and boosting the petrochemical industry. Today, Mumbai is
India's commercial capital, with well-developed transport infrastructure.

• Availability of Natural Resources:

✓ The Chhotanagpur Plateau region has seen a population increase due to the abundance
of minerals, such as iron-ore, manganese, limestone and coal.

✓ This has attracted various heavy industries, leading to the establishment of many national
and multinational companies in the region.

3.Demographic factor:

• Migration has deep influence on population distribution.

• Natural increase is the net outcome of fertility and mortality in a region.

• Epidemics and disease have always significantly influenced mortality levels.

4.Political factors:

• Government policies, such as development projects, incentives for certain industries or

sectors, and the distribution of public resources, can also influence population distribution

Age composition of a population

“The age structure of India tells us a lot about its demographic attributes”. In this context,
bring out different methods to analyse the age composition of a population
Demographic attributes are the quality of growing human populations. The pressure of
population on resource base, especially on arable land has created many socio economic,
cultural, political ecological and economic problems.

Body

• There are three methods to analyse the age composition of a population. These methods
are Age Groups, Age Pyramids and Age Indices.

• Age Groups

✓ On this basis, the population is classified into three broad groups: the young age group
(0–14), the adult age group (15–60), and the old age group (60 and above).

✓ Young age group: This age group is economically and biologically unproductive and
requires more economic expenses in terms of health and education.

✓ Adult age group: The adult age group is biologically and economically most productive
and demographically most mobile (Trewartha, 1969, p. 122). This age group bears the
burden of taking care of the young and old age groups.

✓ Old age group: This age group the proportion of females is more than males because of
lower female mortality rate than males.

• Age Pyramids

✓ It is one of the commonly used methods of analysing age composition.

✓ The shape of the pyramid varies depending on the stage of the demographic transition

through which the country is passing.

• Age Indices

✓ Age indices are the ratios between different age groups of population. These ratios are
calculated for the purposes of estimation and planning of labour

force, population analysis, etc.

✓ The most important indices are the dependency ratio which is calculated between adult
age group and young and old age group combined. This dependency ratio depicts the drain
on the adult population of the country.

✓ The dependency ratio is high in case of the developing countries due to large number of
young people. Age groups Persons (%) Male (%) Female (%)
Age Structure of population in India

• India’s age structure in 2011 was quite positive with 60% of its population comprising of
adult age group and only 40% were in the young age group and old age group combined.
Even within this 31% were children and 8% were senior citizens.

• The shape of age-sex pyramid of India according to the 2011 census data is just like an
inverted top.

• The proportion of population under the age groups of 10 years is less as compared to the
10-14 age groups depicting that the birth rate is declining. The proportion of population is
declining with subsequent increase in age group.

• The proportion of people aged 80+ is increasing again. The proportion of females is less in
all the age groups but after the 55-59 age group, the proportion of females goes on
increasing although the proportion of females is just a tiny bit more than the males but in
absolute numbers it comes out to be quite significant.

Conclusion

Due to declining birth rates and declining death rates, proportion of aged population is also
increasing over time. This increase also suggests that the country’s medical infrastructure is
also improving. The adult age group has also been increasing over time. Increase in adult
age group and decrease in young age groups indicates a positive dependency ratio.
CASTE BASED CENSUS: Recently the demand for caste-based census was expressed by many
state governments, various political parties,social organizations and individuals in the
country. The last caste-based census was conducted in India in1931.

Body:Need for the caste census:

1. Job and education quotas are based on caste, this will help in evidence-based
policymaking. The current policies are based on the last caste census, which was conducted
in 1931.

2. This census can help the government in identifying the most benefited section and reduce
their share in the overall reservation to provide an opportunity to others.

3. A caste census would bring forward the large number of issues that any democratic
country needs to pay attention to. For instance, this census will reveal information regarding
caste based marginalisation, deprivation, the kind of jobs pursued by a caste, etc.

4. Caste census will give authentic information regarding the socio economic condition and
education status of various castes.

5. Better targeting of Government welfare schemes: The courts in India have often
emphatically said that it is important to have adequate data regarding the reservation. So,
the caste census is nothing but the collection of data that is necessary for any democratic
policymaking.

6. Recommendation from the Sachar committee: Sachar committee was formed to examine
the socio-economic and educational status of the Muslim community in India. In its report,
the committee mentioned that the availability of data on religion was useful in highlighting
the relative deprivation of minorities. So, similar data on caste is also desirable to identify
vulnerable sections within castes.

Challenges associated with caste census:

1. It can cause political polarisation among communities and may result in conflicts.

2. Strengthens identity politics and encourages divisive politics.

3. There is a possibility that caste-based reservations will lead to heartburn among some
sections and demands for larger or separate quotas. For instance,Patels, Gujjars, Jats and
other castesare demanding reservations. The caste census might induce more suchdemands
in future.

4. The caste census will give rise to caste division. : As India seek to eliminate and weaken
the notion of caste, a caste census would only strengthen it.
5. Collection of caste data is not easy:Some sections of people believe that Caste is a very
important source of privilege and advantage in our country.On the other hand, some
sections of people feel disadvantaged by revealing caste-based information. So,the naming
and counting of caste is adifficult thing in India. For instance, the same caste is spelt in
different ways indifferent states.

Way forward:

1. Can collect limited data for governmental purpose with confidentiality measures.

2. Segregation of communities on the lines of HDI, poverty and unemployment can also be
utilised for targeted delivery of services.

Conclusion:As data is not only the sole driver of wellbeing. Along with it strong political
will,public trust, and limited data we can perpetuate economic, social and political equality
to all.

“Human Migration is continuous”. Elucidate the statement with different pull and push
factors of migration. How to overcome the challenges of migration?

Migration, defined as the geographic movement of people across a specified boundary for
various social, economic and geographical reasons.

• Humans have continuously migrated for various reasons.

• According to the 2021 National Statistic Report (NSO) on migration,

✓ intra-state migration accounted for 87.5% of the total labour related migration between
2020-21

✓ inter-state accounted for 11.8%

Push factors: Factors which case people to leave their place of residence or origin.

• Geographical factors:

 ✓ High population pressure on land, inadequate resources, failure of monsoon, etc

 ✓ Natural disasters like floods, droughts, tsunami, cyclonic storms, earthquakes etc

• Non-Geographical Factors:

 ✓ Lack of basic infrastructural facilities like education, health etc

 ✓ Poverty, unemployment
 ✓ Wars and local conflicts

Pull factors:

• Factors which attract people from different places.

  ✓ Better topography
 ✓ Better climate
 ✓ Better standard of living, in terms of education, health, infrastructure
 ✓ Better opportunities
 ✓ Employement opportunities
 ✓ Relatively higher wages

Challenges/negative consequences of migration:

• Overcrowding in metropolitan cities

✓ Development of slums in industrially developed states such as Maharashtra, Gujarat,

Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Delhi

• Adverse effect on rural demographic structure due to R-U migration

✓ Age and skill selective out migration from Uttaranchal, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and
Eastern Maharashtra have brought imbalances in age and sex composition of these states

• Anonymity which creates social vacuum and sense of dejection.

✓ Continuous feeling of dejection can motivate people to cause anti-social activities like
crime and drug abuse.

• Unplanned growth of Urban settlement and formation of slums shanty colonies

• Over exploitation of resources in the places of destination of migration

• Male selective migration affects women and their mental health.

• Loss of skilled human resources

Measures:

• Regional planning to promote equitable development.

• Development of Hokou-like system of China for regulating free-flow of population in

alignment with the federal structure of the country

✓ This can be implemented through collaborative approach from government, NGO’s and
Business

• Private sector investment will allow to handle the water and energy shortage.

✓ For example, establishing solar trees in farmlands and the private sector could buy back
the power generated
• A fundamental change in the land tenure rules to facilitate long term leasing of land to the
corporate sector with protection of their rights.

✓ Investment in training and re-skilling the labour force

Conclusion

Formulating and implementing policies/programs/investment which provide decent work

for all, we can realise the SDG 8, “Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic
growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all”.

