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978-0-521-71020-6 - Survival: The Survival of the Human Race
Edited by Emily Shuckburgh
Frontmatter
More information

Survival

‘Survival of the fittest is probably the best known reduction of Charles

Darwin’s thought, and this fascinating and accessible book examines
the survival of the human race from a broad range of viewpoints.
Through in-depth examinations of a number of very distinct aspects of
human life, the book covers topics ranging from the preservation of
Empires, to the challenges of maintaining cultural identity, the
sufferings inflicted by famine, disease and natural disasters, the
opportunities for increased longevity, and the threats presented by
climate change. The chapters draw from the expertise of those in the
arts and humanities, as well as the social, physical and biological
sciences. Each chapter explores strategies which may be adopted to
assist us in our individual struggle for existence and to preserve, and
indeed improve, our collective lifestyles.

© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org

9780521710206pre 28-7-2007 10:00 p.m. Page: ii
Cambridge University Press
978-0-521-71020-6 - Survival: The Survival of the Human Race
Edited by Emily Shuckburgh
Frontmatter
More information

THE DARWIN COLLEGE LECTURES

Survival
THE SURVIVAL OF THE HUMAN RACE

Edited by Emily Shuckburgh

© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org

Cambridge University Press
978-0-521-71020-6 - Survival: The Survival of the Human Race
Edited by Emily Shuckburgh
Frontmatter
More information

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo

Cambridge University Press

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK

Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521710206

© Darwin College 2008

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without
the written permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 2008

Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge

A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library

ISBN 978–0–521–71020–6 paperback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or

accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to
in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such
websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.

© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org

9780521710206pre 28-7-2007 10:00 p.m. Page: v

Contents

Acknowledgements page vii

1 Survival of the human race 1

EMILY SHUCKBURGH

2 Survival of empires 21
PAUL KENNEDY

3 Survival of culture 53
EDITH HALL

4 Survival of language 80
PETER AUSTIN

5 Surviving disease 99
RICHARD FEACHEM and
OLIVER SABOT

6 Surviving natural disasters 123

JAMES JACKSON

7 Surviving famine 146

ANDREW PRENTICE

8 Surviving longer 178

CYNTHIA KENYON and
CLAIRE COCKCROFT

9 Survival into the future 205

DIANA LIVERMAN

Epilogue 225
Notes on the contributors 226
Index 229

v
9780521710206pre 28-7-2007 10:00 p.m. Page: vi
 9780521710206pre 28-7-2007 10:00 p.m. Page: vii

Acknowledgements

A number of fellows and staff of Darwin College contributed to the lecture

series and its publication. The editor would especially like to acknowledge
the assistance of Joyce Graham at every stage of the process, and to
convey warm thanks. The assistance of Grant Tapsell in the early stages
of preparation of the lecture series, Rick Chen in obtaining copyright
permissions for this book and Sarah King in providing transcripts of some
of the lectures is also gratefully acknowledged.

vii
9780521710206pre 28-7-2007 10:00 p.m. Page: viii
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 9780521710206c01 28-7-2007 1:00 p.m. Page: 1

1 Survival of the human race

EMILY SHUCKBURGH

Introduction
It is interesting to contemplate an entangled bank, clothed with many
plants of many kinds, with birds singing on the bushes, with various
insects flitting about, and with worms crawling through the damp earth,
and to reflect that these elaborately constructed forms, so different from
each other, and dependent on each other in so complex a manner, have all
been produced by laws acting around us    Thus, from the war of nature,
from famine and death, the most exalted object which we are capable of
conceiving, namely, the production of the higher animals, directly follows.
From the final paragraph to On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural
Selection, 1859

‘Survival of the fittest’ is probably the best-known reduction of Charles

Darwin’s thought. The phrase was coined by the British economist Herbert
Spencer in an 1864 work, after reading Darwin’s thesis, but it was adopted
by Darwin himself in later editions of his work, who said he found it ‘more
accurate, and sometimes equally convenient’ (5th edition, 1869).
Spencer used the phrase beyond the realms of naturalists to lend support
to his social theories. In The Man versus the State, 1884, he wrote:

And yet, strange to say, now that this truth [the survival of the fittest] is
recognised by most cultivated people, now more than ever before in the
history of the world, are they doing all they can to further survival of
the unfittest!

