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FRIE NDSH IP
& DIV ERS I T Y
CLASS, ETHNICITY AND SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS IN THE CITY

Carol Vincent, Sarah Neal, Humera Iqbal

Friendship and Diversity
 Carol Vincent
Sarah Neal • Humera Iqbal

Friendship and
Diversity
Class, Ethnicity and Social
Relationships in the City
Carol Vincent Sarah Neal
UCL Institute of Education Department of Sociological Studies
University College London University of Sheffield
London, UK Sheffield, UK

Humera Iqbal
UCL Institute of Education
University College London
London, UK

ISBN 978-3-319-73000-4    ISBN 978-3-319-73001-1 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-73001-1

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018935410

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and trans-
mission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or
dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Cover design by Tjaša Krivec

Printed on acid-free paper

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer International
Publishing AG part of Springer Nature.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
 Acknowledgements

First of all we wish to thank the teachers, parents and children who took
part in our study and kindly welcomed us and gave us their time and
thoughts. At the time of writing, the children will be in secondary school
and we hope that things are going well for them.
We also would like to thank the Economic and Social Research Council
for funding the research on which this book is based (award number ES/
K002384/1).
We are extremely grateful to Margaret Leggett for her—as ever—
entirely reliable and accurate transcribing, and also to Amani Noor Iqbal
for her careful and beautiful drawings inspired by the children’s friend-
ship maps.
Many people have supported both the research, and us as researchers,
since we started the fieldwork in 2013. We would like to thank our advi-
sory group: Sharon Gewirtz, Gail Lewis, Debbie Weekes-Bernard, Jess
Healy, Daanish Saeed, and Ros George, and the speakers at our dissemi-
nation conference, Ann Phoenix and Tim Butler, for their interest in and
enthusiasm for the project, and their valuable thoughts. Grateful thanks
also to Allan Cochrane for his last minute support!
In addition:
Carol would also like to thank Stephen Ball, Alice Bradbury, Annette
Braun, and Diane Reay for their unstinting academic and moral support.
It is much appreciated. Research students Sara Joiko and Manuela
v
vi Acknowledgements

Mendoza have also helped me clarify my thinking, for which I’m grateful.
Thanks also to all the parents with whom I have stood in a ‘cluster’ in my
children’s playground over the years. Their friendship was and is highly
valued. Finally, much love as ever to Ian, Madi and Dan for always keep-
ing work in its place!
Sarah would like to thank Les Back, Alice Bloch, Rachel Brooks,
Melissa Butcher, Allan Cochrane, Jon Garland, Andrew King, Gail Lewis,
Karim Murji, Greg Noble, John Solomos, Selvaraj Velayuthum, Sophie
Watson, Susanne Wessendorf and Amanda Wise—ever-insightful friends
and wise colleagues. And love and thanks to my moorings—Allan, and
Brock, who grew up in schools like the ones we write about.
Humera would like to thank Michela Franceschelli, Sarah Crafter,
Sophie Zadeh, Susan Golombok and Margaret O’Brien for being great
colleagues; each full of knowledge and great humour. Tabassum and
Zafar for always getting her to the school gates, Marshlee for being a true
friend and Hakim for being just being his wonderful self.
Parts of this book draw on, revise and expand on papers we have writ-
ten previously. We are grateful to the editors and publishers of these jour-
nals for permission to use material from the following papers:

Iqbal, H., Neal, S., & Vincent C. (2016). Children’s Friendships in Super-
Diverse Localities: Encounters with Social and Ethnic Difference. Childhood,
24(1), 128–142. https://doi.org/10.1177/0907568216633741
Neal, S., & Vincent, C. (2013). Multiculture, Urban Middle Class Competencies
and Friendship Practices in Super-Diverse Geographies. Social and Cultural
Geography, 14(8), 909–929. https://doi.org/10.1080/14649365.2013.837191
Neal, S., Vincent, C., & Iqbal, H. (2016). Extended Encounters: Shared Social
Resources, Connective Spaces and Sustained Conviviality in Socially and
Ethnically Complex Urban Geographies. Journal of Intercultural Studies,
37(5), 464–480. Licensed Under Creative Commons Attribution License.
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Available at: https://doi.org/1
0.1080/07256868.2016.1211626
Vincent, C., Neal, S., & Iqbal, H. (2016a). Children’s Friendships in Diverse
Primary Schools: Teachers and the Processes of Policy ­Enactment. Journal of
Education Policy, 31(4), 482–494. https://doi.org/10.1080/02680939.2015.
1130859
 Acknowledgements
   vii

Vincent, C., Neal, S., & Iqbal, H. (2016b). Encounters with Diversity:
Children’s Friendships and Parental Responses. Urban Studies, 54(8),
1974–1989. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042098016634610
Vincent, C., Neal, S., & Iqbal, H. (2017). Living in the City: School Friendships,
Diversity and the Middle Classes. British Journal of Sociology. On-line first.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-4446.12296
 Contents

1 Why Study Friendships and Diversity? Orientations

and Introduction to the Study   1
Introduction   1
An Emergent Sociology of Friendship    4
Friendship as a Marginalised Sociological Concept?    4
An Established Sociology of Friendship?    9
Approaching Diverse Friendships: Conceptual Orientations
and Methodological Challenges  16
The Pilot Study   16
The Main Project   18
How the Book Is Organised   20
Conclusion  22
References  23