Internal migration can be driven by push or pull factors. Highlighting the issues related
with internal migration in India, discuss the need for a national policy on internal
migration.

Migration is the movement of people from one place to another. It can be over a short or
long distance, be short-term or permanent, voluntary, or forced, intranational or
international. According to Economic Survey an average of nine million people migrated
between states within India every year for either education or work.

Body:

Push and pull factors:

 A pull factor is a feature or event that attracts a person to move to another area.
 Pull factors include things like better opportunities in that area like educational, job
prospects, higher quality of life, security, freedom etc. The core pull factors of migration
are employment and marriage.
 Push factors are those that drive people away from that place such as war, famine,
natural hazards such as earthquakes, tornadoes, and hurricanes, threat to life,
repressive state, no job or educational facilities, difficult and harsh living conditions etc.
 Insurgency, Nasalism, terrorism, and militant groups in modem times force people to
move out of their home.

Benefits of migration:

 The areas of destinations benefit due to the reduction in the cost of production,
availability of the human resource, rising productivity, size of consumer and capital
market.
 At the same time, areas of origin also benefit through the flow of remittances,
information, and innovations influencing the households and people left behind.

Issues related to migration:

 Low quality jobs: Migrants mostly dominate the low-paying, hazardous and informal
market jobs in key sectors in urban destinations, such asconstruction, hotel, textile,
manufacturing, transportation, services, domestic work etc.
 Access to employment: Certain states have introduced domicile requirements with
regard to employment. This puts migrants at a disadvantage.
 Housing and sanitation: One of the key issues with regard to housing is poor supply, for
both ownership and rental. Short-term migrants do not have access to short-duration
accommodation. So, migrants live in overcrowded colonies in unhygienic conditions.
 Exploitation and intimidation: Usually migrants are exploited at the behest of
majoritarian native population, they are target of social profiling, stereotyping, abuse
and are made to work under exploitative conditions with no social security cover. For ex:
Gujarat migrant crisis.

Need for national migration policy:

 To address the issues related to migration it is necessary to have a national policy on

migration.
 A national policy will help in addressing the issues related to the working condition
of the migrants, their wages.
 It will help ensure social protection and medical benefits to migrants workers in the
place they migrated to.
 It will help in addressing the issue of access to benefits such as PDS under legal and
social entitlements (such as PDS) at their source location.

Conclusion:National Policy will help in addressing not only the housing problem which
migrants face. But also access to basic services water supply, electricity, and sanitation.

Discuss different types of migration in India with emphasis on urban migration. Identify
the main reasons for male/female selective migration.

Migration is movement of the people away from his or her place of usual residence whether
within country or across the international border temporarily or permanently for better
opportunities. Census 2011 has recorded more than 5 million persons have migrated to
India from the other countries. Migration is the agent of the social change.

• Streams of migration in India: internal migration –with in the country and international
migration-out of the country.

✓ Internal migration: internal migration can be classified into the rural to rural, rural to
urban, urban to urban, and urban to rural. India has the 37% of the migrant population with
96% coming from the neighbouring countries as refugee from Sri Lanka, Tibet etc.

i. Rural to urban migration: movement of the people from the rural areas to the urban areas
due to the push factors like poverty, high pressure on the land, lack of basic amenities,
education, health, natural disasters, floods, droughts etc. and Pull factors like better
opportunities, regular work, higher wages, education, health etc.

ii. Example: construction workers from the rural areas of the state like Uttar Pradesh and
Bihar move to the cities of Hyderabad and Delhi, Noida, Kolkata etc.

iii. Urban to urban migration: urban migration is defined as the movement of the people
from one city like Hyderabad in the Telangana state, to other city like Noida in Uttar Pradesh
state. It is an intra state migration. Urban migration can be formal and informal migration.

iv. Example: Single women migrating to support family, women joining husbands who works
in another city, students and software trainees’ movement from one city to other etc.

✓ External migration: External migration is the migration towards other countries from
India. Skilled and unskilled people are migrating from one country to other country for
better employment opportunities, better standard of living, Education, Health facilities etc.

i. Migration of unskilled and skilled labour towards middle east which started as part of oil
boom is continuing till today. For example, Keralites are dominating in middile east and
Tamils are dominating in East Asian countries.

ii. Migration mostly by skilled people towards Europe, North America, Australia etc are
mainly for better employment and standard of living. Migration for education is a new trend
emerging now towards Western countries.

• Consequences of the migration: social-uneven distribution of the population, source of the

region will get remittances, overcrowding, and development of the slums.

• Demographic consequences of migration are redistribution of the population, imbalances

of demographic structure, age, diffusion of cultures, broaden mental horizon, social vacuum
etc.

Male/female selective migration:

• Female migration in India is generally because of marriage and male migration is mostly
for better employment opportunities.

• In India, society being more patriarchal, men are the breadwinners and women are the
home makers. For better employment opportunities men migrates to urban centres or
agrarian states like Punjab and Haryana. It can be interstate migration from Uttar Pradesh,
Bihar to Punjab and Haryana as agricultural labours or towards city centres like Delhi,
Mumbai etc as unskilled labour.

• Skilled workers (men/women) are migrating from rural side to urban side within the state
or outside the state or from one city to another city.
• Migration can be both means and end; it can be solution to different problems like slum
growth and it can be a problem like unemployment etc.

Briefly describe about linguistic diversity in India.

India is a country of immense diversity, be it in its people, religions, customs, occupations,
or its geographical features. What is even more noteworthy is its linguistic diversity, with
more than twenty official languages and hundreds of regional languages.
• India’s diversity has been a source of both unity and division, but it has also been a great
source of strength and resilience.

• India is a land of many tongues, and it is this rich linguistic heritage that makes it a
multilingual country.

• As per the 1961 census India is a multilingual country with 1,652 languages. It is home to

five different language families, namely:

 ✓ Indo-Aryan
 ✓ Dravidian
 ✓ Austro-Asiatic
 ✓ Tibeto-Burmese and
 ✓ Semito-Hamitic.

To a great extent they have influenced almost all Indian languages.

North-eastern States:

• The most linguistically diverse states in India are Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh,
followed by tribal areas and islands like Andaman and Nicobar.

✓ Small states with distinct ethnic and tribal groups show greater linguistic diversity than
large, densely populated states like Uttar Pradesh and Kerala, where there is
homogenisation induced by diffusion of people and culture over time.
✓ There are approx 200 languages in northeastern states that belog to 3 different language
families: Tibeto-Burmese, Indo-Aryan (Assamese, Bodo, and Bengali) and Austro-Asiatic
(Khasi).

Southern India:

• All languages in southern India belong to the Dravidian family.

• Telugu is the most spoken language in the Dravidian family and the third most spoken
after Hindi and Bengali in India.

Central and Northern India:

• Also known as Hindi belt, these states have hardly any linguistic diversity as compared to
Southern and N-E states.

• For example, Uttar Pradesh, the largest state of India, which has 94% of its population
speaking Hindi as the dominant language, followed by Urdu at 5.4%.

Of all the languages, Hindi has been most popularly spoken in India (43 per cent) followed
by Bengali, Telugu and Marathi (eight percent each), Tamil & Urdu (six per cent), Gujarati
(five per cent), Malayalam, Kannada and Oriya (four per cent each), Punjabi (three per cent)
and other languages (Assamese and Kashmiri amounting to one per cent each).

Conclusion

Despite of our respect for pluralism and a constitution which aims at creating an egalitarian
society, language issue in India remains a matter of concern as most of the tribal, minority
and minor languages are not even recognized and yet to find a place in school education as
a subject, leave alone as medium of instruction.

Andhra Pradesh has low literacy rate mention the reasons for it? Mention steps taken by
government of Andhra Pradesh to improve it ?

The literacy rate is the percentage of population that can read and write. Literacy rate in
India is around 74% and literacy rate of Andhra Pradesh is 67.41% this is far below the
national average

Reasons for low literacy rate in Andhra Pradesh:

1. Lack of access to education: Many rural and remote areas in Andhra Pradesh lack
adequate educational facilities, making it difficult for children to attend school and receive
an education.

