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 A GRADUATE
COURSE IN
ALGEBRA

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 B1948 Governing Asia

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 A GRADUATE
COURSE IN
ALGEBRA
Volume 2

Ioannis Farmakis
Department of Mathematics, Brooklyn College
City University of New York, USA

Martin Moskowitz
Ph.D. Program in Mathematics, CUNY Graduate Center
City University of New York, USA

World Scientific
NEW JERSEY • LONDON • SINGAPORE • BEIJING • SHANGHAI • HONG KONG • TAIPEI • CHENNAI • TOKYO

10106_9789813142664_TP_v2.indd 2 31/5/17 2:49 PM

 Published by
World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
5 Toh Tuck Link, Singapore 596224
USA office: 27 Warren Street, Suite 401-402, Hackensack, NJ 07601
UK office: 57 Shelton Street, Covent Garden, London WC2H 9HE

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Farmakis, Ioannis. | Moskowitz, Martin A.
Title: A graduate course in algebra : in 2 volumes / by Ioannis Farmakis
(City University of New York, USA), Martin Moskowitz (City University of New York, USA).
Description: New Jersey : World Scientific, 2017– |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017001101| ISBN 9789813142626 (hardcover : alk. paper : v. 1) |
ISBN 9789813142633 (pbk : alk. paper : v. 1) | 9789813142664 (hardcover : alk. paper : v. 2) |
ISBN 9789813142671 (pbk : alk. paper : v. 2) | ISBN 9789813142602 (set : alk. paper) |
ISBN 9789813142619 (pbk set : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Algebra--Textbooks. | Algebra--Study and teaching (Higher)
Classification: LCC QA154.3 .F37 2017 | DDC 512--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017001101

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Copyright © 2017 by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.

All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form or by any means,
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For photocopying of material in this volume, please pay a copying fee through the Copyright Clearance
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Contents

Preface and Acknowledgments xi

7 Multilinear Algebra 1
7.1 Multilinear Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
7.2 The Symmetric Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
7.3 The Exterior Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
7.3.1 Determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
7.3.2 Cramer’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
7.3.3 Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
7.3.4 The Volume Form on a real vector space . . . . . 24
7.3.5 The Hodge star (∗) Operator . . . . . . . . . . . 26
7.4 Liouville’s Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
7.5 Grassmannians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
7.5.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

8 Symplectic Geometry 45
8.1 Symplectic Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
8.1.1 Symplectic Subspaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
8.2 Linear Complex Structures and Sp(n , R) . . . . . . . . 58
8.3 The Topology of the Symplectic Groups . . . . . . . . . 62
8.4 Transvections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
8.4.1 Eigenvalues of a Symplectic Matrix . . . . . . . . 65
8.4.2 Sp(n , R) is generated by Transvections . . . . . . 68
8.5 J. Williamson’s Normal Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
8.6 Wirtinger’s Inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

v
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vi Contents

8.7 M. Gromov’s Non-squeezing Theorem . . . . . . . . . . 76

8.7.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

9 Commutative Rings with Identity 87

9.1 Principal Ideal Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
9.1.1 A Principal Ideal Domain which is not Euclidean 90
9.2 Unique Factorization Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
9.2.1 Kaplansky’s Characterization of a UFD . . . . . 95
9.3 The Power Series Ring R[[x]] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
9.3.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
9.4 Prime Ideals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
9.4.1 The Prime Avoidance Lemma . . . . . . . . . . . 106
9.5 Local Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
9.6 Localization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
9.6.1 Localization at a Prime Ideal . . . . . . . . . . . 120
9.6.2 Localization of Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
9.6.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
9.7 Noetherian Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
9.7.1 Hilbert’s Basis Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
9.8 Artinian Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
9.8.1 The Hopkins-Levitzki Theorem . . . . . . . . . . 136
9.9 Noetherian and Artinian Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
9.9.1 An Artinian but not Noetherian Module . . . . . 142
9.10 Krull Dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
9.11 Nakayama’s Lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
9.11.1 Applications of Nakayama’s Lemma . . . . . . . 148
9.11.2 Three Variants of Nakayama’s Lemma . . . . . . 151
9.12 The Radical of an Ideal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
9.13 The Nilradical and the Jacobson Radical of a Ring . . . 156
9.13.1 The Jacobson Radical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
9.13.2 The Nilradical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
9.14 The Hilbert Nullstellensatz Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . 165
9.15 Algebraic Varieties and the Zariski Topology . . . . . . 171
9.15.1 Zariski Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
9.16 The Completion of a Ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
May 15, 2017 11:22 book-9x6 BC: 10106 - A Graduate Course in Algebra 1st Read Vol˙II˙Aug˙26 page vii

Contents vii

9.16.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

10 Valuations and the p-adic Numbers 185

10.1 Valuations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
10.2 Absolute Value or Norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
10.3 Non-Archimedean Absolute Values vs. Valuations . . . . 193
10.3.1 The Ring of Integers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
10.4 Absolute Values on Q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
10.4.1 Ostrowski’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
10.5 Ultra-metric Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
10.6 The Completion of Q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
10.6.1 The Fields Qp are all Non-Isomorphic . . . . . . 213
10.7 The Algebraic Definition of Zp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
10.8 The p-adic Numbers, Qp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
10.9 The p-adic Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
10.9.1 Zp and Qp as Topological Groups and Rings . . . 224
10.10 The Geometry of Qp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
10.11 Extensions of Valuations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
10.12 An Application: Monsky’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . 233
10.12.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