Survival, edited by Emily Shuckburgh. Published by Cambridge University Press.

© Darwin College 2008.

1
9780521710206c01 28-7-2007 1:00 p.m. Page: 2

Emily Shuckburgh

He goes on to explain this statement by saying that those who try

to assist the ‘unworthy’ make the ‘struggle for existence harder for the
worthy’ by inflicting on them ‘artificial evils in addition to the natural
evils they have to bear’. Thomas Huxley, a friend of Spencer and an ardent
supporter of Darwin’s theory of evolution, argued conversely that social
organisation securing ‘a fair amount of physical and moral welfare’ was
needed to mitigate against the natural, gladiatorial struggle for existence.
Others followed. Almost everywhere in Western civilisation thinkers of
the Darwinian era seized upon the new theory and attempted to sound its
meaning for their own disciplines. Life is struggle; and in that struggle the
fittest survive: this concept pervaded all aspects of life. To the British impe-
rial propagandists, a number of whom founded the National Efficiency
Movement at the turn of the twentieth century (see G. R. Searle’s book of
that title), protecting culture, language, health, were component parts of
the grand struggle for survival in the world at large. In America, captains
of industry like John D. Rockefeller and Andrew Carnegie used it to justify
laissez-faire capitalism. Thus Darwin’s thoughts on survival were invoked
broadly, not just in the context of understanding the natural world, but
also in a host of other areas.
This book considers the ‘survival of the human race’ in the same broad
sense as these Darwinist thinkers. By detailed examination of a number
of very distinct aspects of human life, we will explore what strategies can
be adopted to assist us in our individual struggle for existence and to
preserve and indeed improve our collective lifestyles. The topic is vast in
its coverage, and we will be restricted to examination of but a few distinct
fragments.
We will start by examining the survival of one of the main types
of polity within which humans have chosen or been compelled to live:
empires (Survival of empires, Paul Kennedy). Expressions of identity and
cultural heritage have been integral parts – and problems – not just of
empires but of the entire human experience, and will form the subjects
of the following two chapters (Survival of culture, Edith Hall and Sur-
vival of language, Peter Austin). Subsequent chapters (Surviving disease,
Richard Feachem and Oliver Sabot, Surviving natural disasters, James
Jackson and Surviving famine, Andrew Prentice) will consider questions
of survival in the face of horrors that are both prosaic and profound for

2
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Survival of the human race

many – perhaps most – human beings, now as in the past. The final two
chapters (Surviving longer, Cynthia Kenyon and Surviving into the future,
Diana Liverman) will conclude our journey by examining aspects of sur-
vival which have a distinctively modern feel: the biological challenge of
living longer, and the future survival of societies on a planet influenced
by climate change.

Threats to survival
Quite clearly we humans are to large extent the creators of our own destiny
and the makers of our own doom. Natural selection there may be, but more
often than not the selective pressure is now of an underlying anthropogenic
cause. This allows for a gruesome and potentially catastrophic feedback,
as poignantly described in a recent book entitled Hegemony or Survival, by
Noam Chomsky. He suggests we ‘are entering a period of human history
that may provide an answer to the question of whether it is better to be
smart than stupid’, and suggests that if this question receives a definite
answer it can only be that ‘humans were a kind of “biological error,” using
their allotted 100,000 years to destroy themselves and, in the process,
much else’.
Popular belief has us either invincible or en route to defeat. To some, the
greatest woes of global society are so unimaginably vast that there isn’t
much we as individuals or even as collective bodies can do to ameliorate
them; indeed much is utterly beyond our control. Others believe in the
limitless ability of modern civilisation, with its scientific and technological
capabilities, understanding of economic principles and knowledge gained
from historical precedents, to overcome any crisis. Either one of these
beliefs may ultimately prove accurate, but as we shall see in later chapters
of this book, the problems of global pandemics, natural disasters and
global climate change whilst being serious threats to our survival, need
not be considered insurmountable. As Amartya Sen put it in Development
as Freedom, ‘Tacit pessimism often dominates international reactions to
[the] miseries in the world today’. But, he goes on, ‘there is little factual
basis for such pessimism, nor are there any cogent grounds for assuming
the immutability of hunger and deprivation’.