2. Poverty: Poverty is a major barrier to education in Andhra Pradesh, as many families

cannot afford to send their children to school or provide them with basic necessities like
books and uniforms.
3. Cultural attitudes: In some communities, there is a lack of emphasis on education, and
girls in particular are often discouraged from pursuing their education.

4. Language barriers: For children from non-English speaking backgrounds, the language of
instruction in schools can be a major barrier to their education.

5. Teacher shortages: In many areas, there is a shortage of qualified teachers, leading to

large class sizes and a lack of individual attention for students.

6. Inadequate infrastructure: Many schools in Andhra Pradesh lack basic facilities like
running water and electricity, making it difficult for teachers to provide an effective
education.

7. Socio-economic status: Children from disadvantaged socio-economic backgrounds are

more likely to drop out of school and have lower literacy rate.

Steps taken by the government of Andhra Pradesh:

1. Jagananna ammavodi: To ensure that poverty does not come in the way of educating
their children. Under this scheme a financial assistance of Rs.15,000 per annum to each
mother or guardian from bpl families who are sending their children to schools or colleges
from class 1 to class 12 is provided.

2. Mid-day meal scheme: In order to ensure tasty and nutritious meal government revised
menu.

3. Jagananna vidya kanuka : under this scheme government supplies a kit of 3 pairs of
uniform, set of notebooks, textbooks, pair of shoe and 2 pair of socks.

4. Mana Badi Nadu Nedu : This program is taken up to improve infrastructural facilities in
schools like toilets with running water, drinking water, fans and tube lights, compound
walls, kitchen sheds etc.

5. Girl hostels to provide access and quality education to girls from disadvantaged groups to
ensure education.

6. BC, SC and ST residential schools and colleges to promote education in socially backward
classes.

Conclusion: However, the government and various organizations are making efforts to
improve the literacy rate in the state through various education initiatives. An increase in
the literacy rate can lead to a more knowledgeable and contribute to the overall
development of the state.

Write a note on the status of tribes in Andhra Pradesh? mention the programs taken up by
the state government for the upliftment of tribes ?
Scheduled tribes are one of the most economically and socially disadvantaged communities
in the state. The state has established a tribal welfare department to address the specific
needs and issues of STs in the state.

Status of tribes in Andhra Pradesh:

1. 2011, the tribal population of Andhra Pradesh is 27.39 lakhs constituting 5.53 percent of
the total population.

2. There are 34 ST communities living in the state out of these 7 are PVTGs (Particularly
vulnerable tribal groups).

3. ST literacy is 48.83% out of this literacy rate in male : 58.37%, female : 39.40%

4. Yenadis, Yerukula, Sugalis, Konda Doras are important scheduled tribes in the state.

5. Poverty: It around 24% which is higher compared to states rate of 9.20%

6. Sex ratio: 1009 according to 2011 census which is higher than states ratio 997.

Programs by the state government for welfare of scheduled tribes:

1. Establishment of new districts in tribal dominant areas for better governance :

Parvathipuram Manyam district and Alluri Sitarama raju district.

2. Constituted Tribal advisory council for the enforcement of protective legislations

3. Quality enhancement in education in Ashram schools.

4. Ammavodi, Jagananna vasathi deevena to improve literacy rate among tribal population.

5. Establishment of YSR tribal medical college at Paderu.

6. YSR Sampurna Poshan Plus scheme to increase nutritional status among pregnant
mother, lactating mother and tribal children.

7. Special emphasis on road infrastructure by laying all weather road connectivity to tribal
habitations.

8. Schemes under Navaratnalu like YSR cheyutha, YSR pension kanuka, YSR Aasara are
implemented to tribals.

9. Jagjeevan Jyothi scheme to provide 200 units per month to ST households for free.

10. Tribal subplan is implemented for effective utilisation of funds

What are Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) in India? Name the different types
of PVTG’s in India and Andhra Pradesh.
Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) are a group of tribal communities in India that
are considered the most vulnerable among the tribal population.
These tribes were identified as PVTG’s due to various factors such as their declining
population, low levels of literacy, inadequate access to resources, and lack of development
Identification of PVTGs is important to protect and conserve their population, identity,
culture,etc

PVTG’s in India:

 Dhebar Commission (1960-61) and other studies suggested that there exists
inequality amongst tribal communities in terms of their development.
 In 1975, based on the Dhebar Commission report, the government created Primitive
Tribal Groups (PTGs) as a separate category and identified 52 such groups.
 In 1993, 23 more groups were added making it 75 PTGs. In 2006, the Government of
India renamed the PTGs as Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs).
 Among the 75 listed PVTG’s the highest number are found in Odisha (13), followed
by Andhra Pradesh (12), Bihar including Jharkhand (9) Madhya Pradesh including
Chhattisgarh (7) Tamil Nadu (6) Kerala and Gujarat having five groups each.

• Examples:

 ✓ Sentinelese found in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. They are one of the last
uncontacted tribes in the world.
 ✓ Birhors are a PVTG found in Jharkhand. They are skilled hunters and gatherers, and
their culture is deeply connected to the forest.
 ✓ Chuktia Bhunjias are a PVTG found in Odisha. They are primarily agriculturalists, and
their culture is characterized by music and dance.
 ✓ Totos are a PVTG found in West Bengal. They are skilled farmers and honey gatherers,
and their culture is deeply connected to the forest.

PVTG’s in Andhra Pradesh:

• There are 12 PVTG’s in Andhra Pradesh. It includes Chenchu, Kondareddis, Bodo Gadaba,
Bondo Poroja, Dongria Khond, Gutob Gadaba, Khond Poroja, Kolam, Konda Savaras, Kutia
Khond, Parengi Poroja, Thoti.

✓ Chenchus: Chenchus are a PVTG found in the Nallamala forests of Andhra Pradesh. They
are hunters and gatherers, and their culture is deeply rooted in the forest.

✓ Kondareddis: Kondareddis are a PVTG found in the hilly areas of Andhra Pradesh. They
are primarily agriculturalists, and their culture is characterized by music and dance.
✓ The Gadaba tribe is one of the indigenous communities in India, primarily found in the
hilly regions of Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, and parts of Chhattisgarh.

Conclusion

These are just a few examples of the different types of PVTGs found in India and Andhra
Pradesh. Each of these groups has unique cultural practices, social structures, and economic
systems, and their protection and development require specialized attention and support.

Discuss the regional distribution of some of the important tribes of Andhra Pradesh.

Tribes of Andhra Pradesh have added grandeur to the region with their rich heritage of
culture, and age-old ethnicity. In Andhra Pradesh scheduled tribes account for 5.3% of the
total state population. The highest percentage of ST population is in Vishakhapatnam district
followed by Vizianagaram, Nellore and Srikakulam whereas lowest is in Kurnool District.

Some of the important scheduled tribes in the state are;

Gadaba: The Gadaba are distributed in the Agency Area of Visakhapatnam, Vizanagaram
and Srikakulam districts and in certain agency tracts of Koraput and Ganjam districts of
Orissa. The Gadaba women are good at weaving bark fiber cloth on miniature looms of their
own manufacture and the woven fabric is dyed by them with various vegetable dyes.

Jatapu: The Jatapu are mainly concentrated in the Srikakulam and Visakhapatnam districts
of Andhra Pradesh.

Koya: The Koya live in the forests, plains, and valleys on both sides of the Godavari River of
state of Andhra Pradesh. Koya are primarily farmers. They once shifted from one plot to
another, farming various areas. However, the government has now restricted their
movement and has encouraged them to farm on fixed plots.

Chenchu: Chenchu live in the hills of southern India, primarily in the state of Andhra
Pradesh. The higher ranges of the Amrabad Plateau are pure, dense forests and are almost
exclusively inhabited by the Chenchu. The Chenchu depend on nature for nearly all of their
food supply. They are hunters and gatherers, just as they have been for many generations.
In former times, they hunted as a unified tribe.

Khonds Tribes: They are distributed both in Odisha and Visakhapatnam and are one of the
largest of the Dravidian speaking tribes.