2 Encounter, Conviviality and the City: New Directions

in Theorising Interaction Across Difference  29
Introduction  29
Multiculture and the City  30
Gentrification and Super-Diversity  33
Beyond Romanticising Encounter   38
Conviviality  40

ix
x Contents

Habitus: Disruption and Possibility   42

A Return to Place   48
Conclusion  49
References  51

3 Back at School: Research Methods, Design and Reflexive

Dramaturgy  59
Introduction  59
The Research Environment: The Case Study Primary Schools
and Their Geographies  62
Leewood School: An Area of Established Gentrification   64
Junction School: An Area of Emerging Gentrification   65
Fernhill School: An Area of Partial Gentrification   66
Back to School: The Primary School as a Total Institution?   68
Back to School: Dramaturgy and Managing Research
Environments  73
Research Design and Processes   77
The Children and Their Interviews   79
The Adults and Their Interviews   81
Conclusions  84
References  86

4 The Children’s Friendships: Difference, Commonality

and Proximity  89
Introduction  89
Children’s Friendship Relations Across Ethnic and Social
Difference: A Review  92
Bridging Different Worlds?  92
Friendship in Middle Childhood: Being Eight and Nine Years
Old  94
Friendships in Super-Diverse Classrooms   98
Social Networks  100
Crimson Class, Leewood School  104
Burgundy Class, Junction School  105
 Contents
   xi

Scarlet Class, Fernhill School  106

Recognising Difference: Convivial Dispositions?  109
Fluid Identifications and Complex Friendship Practices  114
Conclusion 116
References 119

5 Children’s Agency and Adult Intervention: Children’s

Friendships Through Adult Eyes 123
Introduction 123
School Policy and Practices  124
Managing Friendships and Feelings  126
Teachers’ Readings of Children’s Friendships  129
Reflections on Teachers’ Management of Children’s
Friendships 135
Parental Responses to Children’s Friendships: Social Mix
and Mixing 137
The Ease and Comfort of Similarity  138
After School Activities  140
Conclusion 144
References 147

6 Extended Social and Spatial Encounters in Primary School

Worlds 151
Introduction 151
Connecting and Making Up Social Space: Primary Schools,
Encounter and Places  153
Convivial Space? Social Exchange and Friendship-Making
in Primary School Worlds  157
Schools as Connective Conviviality Sites  162
Home Spaces, Social Intimacy and School-­Based Friendships  167
Conclusions 173
References 175
xii Contents

7 Antagonisms, Ambivalences and Association: Parents’

Friendships and Strategies for Managing Difference
in Everyday Life 179
Introduction 179
A Continuum 180
Refusing Diversity  181
Accepting Homophily  183
Reflexive About Homophily and Difference  188
Enablers 192
Privileged Clusters?  198
Conclusion 202
References 204

8 Conclusion: Understanding Friendship and Diversity 207

Introduction 207
Contributing Themes  209
Civility and Conviviality  212
What Weighting for Friendships?  217
References 220

Appendix 223

Index 235
 About the Authors

Humera Iqbal is a Lecturer in Psychology at UCL Institute of Education and

based at the Thomas Coram Research Unit. She is interested in identity and the
migration experiences of families and young people; in particular, how they
engage with institutions in new settings, parenting and the impact of genera-
tions on family life. She is also interested in mental health and wellbeing in
young people, particularly from minority groups. Humera uses mixed methods
and arts- and film-based methods in her research. Her recent work has focused
on ‘child language brokers’—young people who translate for their families fol-
lowing migration to a new host setting.
Sarah Neal is Professor of Sociology at the University of Sheffield.
Sarah researches and writes in the fields of race, ethnicity, multiculture, com-
munity, belonging and place. Recent publications include The Lived Experience
of Multiculture: The New Spatial and Social Relations of Diversity (Routledge
2018 with K. Bennett, A. Cochrane and G. Mohan); ‘Living in the city: school
friendships, diversity and the middle classes’, British Journal of Sociology (2017
with C. Vincent and H. Iqbal); and ‘Sociologies of Everyday Life’, Sociology
(2015 with K. Murji). She is co-editor of Current Sociology and an editorial
board member of Ethnic and Racial Studies.
Carol Vincent is a Professor of Sociology at UCL Institute of Education. She
has written and researched extensively about parents’ relationships with educa-
tion and schools and the ways in which those relationships are shaped by social

xiii
xiv About the Authors

class and ethnicity. Other research interests include education policy, and the
teaching of citizenship and values in schools. She has been awarded a Leverhulme
Major Research fellowship to explore the teaching of ‘British values’ in schools.
Previously funded research projects have included the educational strategies of
the Black middle classes and the childcare choices of working and middle class
parents. She is a Lead Editor for Journal of Education Policy and an Executive
Editor for British Journal of Sociology of Education.
 List of Figures

Fig. 4.1 Friendship map of Crimson class. (NB: The social class
information featured in Figs. 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3 is derived from
parental occupation and education, so is only available for those
children whose parents also participated in the research. Please
also see endnote 1 on ethnic categorisation)101
Fig. 4.2 Friendship map of Burgundy class 102
Fig. 4.3 Friendship map of Scarlet class 103

xv
 List of Tables

Table 3.1 Overview of the schools and classrooms in the study 64

Table A.1 Details for the parent participants 224
Table A.2 Details for the child participants 231
Table A.3 Details for the teacher participants 233

xvii
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