3
9780521710206c01 28-7-2007 1:00 p.m. Page: 4

Emily Shuckburgh

It is perhaps futile to try to tease out absolute causes of the many varied
threats to survival, but some factors seem to be frequently present. One
such factor is poverty, taken in its broadest sense to describe a deprivation
of basic capabilities reflected in premature mortality, significant under-
nourishment (especially of children), persistent morbidity, widespread
illiteracy and other failures. Time after time we will see in the follow-
ing chapters that it is the most poverty-stricken who are most vulnerable.
In the final chapter, Diana Liverman talks about the ‘double exposure’ of
vulnerable groups to the risks of climate change and economic instability.
For these groups, poverty is inextricably linked to deprivation of economic
and political strength, which in turn is linked to poor health and education
and this is then linked back to poverty and reduced freedoms. Feeding off
this depressing loop is a greater vulnerability to a broad range of threats
to survival, impacting cultural identity as well as longevity. The effects
of this cruel web of feedbacks are felt particularly in African countries
ravished by the terror of HIV/AIDS as is potently described by Richard
Feachem and Oliver Sabot in their chapter on Surviving disease. Indeed
the millennium year opened with the United Nations Secretary-General
Kofi Annan declaring the impact of AIDS in Africa to be ‘no less destructive
than that of warfare itself’.
Subjugation, be it in the form of internal repression by governing powers
or of restrictive policies of colonial rulers, is another factor frequently
associated with threats to survival to both the life of individuals and the
culture of communities; Peter Austin gives the example of loss of language
in his chapter. In her chapter on Survival of culture, Edith Hall uses one
of the most famous tales of subjugation – Odysseus and the Cyclops – to
explore the interleaving between colonial oppression and cultural heritage.
In considering the collapse or survival of past societies, Jared Diamond
in his books Guns, Germs and Steel and Collapse has emphasised the role
of environmental factors often play. He puts forward five factors often
contributing to the failure of societies: environmental damage, climate
change, hostile neighbours, decreased support from trade partners and
the society’s response to its environmental problems. Indeed danger lies
not only in current responses to environmental problems. In his chapter on
Surviving natural disasters, James Jackson discusses the dangers posed
by historical reaction of a society to their environment, exemplified by the

4
 9780521710206c01 28-7-2007 1:00 p.m. Page: 5

Survival of the human race

engineers of ancient Persian civilisations, whose ingenious technology to

bring water supplies to the deserts have resulted in vastly populated cities
such as Tehran evolving in near-certain earthquake disaster zones.
Thus poverty, subjugation and environmental concerns are all factors
associated with threats to survival, be they threats to the lives of indi-
viduals or to the cultural integrity of communities. If there is a virtue
in finding a common linkage between all these various factors, then per-
haps the best description follows Amartya Sen’s thinking and considers
the restriction of individual freedoms, taken to involve both the processes
that allow freedom of actions and decisions and the actual opportunities
that people have given their personal and social circumstances. He has
famously commented that ‘no famine has ever taken place in the history
of the world in a functioning democracy’, pointing out that ‘authoritar-
ian rulers    lack the incentives to take preventative measures’ whereas
‘democratic governments    have to win elections and face public criti-
cisms, and have strong incentives to undertake measures to avert famines
and other catastrophes’.
Yet in this soup of interdependencies, disasters themselves often
bring about loss of law and order, and the breakdown of demo-
cratic stability. Andrew Prentice in his chapter on Surviving famine
notes that in surveys carried out after famines, nearly everyone will
admit that hunger drove them to theft. Similarly, the terrible plague
of Athens in 430–427 BC resulted in a general lawlessness as is
described by the Greek historian Thucydides in The History of the
Peloponnesian War:

No fear of god or law of man had a restraining influence    no one expected

to live long enough to be brought to trial and punished: instead everyone
felt that already a far heavier sentence had been passed on him and was
hanging over him, and that before the time for its execution arrived it
was only natural to get some pleasure out of life.