Describe the flora and fauna in Andhra Pradesh?

The Recorded Forest area in the state is 37,258 sq.km which is about 23% of the total
geographical area. AP is endowed with varied forest types, unique eco-systems, diverse
habitats, and biodiversity rich areas. It’s store house of several unique and endemic flora
and fauna

Flora in Andhra Pradesh:

1. The State possesses wide and varied vegetation types enriched by a variety of flora and
Andhra Pradesh being located strategically in the central region of the Indian sub-continent
has representatives of the magnificent Indian plant and animal life.

2. Its varied topography ranging from the hills of Eastern Ghats and Nallamallas to the
shores of Bay of Bengal supports varied ecotypes, which in turn support a rich diversity of
flora.

3. Fauna includes includes Pterocarpus santalinus (Red Sanders), Cycas beddomi, Shorea
tambaggia, Syzizium alternifolium, Terminalia pallida etc.

4. Bamboo forests are found in several areas of Andhra Pradesh and are important source of
livelihood for local communities.

5. The state of Andhra Pradesh is considered one of the rich biodiversity states in India. In
Andhra Pradesh, vegetation that is seen usually belongs to dry deciduous form of vegetation
that is a mix of Teak and a variety of species belonging to genera Dalbergias, Terminalias,
Anogeissus, Pterocarpus, etc.

6. Mangroves form an important ecosystem in East Godavari, Nellore, Krishna, and Guntur
districts. Andhra Pradesh has about 3188.74 ha. Of mangrove forests. The predominant
mangrove species include Avicennia marina, Suaeda spp., Rhizophora spp., and Bruguiera
spp. These have a thick canopy and an undergrowth of climbing plants and shrubs.

7. The second largest mangrove ecosystem in the country Godavari Krishna estuary is
present in the state.

Fauna in Andhra Pradesh:

1. The hills of Eastern Ghats add greatly to the biological diversity and provide centres of
endemism for plants, birds and lesser forms of animal life.

2. A diversity of fauna which includes Leopard, Asiatic elephant, Sloth bear, Sambar,
Cheetal, Indian Muntjak, Indian Chevrotain (Mouse Deer), Barking Deer, Spotted Deer, Wild
Boar, Wild Dog, Slender Loris, four horned Antelope, Indian Hare, Indian Porcupine, Indian
Giant Squirrel, Bonnet Macaque, Common (Hanuman) Langur, Indian Pangolin etc are
present in the state.

3. Number of birds include Common Peafowl, Grey Heron, Purple Heron, Darter, Great
Cormorant, Little Cormorant, Indian Pond Heron, Cattle Egret, Asian Open billed Stork,
White Ibis, Black Ibis, Painted Stork, Northern Pintail, Common Teal Spot-billed Duck,
Gadwall, Red- crested Pochard, Common Pochard, Tufted Pochard, Lesser Whistling Duck,
Blackshouldered Kite, Black Kite etc; are also seen.

4. The reptiles like Marsh crocodile, Indian Monitor Lizard, Indian Chameleon, Common
Garden Lizard, Forest Calotes, Bark Gecko, Golden Gecko, House Gecko, Starred Tortoise,
Common Skink, Snake Skink, Common Indian Krait, Russell's Viper, Rat Snake, Indian Python,
Indian Cobra, Yellow Collared Wolf Snake, Bamboo Pit Viper, Saw- Scaled Viper, Brown Vine
Snake, Green Vine Snake, Chic red Keelback, Rainbow Water Snake etc., are seen.

5. The long seacoast provides the nesting ground for sea turtles like Olive Ridley turtles. The
back waters of Pulicat lake are the feeding grounds for Flamingo & Grey Pelican, the
estuaries of river Godavari and Krishna support rich mangrove forests with Fishing cat and
Otters as key stone species.

6. Similarly, the Jordon’s Courser, The Golden Gecko, The Slender Loris which are rare and
endangered are endemic to the state.

7. Andhra Pradesh has the largest tiger reserve in the country i.e., Srisailam Tiger Reserve.

Conclusion:

These species and many others are protected by the state's protected areas and wildlife
conservation laws, ensuring that future generations can continue to enjoy the state's rich
biodiversity.

describe the flora and fauna of National Parks in Andhra Pradesh

According to AP Socio Economic survey 2021, Andhra Pradesh has three national parks:
Papikonda national park, Sri Venkateswara national park, Rajiv Gandhi national park.
Rajiv Gandhi national park: Shifting from the sheer sandy bottom of river penna and sand
dunes as the distinct eco system prodattur town is the heart of the national park.
• Flora of the Rajiv Gandhi national park: With the 25 plant species like with dalbergia
sissoo, Grewal villosa, Gymnasia Silvestre etc.
• Fauna of the Rajiv Gandhi national Park: Invertebrates like spiders, scorpions, insects like
butterflies, Grass hopers. Amphibians like Bull frog, Common Indian toad. Mammals like
spotted deer, common mongoose, napped hare, reside in the sand dune eco system.

Papikonda national park: Established in the 1978 and upgraded to the national park in
2008. Located in the papihills in the east Godavari and west Godavari districts of the
northern Eastern Ghats.
• Flora of the papikonda national park: Godavari River bisects the national park. Forests
include tropical mixed moist deciduous and dry deciduous patches. Mix of the teak and
variety of the species belonging to dalbergias, Terminalia’s etc.
• Fauna of the papikonda national park: Carnivores like tiger, leopard, and hyena. Guar is
the keystone species. It also has sambhar, barking deer, chowsinga, spotted deer. It includes
the 92 bird species like peacock, red jungle fowl etc. Reptiles like python, king cobra, Indian
cobra, monitor lizard etc.
Sri Venkateswara national park: Located in the cuddapah and Chittoor districts of the
Andhra Pradesh between the mountain ranges of the seshachelam and Tirumala hills.
• Flora: Flora includes shorea Robusta, Santalum album, Red sanders etc.
• Fauna: Depend on the biotic and antibiotic Horizon, social vacuum etc. Praying mantis,
painted grass Hooper, click beetle, silk cotton bug etc. ✓ Lower invertebrates like arachinds,
molluscs etc. reptiles like golden gecko, monitor lizard birds like Grey horn bill, crested
serpent eagle, pied kingfisher, this is also home to mammals like leopard , sloth bear ,mouse
deer ,giant squirrels ,four horned antelope etc.
Conclusion
AP is rich in flora and fauna and with state being recorded as ranked as 8th in terms of the
Recorded Forest area. It is the store house of the unique and endemic flora and fauna.

What are protected areas? List the Protected areas in Andhra Pradesh.

Protected Areas:

1. Protected areas are those in which the exploitation of resources is limited and given
certain levels of protection for conservation of biodiversity and socioenvironmental values.

2. In these areas, human intervention and exploitation of resources is limited.

3. Protected areas were formed after the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 was passed.

4. There are types of protected areas: National parks, Wildlife sanctuaries, Community
reserves, Conservation reserves, Marine protected areas etc.

Protected areas in Andhra Pradesh:

There are 16 protected areas in the state including Wildlife sanctuaries, National parks,
Biosphere reserves, Tiger reserve, and elephant reserves. Some of them are:

1. Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary is in East Godavari District along the Bay of Bengal. It is famous
for the salt-water crocodiles. The sanctuary has another geomorphic unique distinction with
sand spit on the coast, where the species of Olive Ridley Sea turtle nests during January-
March of every year. Other important variety of animals found are Fishing Cats, Otters,
Jackals and birds like Sea gulls, Pelicans, Storks, Herons, Snipes, Ducks and Flamingos.

2. GundlaBrahmeswaram Wildlife Sanctuary lies between Kurnool and Prakasam districts. It

is situated on Nallamalla hill range. A perennial river namely Gundlakamma nuns through
this sanctuary. The commonly found animals in this sanctuary are Tiger, Panther, Sloth Bear,
Wild Dog, Hyenas, Jungle Cat, Langur, Bonnet Monkey, Pangolin, Sambar, Nilgai, Chinkara,
Deer, Python, etc

3. Kaundinya Wildlife Sanctuary :This sanctuary is located in Chittoor and covers an area of
358-sq-kms. The topography is rugged with high hills and deep valleys. The Kaigal and
Kaundinya are the two streams flowing through the sanctuary. The commonly found
animals are Cheeta, Antelope, Sambhar, Deer, Wild Hoar, Jackal, Panther, Elephants, etc.