Shockingly, in the days following the 2005 hurricane in New Orleans

the ensuing lawlessness was evident for the world to see with reports of
shootings, carjackings and thefts across the city (see Figure 1.1). An arti-
cle in the Washington Post entitled A City of Despair and Lawlessness
started:

5
9780521710206c01 28-7-2007 1:00 p.m. Page: 6

Emily Shuckburgh

FIGURE 1.1 New Orleans superdome, September 2005.

NEW ORLEANS, Sept. 1 – Federal and local authorities struggled

Thursday to regain control of this ruined and lawless city, where tens
of thousands of desperate refugees remained stranded with little hope of
rescue and rapidly diminishing supplies of food and drinking water.

There is one final factor of primary importance: population growth.

In An Essay on the Principle of Population in 1798, Thomas Malthus
made his dramatic and defining statement:

The vices of mankind are active and able ministers of depopulation    But
should they fail in this war of extermination, sickly seasons, epidemics,
pestilence, and plague, advance in terrific array, and sweep off their
thousands and ten thousands. Should success be still incomplete, gigantic
inevitable famine stalks in the rear, and with one mighty blow levels the
population with the food of the world.

Although the Malthusian catastrophe has never materialised and popula-

tion growth has failed to follow his exponential growth model, population
size and growth cannot be ignored when considering threats to survival.
On a crude and fundamental level, a larger population results in more

6
 9780521710206c01 28-7-2007 1:00 p.m. Page: 7

Survival of the human race

people available to die as consequence of a threat to individual survival

in one guise or another. This concept was captured by Pierre Verhulst
in his logistic equation model of human population growth (1838). More
subtly, the distribution trends of large populations influence the survival
prospects. The inexorable move of peoples from rural to urban environ-
ments in the name of development is leading to what can only be described
as mega-cities in many parts of the world today. In China urbanisation
has been particularly remarkable – since the 1950s its urban population
has increased nearly sevenfold to half a billion people, representing a
third of the total population. Vast populations living in close proximity,
often in environmentally ill-conceived locations. The increased risks are
too numerous and too obvious to state.
Just one example comes from Amoy Gardens, a large housing estate in
the Kowloon District of Hong Kong consisting of ten 35-storey buildings
where around 15 000 people reside. During the SARS epidemic of 2003,
a single person visiting the complex infected more than 300 residents in
a matter of days, many from the same block, with the infection probably
being spread through the plumbing system rather than person-to-person
contact. Many observers link the tragic genocide that unfolded in Rwanda
in 1994 to high population pressure. In the words of Gérard Prunier, ‘The
decision to kill was of course made by politicians, for political reasons. But
at least part of the reason it was carried out so thoroughly by the ordinary
rank-and-file peasants    was that there were too many people on too little
land, and that with a reduction in their numbers, there would be more for
the survivors.’ [The Rwandese Crisis (1959–1994)].
An interesting paradox of human nature is that we appear to be fasci-
nated by the destructive power of the threats to the survival of others –
one only needs to open a newspaper or switch on the television to find
evidence of our obsession – whilst at the same time we appear to be some-
what oblivious of threats to our own personal or collective survival. This
dichotomy sometimes manifests itself in ‘them’ and ‘us’ scenarios as exem-
plified by the initial attitude of many to HIV/AIDS: ‘It’s something that
affects “them”, not “us” (and it may even be their own fault).’ Sometimes
we simply are not aware of the threat that creeps upon us – the slow but
steady decline in numbers speaking a language. At other times it is as
if we have an innate belief in our indestructibility – this feeling seems