4. Kolleru Bird Sanctuary This bird sanctuary is in West Godavari district. It is the largest
Fresh Water Lake in the country extending over 673-sq-km surrounding the Kolleru Lake. It
carries an epitome "Peerless Fisherman's Paradise and Birds heaven". This lake supports a
rich biomass of fish and plankton that forms the source of food for birds. Pelicans on mass
migration from Tundra region arrive here during winter, the nesting season to raise their
young. In addition to Pelicans, other birds include Herons, White Ibis, Egrets, Teals, Pintails,
Storks, Cormorants, Ducks, Coots, Terns, Jacanas, Moor Hens etc.

5. Krishna Wildlife Sanctuary is located near Avanigadda village in Krishna district of Andhra
Pradesh extending over 194.81-km. This Mangrove Forest on the estuary of river Krishna
harbours Fishing Cat, Otter Jackal, Estuarine Crocodile and a variety of seasonal birds.

6. Papikonda National Park: Papikonda wildlife sanctuary is located in three districts -

Khammam, East Godavari and West Godavari. It is 50-km from Rajahmundry and extends
over 591-sqkm. It lies on the left and right banks of the river Godavari and cuts through the
Papikonda hill range of Eastern Ghats. Fauna: The habitat is suited for Tigers, Gaurs, Panther
and other animals like Spotted Deer, Four Horned Antelope, Sambar, Hyena, Jackals, Sloth
Bear, Muggers, etc. The presence of Gharials is also reported. A variety of both resident and
migratory birds are found along river Godavari and its tributaries,

7. Pulicat and Nelapattu Sanctuaries These are spread over Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
They cover a total area of 900-sq-km. The global migratory bird species here escaping severe
winters of tundra region. The rich biomass with invertebrates like Prawn, Plankton, Molluscs
and Fishes of about 65 different species support huge population of Flamingo and Pelican.
Other fauna include Storks, Herons, Cormorants, Ibises, Spoon Bills, Egrets, Ducks, Pintails,
Sand Pipers, etc. In addition to the above one can find reptiles like Monitor Lizard, Calotes,
Cobra, Russel Viper, Krait etc. This sanctuary provides fine breeding ground for rare and
endangered species like Grey Pelicans, Open-Billed Storks, Little Cormorants, Spoonbills,
White- Ibises and Night Herons.

8. Rollapadu Bird sanctuary is near Nandikotkuru in Kurnool district. It spreads over an area
of 614-sq-km, and it hosts the endangered Great Indian Bustard. The land is covered all over
with open grass and dry thorny bushes. Various kinds of animals, birds and reptiles found
here are Black Buck, Macaque, Indian Bustard, Indian Roller, Sparrows, Mynas, Russell's
Viper, Indian Cobra, Jackal, Wolf, Indian Fox, etc.

9. Sri Venkateshwara National Park is spread across YSR Kadapa and Chittoor districts of
Andhra Pradesh. It is a part of the Sri Venkateshwara wildlife sanctuary and extends over an
area of 353-sq-kms. The important fauna includes Parakeets, Manias, Ducks, Geese and a
variety of other Birds like Flamingos, Swans, Pelicans, Raptors, Peafowl, Herbivores,
Elephants, etc. Srisailam Sanctuary.
10. Srisailam sanctuary is located on the banks of river Krishna in Kurnool district. This is the
country's one of the largest Tiger Reserves. The terrain is rugged and winding gorges slice
through the Nallamala hills by the river Krishna. This Srisailam sanctuary is spread over an
area of 3568 sq. km. Dry deciduous mixed forest with scrub and bamboo thickets provide
shelter to a wide range of animals. Spotted Deer,Mouse Deer, Black Bucks, Sambhars,Wild
Boars, Indian Giant Squirrels, TreeShrews, Mugger Crocodiles, Wild Dogs,Jackals, Wolves,
Foxen, Sloth Bear,Panthers, Tigers, etc are the most common animals found in this
sanctuary. This forest reserve has a rare and distinct recognition with fastest and high
growth rate of tiger population in India.

11. Sri Lankamalleswara Sanctuary is inYSR Kadapa district. This sanctuary isthe habitat for
rare and endangered species, Jordan's Courser. The main species found here are Spotted
Deer,Sambar, Wild Boar, Fox, Sloth Bear,Panther, Leopard, etc.

Conclusion:These protected areas provide important habitats for a variety of wildlife

species,including tigers, leopards, elephants, and many species of birds. They also
provideimportant opportunities for scientific research, education, and recreation for
visitors. By conserving these areas and their unique ecosystems, India is working to ensure
that future generations can enjoy their natural beauty and rich biodiversity.

Give a brief account on natural distribution of tiger population across India.

Once upon a time, Tigers roamed freely all over India. They appear on the seals of the Indus
civilisation. The Arthashastra of Kautilya mentioned vyaala (tiger) vana, a reserve for tigers,
protected by royal command. The tiger is associated with Goddess Durga. Many forest
tribes in India like Gonds, Koyas etc. revered tiger as sacred animal. In this way Indian
culture venerated and protected this beautiful animal and declared it as national animal.

Distribution of Tigers across India:

• The tiger sits at the peak of the food chain, and its conservation is important to ensure the
well-being of the forest ecosystem.

• It is an adaptable species that can survive in a wide variety of habitats and climates
ranging from high mountains, mangroves swamps, tall grasslands, to dry and moist
deciduous forests, as well as evergreen forests as witnessed in all over the geography of
India.

• Tigers prefer a large territory, the size of which is determined by the availability of prey. It
marks the territory by urine, feces, rakes, scrapes, and vocalizing

• India launched Project Tiger and created more than 50 Tiger reserves for its conservation.

• India has five major tiger landscape regions. They are

✓ Shivalik Hills and Gangetic Plains: high density of tiger population in this landscape can be
attributed to existence of large forest area with plenty of tiger prey base.

✓ Central India and Eastern Ghats: nearly half of the total Tiger Reserves of India can be
seen in this landscape.

✓ The Western Ghats: It is a global biodiversity hotspot and has 11 protected tiger reserves.

✓ North Eastern Hills and Brahmaputra Flood Plains: Nine tiger reserves are located in this
landscape.

✓ Sundarbans: Home for Royal Bengal Tiger. It is a Global priority Tiger Conservation
Landscape Unit.

• All the landscapes have recorded an increase in tiger numbers in recent census

• 20 states of India have reported tiger population. Madhya Pradesh (526) followed by
Karnataka (524) have highest number of tigers and together home to one third of total
tigers in the country.

• Andhra Pradesh is home to India’s largest tiger reserve Nagarjuna Sagar Srisailam Tiger
reserve. The primitive tribal group Chenchus are involved in management of this reserve.

• 2018 assessment shows Corbett Tiger Reserve has the largest population of about 231
tigers. Tiger Reserves at Bandhavgarh, Bandipur, Nagarhole, Mudumalai and Kaziranga each
had over a hundred tigers.

• Of all the Tiger species that exist, Bengal tigers are the most numerous subspecies.

Tiger census in India:

• The tiger estimation exercise includes habitat assessment and prey estimation. The
numbers reflect the success or failure of conservation efforts.

• In 2010, governments of 13 countries that have tiger ranges had come together in St.
Petersburg, Russia, to cooperate and help double the population of wild tigers by 2022

• As of 2018, India’s Tiger population stands at a total of 2967 which is 70 per cent of the
global tiger population and India achieved its target of doubling the tigers by 2018 only.

• Threats : poaching, destruction of natural vegetation, animal-human conflict, etc

• Measures: Project Tiger, conservation of forests, community based conservation, etc

Mahabharata mentioned ‘Do not cut down that forest with its tigers! Let not the tigers be
driven from that forest! There can be no forest without tigers, and no tigers without a
forest. The forest shelters the tigers and tigers guard the forest.’ This philosophy holds true
in present times as well.
Project Tiger:

• Project Tiger has been implemented since 1973. It was launched from the Jim Corbett
National Park in Uttarakhand.

• The main objective of the scheme is to ensure maintenance of viable population of tigers
in India for scientific, aesthetic, cultural and ecological values, and to preserve areas of
biological importance as natural heritage for the benefit, education

and enjoyment of the people.

• Project Tiger is being administered by National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA). NTCA
a statutory authority, established under Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972 via an amendment,
the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act of 2006.

• Initially, the Project Tiger was launched in nine tiger reserves, covering an area of 16,339
sq. km, which has now increased to 53 tiger reserves encompassing a total area of 71027.10
sq. km.

• India is now home to 80% of the world's tiger’s population.

• Corbett National Park in Uttarakhand, Sunderbans National Park in West Bengal,

Bandhavgarh National Park in Madhya Pradesh, Sariska Wildlife Sanctuary in Rajasthan,
Manas Tiger Reserve in Assam and Periyar Tiger Reserve in Kerala are some of the tiger
reserves of India.

Andhra Pradesh has selected Black Buck as its state animal. Throw a light on the
geographical distribution of Black Buck population in Andhra Pradesh

Black Buck, Krishna Jinka in Telugu, are found only in the Indian subcontinent. They
are protected under schedule I of Wildlife Protection Act of 1972. Andhra Pradesh state
declared it as state animal.

Natural Habitat of Black Buck:

• The vernacular name "blackbuck" is a reference to the dark brown to black colour
of the dorsal (upper) part of the coat of the males.

• The black buck mostly lives in open grasslands, dry scrub areas, thinly forested
areas. They are grazers of grasses (herbivorous)

• Due to their regular need of water, they prefer areas where water is perennially
available.

• Blackbucks cannot sustain cold climate. Hence, they are mostly found in the desert
areas of Rajasthan and coastal areas. It is also found at the foothills of the Himalayas where
climate is moderate and jungles are not very dense.
 • The animals are mainly seen in three broad clusters across India that is the
northern, southern, and eastern regions.

• In India, they are found predominantly in the states of Gujarat, Punjab, Rajasthan
and Haryana and Andhra Pradesh

• They have very good eyesight and are also very fast runners, which comprise its
main defense against predators.

• The black bucks are active during the day and their activities generally slow down
with the onset of noon. They generally move in herds. The size of the herd depends upon
the availability of forage and natural habitat.

Black Buck population in Andhra Pradesh:

• The islands surrounded by the branches of the Godavari, such as the Gowthami,
Vasista, Vainteya and Vridha Gowthami, in Konaseema and East Godavari districts are a
major habitat for blackbucks, which roam across the region close to human habitations.

• Of the many islands that are home to the animal, Bobbarlanka, located
downstream Dowleswaram barrage, is home to a huge number of blackbucks, where they
can be sighted all through the year.

• In the islands of the Godavari, co-existence of local communities with the

blackbuck has been ensuring the safety of the species. Blackbucks inhabit Adoni Forest belt
of Kurnool district in large numbers. Rollapadu sanctuary of Kurnool district is the primary
habitat for Black Bucks.

• Black Bucks in Andhra are facing habitat problem and a majority of them live in
unprotected areas. For food requirements they raiding nearby crops leading to man animal
conflict.

• Recently, Andhra Pradesh State Wildlife Department has kick-started the first-ever
survey of blackbucks along a stretch of islands in the Godavari between Dowleswaram and
Yanam with the goal of drawing up a conservation plan to protect the endangered species.

• Since it was declared as state animal, it must be the duty of people and the state to
protect and conserve this beautiful species. Government must establish exclusive protect
areas for this animal in their natural habitats.

Write about the fauna and flora of Seshachalam Biosphere

• Seshachalam hills, the first Biosphere Reserve in Andhra Pradesh, is located in

southern Eastern Ghats of Chittoor and Kadapa districts. It is spread over 4755.99 Km. It is
the richest floristic hot spot harbouring many endemic and rare plants.
 • The Seshachalam Biosphere Reserve (SLBR), designated in 2011, is located in
Seshachalam hills; ranges of Eastern Ghats in Southern Andhra Pradesh. The reserve intends
to enhance the efforts of conserve.

• The reserve aims to support the conservation of species in situ by supporting

economic and social development. It is home to a number of endemic species.

• Fauna:

✓ The wildlife belonging to schedules 1 2 3 & 4 occur in the area. The forests of the
reserve harbor certain highly endangered wildlife species, like Slender Loris, Indian Giant
squirrel, Mouse deer, Golden Gecko, etc.

✓ Tigers, Elephants, Slothbear, Indian wolf , wild boar, chinkara, Four-horned

antelope, chital and sambar, Ibex, pig, Bonnet monkey, Mongoose, Wild dogs Black, Bison,
Jackal, Fox, Civetcat, Junglecat, Lizards are some of other animals commonly found roaming
in this area.More than 150 species of birds are reportedfrom this area.

✓ Pangolins, Pythons, Pea Fowl, Jungle Fowl, Partridges, Quail, Crested Serpent
Eagle, Ashy Crowned Finch Lark, Indian Roller, Kingfishers, and White Bellied Woodpeckers,
among others, can be found.

✓ It is estimated that 137 species of birds are found in the Seshachalam Forests. The
Seshachalam Biosphere Reserve's forests are home to an endangered bird species, the
Yellow-throated Bulbul.

• Flora

✓ The reserve is a home for nearly 1756 species of flowering plants. It has large
reserves of Red Sandalwood (Pterocarpussantalinus) which is used in medicines, soaps,
spiritual rituals.

✓ Other floral species (in vernacular language) includes Gowri kuntala, Chiruteku,
kallateku, sirateku, Revadi Chettu, Uvva, Puluru Mamidi, Elli dabba, Pedda Dusara etc.

Conclusion

The Seshachalam bio-reserve, among other areas, also includes Sri Venkateswara
National Park of which the famous hill temple town of Lord Venkateswara too forms a
division, besides Sri Venkateswara wild life sanctuary and the Idupulapaya.
Discuss any four Threatened species in India and Andhra Pradesh
• The Red List has seven levels of conservation: least concern, near threatened, vulnerable,
endangered, critically endangered, extinct in the wild, and extinct. Each category represents
a different threat level.

Critically Endangered species in India:

• Kashmir Stag or Hungal

 Hangul, the state animal of Jammu & Kashmir, is restricted to the Dachigam
National Park some 15 km north-west of Jammu & Kashmir’s summer capital
Srinagar.
 Protection status: The Hangul is placed under Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife
(Protection) Act, 1972 and the J&K Wildlife Protection Act, 1978.
 IUCN Status: The IUCN’s Red List has classified it as Critically Endangered and is
similarly listed under the Species Recovery Programme of the Wildlife Institute of
India (WII) and the Environmental Information System (ENVIS) of the MoEFCC.
 Threats: Habitat fragmentation, predation and very low fawn-female ratio. Also,
Lack of desirable breeding and fawn survival is a grave concern for the population
growth

• Nilgiri Tahr

 Historically, the Nilgiri Tahr was known to inhabit a large portion of the Western
Ghats. But today it remains restricted to a few scattered patches in Tamil Nadu and
Kerala.
 It has become locally extinct in around 14% of its traditional shola forest-grassland
habitat.
 Protection status: Wildlife (Protection) Act of India,1972: Schedule I
 IUCN Status: Endangered

Critically Endangered species in Andhra Pradesh

• Indian Pangolin

 Pangolin, a rare, scales covered nocturnal mammal, about the size of a medium
house cat, looks like a walking pinecone or a mini dinosaur or a baby crocodile.
 When the pangolin is frightened, it immediately curls up into a roll ball as a self-
protection mechanism.
 Pangolins eat ants, termites and various larvae including the bee larvae, worms and
flies etc and thus play a vital role in maintaining the ecological food chain.
  Habitat: India is home to two i.e., Indian Pangolin (in south India) and the Chinese
Pangolin (north and north-east parts India),
 Protection Status: Schedule I of India’s Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
 IUCN Status: Endangered (EN)
 Threat:

i) for their scales, which are boiled for use in ‘traditional medicine’.