7
9780521710206c01 28-7-2007 1:00 p.m. Page: 8

Emily Shuckburgh

to be especially prominent within the present-day Western world. Freak

occurrences destabilise us, but only temporarily – in recent years the ter-
rorist attacks of September 11th 2001 and the New Orleans hurricane of
2005 rocked the American nation, and have had long-lasting implications,
but the fear is fading and the feeling of collective invulnerability is
returning.
Mixed with this is perhaps a notion of what might be labelled ‘devolved
responsibility’ for addressing global problems, i.e. the notion that they
are something the greater population, national governments or interna-
tional organisations should concern themselves with, but mere individuals
are in no position to take effective action over. After decades of support
of capitalist ideals and the power of individual destiny, it is almost an
ideological struggle for us to accept both individual and collective respon-
sibility, social responsibility, for addressing global threats, such as climate
change, which after all are rooted in the combined impact of individuals.
But examination of past societies shows that collapse of societies, when it
occurs, can be rapid, the most recent example being the seemingly near-
overnight collapse of the USSR. Largely as a result of enormous social and
economic dislocation, life expectancy declined dramatically in Russia dur-
ing the 1990s – an unprecedented experience for an industrialised nation.
Thus we should perhaps be a little more cautious.

Routes to survival
Arguably, the key human strategy to promote survival is to organise.
We have been developing organisational skills since the introduction of
agriculture some ten thousand years ago in the so-called Fertile Crescent.
A quick review of our subsequent evolution is enlightening for it reveals
this and other strategies for survival. The two civilisations that emerged
in the fourth millennium BC – the Sumerians of Mesopotamia and the
Egyptians – invented various techniques to produce more plentiful har-
vests, most notably irrigation. They also instigated long-distance trade to
access key resources that were lacking in the region, and consequently
communication and co-ordination became essential. This prompted an
innovation of immense importance – writing – and with it the evolution
of an organised social structure involving a complex hierarchy including

8
 9780521710206c01 28-7-2007 1:00 p.m. Page: 9

Survival of the human race

professional scribes. Writing dramatically extended the collective memory

of societies, enabling the transmission of knowledge useful for individual
survival and the survival of a community’s cultural heritage. It would
also come to enable societies to retain closer cultural links with their,
sometimes more glorious, past (the Egyptians of the seventh and sixth
centuries BC harked back to the art and architecture of the third millen-
nium BC, just as today we remain attracted to fashions of classical times).
Social complexity and political organisation continued to increase such
that the Sumerians were divided into some thirty city – states in the third
millennium BC, and by the first millennium BC these had given way to
empires like those of the Assyrians and Babylonians. Successful groups
were those able to organise themselves to control and distribute resources.
From there, political struggle, expansion and colonisation, education and
democratisation resulted in the world as we know it today.
We can easily pick out from above the strategies our predecessors have
used to be successful: organisation, communication and innovation. These
are very human strategies, seen rarely elsewhere in the animal kingdom.
Indeed there is some suggestion, discussed further by Cynthia Kenyon
in her chapter Surviving longer, that the length of human lifespan –
in particular our post-reproductive lifespan – is linked to this strategy.
Moreover, we will see in future chapters that these strategies are essential
in promoting survival in all its senses. The success of empires can be found
in their logistics and communications networks, as Paul Kennedy describes
in his chapter Survival of empires. Policies for promoting survival against
disease, famine, natural disasters and climate change all must have these
three strategies at their heart, so too policies for promoting the survival
of language and other components of our cultural identity.
A note of caution though is necessary. In his book The Collapse of
Complex Societies, Joseph Tainter suggests that such societies ‘by their
very nature tend to experience cumulative organisational problems’. By
way of example he goes on to describe how ‘as regulations are issued
and taxes established, lobbyists seek loopholes and regulators strive to
close these’, and that with an increased need for specialists to deal with
such matters, ‘an unending spiral unfolds of loophole discovery and clo-
sure, with complexity and costs continuously increasing’. This example
strikes a chord with the description of the political situation surrounding

9
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