ii) pangolin scales are used in traditional medicine and folk remedies to treat a range of
ailments from asthma to

rheumatism and arthritis.

iii) for their meat & blood which is a high-end delicacy in Vietnam,Indonesia &China

• Red Sanders

 Red Sanders (Pterocarpus santalinus), or red sandalwood, is an endemic tree species

with distribution restricted to the Eastern Ghats of India.
 The species found in Andhra Pradesh and growing up to a height of 10 to 15 metres
is reported to be one of India’s most exploited tree species, and is under severe
pressure from illegal logging and harvesting.
 Protection Status: Listed under Schedule IV of the Wildlife Protection Act
 IUCN Status: Endangered (EN). • Cycas beddomei (Plant species)
 Cycas beddomei is protected under Schedule VI (Section 2) of Wildlife Protection Act
 (1972), Government of India. The species is prohibited from cultivation.
 Cycas beddomei is a xerophyte and suffers arid conditions for some months of the
year. ✓ Protection Status: Out of the known 118 Cycas species, Cycas beddomei is
the only Cycas species to be listed in Appendix I of CITES (Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora). ✓ IUCN Status:
Critically Endangered (EN)

Conclusion

The Red List defines the severity and specific causes of a species’ threat of extinction.

Great Indian Bustard

• It is the State bird of Rajasthan with population of about 150 in Rajasthan accounting for
95% of its total world population.

• Habitat: The great Indian bustard was historically found in 11 states of Western India and
specific areas of Pakistan.

✓ Today, Gujarat and Rajasthan are home to the majority of its population.
✓ Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh have small populations.

• Protection status: Listed in Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, in the
CMS Convention and in Appendix I of CITES.

• IUCN status: Critically Endangered

• Threats: Hunting, poaching, collisions with electric cables,

and habitat loss due to agricultural expansion and infrastructure development pose major
threats to the species.

Jerdon’s Courser

• It is a nocturnal bird, flagship species for the extremely threatened scrub jungle.

• Habitat: It inhabits sparse, thorny and non-thorny scrub-forest and bushes, interspersed
with patches of bare ground, in gently undulating, rocky foothills.

✓ Found only in the Eastern Ghats of the state of Andhra Pradesh in peninsular.

✓ Jerdon’s Courser is endemic to Andhra Pradesh.

✓ Evidence of presence neighbouring areas of the state of Maharashtra and southern

Madhya Pradesh.

• The species was considered to be extinct until it was rediscovered in 1986 and the area of
rediscovery was subsequently declared as the Sri Lankamalleswara Wildlife Sanctuary.

• Protection status: Listed in Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.

• IUCN status: Critically Endangered.

• Threats: Clearing of scrub jungle, creation of new pastures,

growing of dry land crops, plantations of exotic trees, quarrying and the construction of the
Telugu-Ganga Canal and Illegal trapping.

Enumerate the causes for the extinction of cheetahs in India. And

also discuss the various challenges associated with reintroduction
of Cheetah in India?
Recently Eight Namibian (African) wild cheetahs were reintroduced in Kuno National Park
(Madhya Pradesh) after 70 years of extinction. The Asiatic cheetah was the native species of
cheetah in India until it became extinct in 1952. Exclusively about 12 Asiatic cheetahs
remain in the wild today, and they are found only in Iran.

Causes for the extinction of cheetahs in India:

 Hunting: Cheetahs were heavily hunted by the ruling class in India during the Mughal era
for sport and entertainment. This led to a significant decline in their population.

 Loss of habitat: With the expansion of human settlements and agriculture, the cheetah's
natural habitat was destroyed, leaving them with limited areas to roam and hunt.

 Decline in prey: The decline in the cheetah's natural prey, such as antelope and deer, due
to hunting and habitat loss also contributed to their extinction.

 Disease: The outbreak of a disease called canine distemper in the 18th century is believed
to have contributed to the decline of the cheetah population in India.

 Competition with other predators such as leopards and tigers, for limited resources,
further decreasing their chances of survival.

 Lack of genetic diversity: The Indian cheetahs were believed to have a smaller gene pool
due to isolation from other populations, which made them more vulnerable to diseases and
other environmental stressors.

 Inbreeding: Due to the small population size and lack of genetic diversity, inbreeding was
also a problem among the Indian cheetahs, leading to a decline in reproductive fitness and
survival rates.

 Lack of conservation efforts: Until the mid-20th century, there were no formal
conservation efforts aimed at protecting the cheetah in India. By the time conservation
efforts began, it was too late to save the species.

 Poaching: Even after the cheetah population had declined significantly, poaching for their
skins and other body parts continued to be a problem, which may have further contributed
to their extinction.

Various challenges associated with reintroduction of cheetah in India:

 Habitat availability: Cheetahs require large open areas with abundant prey for hunting,
and suitable habitats in India have become scarce due to human activities. Reintroduction
efforts would need to ensure that adequate habitat is available and can support a viable
population of cheetahs.

 Competition with other predators: The reintroduction of cheetahs may lead to

competition with other predators such as leopards and tigers, which could potentially lead
to conflicts and negative impacts on the existing predator populations.

 Genetic diversity: The cheetah population in India was isolated for a long time, which may
have led to reduced genetic diversity. Reintroduction efforts would need to consider genetic
diversity to ensure that the population can maintain genetic health and avoid inbreeding.
 Disease risks: Cheetahs are susceptible to several diseases, and reintroduction efforts
would need to address the risk of disease transmission to the reintroduced population.

 Human-wildlife conflict: As the cheetah population grows and expands, they may come
into conflict with human populations. Reintroduction efforts would need to address
potential conflicts, such as predation on livestock or human safety concerns.

 Conservation and logistical challenges: Reintroduction of cheetahs to India would require

coordination among various stakeholders, including government agencies, conservation
organizations, and local communities. It would also require significant resources, funding,
and technical expertise.

Conclusion

Overall, reintroducing cheetahs to India is a complex process that would require careful
planning and management to address the challenges associated with habitat availability,
genetic diversity, disease risks, human-wildlife conflict, and logistical and political challenges

‘+1’ Value Addition

Measures to make the re-introduction plan a success  An appropriate strategy for

monitoring with veterinary oversight  Scientific assessment of the degree of adaptation is
required.  A dedicated team to monitor the status of cheetahs and other carnivores
available in the wild.  Various outreach and awareness events to familiarise the locals with
the reintroduction strategy in order to spread awareness among residents and sensitize the
youth.

Invasive species in AP:

1. In North coastal AP, Acacia and Eucalyptus were introduced in AP during the soil
conservation drive in 1960s and 1970s. Acacia was detrimental to the cattle farmers as it
encourages growth of shrubs that has proved to be toxic to bovines. Eucalyptus is notorious
for being water guzzler and has outcompeted other vegetations in its proximity.

2. Piranhas’ close kin ‘Pacu’ fish, native of Amazon basin, has surprisingly been found in
coastal water of East Godavari district and it is reported to have effected biodiversity of the
region as it preys on other fishes. 3. Exotic plant species like Australian Acacia or Acacia
Auriculiformis brought from abroad and planted in the Seshachalam biosphere reserve as
part of the special afforestation drive were frequently causing forest fires, thereby posing
threat to the ecosystem. Over the last decade, forest fires had been occurring frequently
because of these exotic plantations as these alien species attained quick maturity. Once they
become dry, the combustible load increases. 4. The Red-eared slider, a kind of tortoise
native to Mexico, was found recently on the banks of the Krishna in Vijayawada. According
to the WWF experts red-eared slider is the most invasive turtle. It can havenegative impacts
on the ecosystems to which they are not native. The species have certain advantages over
the native populations such as lower age of maturity, higher fecundity rates and larger body
size, which gives them a competitive advantage at basking and nesting sites. They exploit
the food resources in an ecosystem. The most worrying part is that the species also transmit
diseases and displace the other turtle species with which they compete for food and
breeding space.

Seismic zones of Andhra Pradesh

Andhra Pradesh state in the southern peninsular India has a low to moderate seismic
hazard. The state falls in seismic zones II and III (as per Bureau of Indian standards map
2002). ➢ The area under south eastern parts of Chittoor, Nellore, Kadapa, Eastern
Prakasam, Bapatla lie in zone III. ➢ Districts of East Godavari, West Godavari, Guntur,
Konaseema, Eastern Kakinada and Krishna river basins and their delta regions also lie in
zone III. ➢ Most of the Western Rayalaseema falls under zone Zone II

➢ Northern districts of the state also fall under Zone II Though the state is regarded as
relatively stable, it has experienced few earthquakes of magnitude up to 6.0 in the last 50
years. In Andhra Pradesh, Godavari valley and Ongole region are seismic zones that are
susceptible to producing earthquakes of magnitudes up to 6.0. Researchers at the University
of Hyderabad have found a fault line in the Godavari-Krishna basin and predicted that it
could trigger Earth quake in northern AP, especially in Visakhapatnam.

Agro climatic zones of Andhra Pradesh.

The cropped area in Andhra Pradesh is divided into seven zones based on the agroclimatic
conditions. The classification mainly concentrates on the range of rainfall received, type and
topography of the soils.

a. Krishna – Godavari Zone: It covers East Godavari, West Godavari, Krishna, Guntur, and
contiguous areas of Prakasam. Rainfall of this zone is 800-1100 mm and soil type is deltaic
alluvium, red soils with clay, red loams, coastal sands and saline soils. Paddy, Groundnut,
Jowar, Bajra, Tobacco, cotton, chillies, Sugarcane and Horticultural Crops are the important
crops grown.

b. North Coastal Zones: Covers Srikakulam, Vizianagaram, Visakhapatnam and uplands of

East Godavari districts. This zone receives a rainfall of 1000-1100 mm mainly from south
west monsoon. Soil type is red soils with clay base, pockets of acidic soils, and laterite soils.
Main crops grown in these zones are Paddy, Groundnut, Jowar, Bajra, Mesta, Jute, Sun
hemp, Sesame, Black gram and Horticultural Crops.

c. Southern Zone: Districts in this zone are Nellore, Chittoor, Southern parts of Prakasam and
Annamayya and Eastern parts of Anantapur and Sri satya sai districts. Rainfall received is
about 700-1100 mm. Soil type is Red loamy soils, Shallow to moderately deep. Crops like
Paddy, Groundnut, cotton Sugarcane. Millets and Horticultural Crops are mainly grown.

d. Scarce rainfall zone: the districts covered are Kurnool, Anantapur, Prakasam (western
parts), Cuddapah (Northern part). Receives a scant rainfall of 500-750 mm. Soil type is red
earths with loamy soils (Chalkas), red sandy soils and black cotton soils in pockets. Cotton,
Korra, Sorghum, Millets, Groundnut, Pulses, Paddy are the important crops.

e. High altitude and Tribal areas: Northern borders of Srikakulam, Vizianagaram and
Visakhapatnam, and East Godavari. This zone receives a rainfall of more than 1400 mm.
Horticultural Crops, Millets, Pulses Chillies, Turmeric and Pepper are the important crops
grown.

Irrigation Projects

Polavaram:

 Expected to provide irrigation facility to 7.2 Lakh acres

 Generate 960 MW hydro power
 Facilitate diversion of 80 TMC of Godavari water to krishna
 Supply 23 TMC to industrial development
 Provide drinking water facilities to 28 Lakh population in 540 villages

Hundri-Niva Sujala Sravanti (HNSS)

 Longest water canal project in RS

 Conceived to provide irrigation facilities and reliable drinking water supply, by drawing
flood waters from the Srisailam reservoir.
 Utilizes 40 TMC flood water from Krishna
 The lift canal with a length of nearly 550 km, takes off from the back waters of Srisailam
reservoir at Malyala and routed along the hill ridges up to high lands in Chittoor district
via Kurnool, Ananthapur and Kadapa districts with many lifts / pumping stations
 Phase 1
o 220 kilometers length of the canal up to Jeedipalli reservoir (Ananthapur), is
completed.
o 3 Nos of balancing Reservoirs constructed in Phase-I i.e., Krishnagiri (Kurnool
District), Pathikonda Reservoir (Kurnool District) and Jeedipalli Reservoir
(Anantapuram District).
 Phase 2
o 349 kilometers length, 75% completed of the main canal up to Adivipalli
Reservoir Chittoor District
o Utilizing 26 TMC of water through 3 Branch Canals Madakasira, Punganur and
Niva, and 3 Distributories namely Atmakuru, Thamballapalli, Vayalpadu in the
Drought prone upland Areas of Rayalaseema Districts
 Can provide Irrigation facility to 6 Lakh acres in four districts of Rayalaseema
o Peruru Branch Canal
o Madakasira Branch Canal
o Punganuru Branch Canal
o Niva Branch Canal
 To make this lift canal operational for catering to drinking water needs even during a
severe drought year, K. C. Canal water sourced from Sunkesula barrage can be fed to
this pump house by gravity when water level in the Srisailam reservoir is below
minimum draw down level required by the water pumps.

Galeru-Nagari Sujala Sravanti (GNSS) : In Kadapa, Chitoor and Nellore districts

Envisages drawl of 40 TMC surplus flood waters of river Krishna from the foreshore of
Srisailam Reservoir through Srisailam Right Bank Canal (SRBC) system up to Gorakallu
Reservoir and thereafter through an independent flood flow canal to feed eleven storage
reservoirs en route and utilize the stored water for irrigation during the Rabi season

Irrigates 2.6 Lakh Acres and provides drinking water facilities to 5 Lakh population

Phase 1 completed

 6 TMC stored in Gorakallu reservoir

 Water is being supplied to Gandikota reservoir

Poola Subbaiah Veligonda Project

In Markapur, Prakasam district Diverting 43.5 TMC of floodwater from the Krishna River
from foreshore of Srisailam Reservoir near Kollamvagu and proposed to store in
Nallamalasagar Reservoir.

The water for the project is drawn through two 18.8 km long tunnels across Nallamala hills

(implemented by double shielded tunnel boring machine to make the tunnel without
disturbing wildlife in NSTR) .Will provide relief to floride affected mandals of Nellore, Kadapa
and Prakasam districts

Babu Jagjivan Ram Uttarandhra Sujala Sravanti

 Major Lift Irrigation Scheme

 To provide irrigation facilities to 8.00 lakh acres in the upland areas of Visakhapatnam,
Vizainagaram and Srikakulam Districts.
 To provide Industrial and Drinking water facilities to 1200 villages covering a population
of 30.00 Lakhs.
 Utilization of 63 TMC flood waters from Godavari
 The total water requirement of the Project comes to 63.2 TMC as follows
o Irrigation Requirement for 8.00 Lakh Acres @1500 Acrs/TMC - 53.40 TMC
o Drinking Water Requirement for 30 Lakh Population @ 110 Liters/capita - 4.46
TMC
o Industrial Water Supply @ 1% of Irrigation Requirement. - 5.34 TMC
 Static lifts involved under the project are
o 1st Stage Lift near Purushothampatnam - 28m
o IInd Stage Lift near Papayyapalem - 45 m
o IIIrd Stage (4 Nos) near the four Proposed reservoirs 45 m each - 45 m
 The project contemplates lifting 230 cumecs of flood water from River Godavari for 90
days near Purushothapatnam (v) of East Godavari District and convey to Tallapalem (v)
near Anakapalli by Gravity Canal of length 23 KM.
 The water so conveyed will be further lifted to + 72.50M (over a static head of 45M) and
run through a main canal of 106 km length finally dropping into existing Gadigedda
Reservoir in Vizianagaram Dist.
 To be completed in two phases consisting of six packages — one package in phase-1 and
five in phase-II.
 SPV - Uttarandhra Irrigation Projects Development Corporation Ltd, for mobilising funds
for the project.