11 Galois Theory 239

11.1 Field Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
11.2 Algebraic Extensions and Splitting Fields . . . . . . . . 240
11.3 Finite Groups of Automorphisms of a Field . . . . . . . 243
11.3.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
11.4 Normal Separable Extensions and the Galois Group . . 249
11.5 The Fundamental Theorem of Galois Theory . . . . . . 256
11.6 Consequences of Galois Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
11.6.1 Non Solvability of Equations of Degree ≥ 5 . . . 259
11.6.2 Classical Ruler and Compass Constructions . . . 262
11.6.3 The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra . . . . . . 264
11.7 Solution of the General Cubic and Quartic Equations . . 266
11.8 Some Preliminaries from Algebraic Number Theory . . . 269
11.8.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
May 15, 2017 11:22 book-9x6 BC: 10106 - A Graduate Course in Algebra 1st Read Vol˙II˙Aug˙26 page viii

viii Contents

12 Group Representations 275

12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
12.1.1 The Regular Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
12.1.2 The Character of a Representation . . . . . . . . 281
12.2 The Schur Orthogonality Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
12.3 Characters and Central Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
12.4 Induced Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
12.4.1 Some Consequences of Frobenius Reciprocity . . 296
12.5 Estimates and Divisibility Properties . . . . . . . . . . . 300
12.6 Burnside’s pa q b Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
12.7 Clifford’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
12.8 Some Applications of Real Representation Theory . . . 307
12.9 Finitely Generated Linear Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
12.9.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
12.10 Pythagorean Triples (continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
12.10.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317

13 Representations of Associative Algebras 321

13.1 The Double Commutant Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
13.2 Burnside’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
13.3 Semi-simple Algebras and Wedderburn’s Theorem . . . 329
13.3.1 The Big Wedderburn Theorem . . . . . . . . . . 335
13.4 Division Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
13.4.1 Jacobson’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
13.4.2 Frobenius’ Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
13.4.3 The 4-Square Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
13.4.4 The 24-cell Polytope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
13.4.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
13.4.6 The Symmetry Groups of the Platonic Solids . . 361

Appendix 365

Appendix A: Every Field has an Algebraic Closure 365

Appendix B: The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra 369

May 15, 2017 11:22 book-9x6 BC: 10106 - A Graduate Course in Algebra 1st Read Vol˙II˙Aug˙26 page ix

Contents ix

Appendix C: Irrational and Transcendental Numbers 371

Bibliography 385

Index 397
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Preface and
Acknowledgments

This book is a two-volume graduate text in Algebra. The first vol-

ume which contains basic material is also suitable for self study as well
as preparing for the graduate Qualifying Exam in Algebra, consists of
Chapters 1-6, while the second volume, designed for second year topics
course in algebra, consists of Chapters 7-13. Our book was written over
the course of the past five years, the second author having taught the
subject many times. In our view Algebra is an integral and organic part
of mathematics and not to be placed in a bubble. For this reason the
reader will find a number of topics represented here not often found in
an algebra text, but which relate to nearby subjects such as Lie groups,
Geometry, Topology, Number Theory and even Analysis.
As a convenience to the instructor using our book we have created
a pamphlet containing a large number of exercises together with their
solutions.

Here we list the topics covered in Volume II.

Chapter 7 (Multilinear Algebra)

Here we study the important notion of orientation, proving among
other things that real square matrices are continuously deformable into
one another if and only if the signs of their determinants are conserved.
We then turn to Riesz’s theorem for a separable Hilbert space and use
it to define the Hodge star (∗) operator which is especially important in
differential geometry and physics. We prove Liouville’s formula making

xi
May 25, 2017 9:42 book-9x6 BC: 10106 - A Graduate Course in Algebra 1st Read Vol˙II˙Aug˙26 page xii

xii Preface and Acknowledgments

use of the fact that the diagonalizable matrices are Zariski dense in
M (n, C). Finally, we study Grassmannians and their relationship to
the exterior product.
Chapter 8 (Symplectic Geometry)
We begin by showing that the symplectic group Sp(V ) is generated
by transvections. Then we prove the Williamson normal form which
states that any positive definite symmetric real 2n × 2n matrix is diago-
nalizable by a symplectic matrix. This leads to the well known Gromov
non-squeezing theorem which states that the two-dimensional shadow of
a symplectic ball of radius r in R2n has area at least πr2 . Finally, we dis-
cuss the curious relationship between Gromov’s non-squeezing theorem
and the Heisenberg uncertainty principle of quantum mechanics.
Chapter 9 (Commutative Rings with Identity)
In this chapter we systematically find all principal ideal domains of
a certain type which are not Euclidean rings. We present Kaplansky’s
characterization of a Unique Factorization Domain (UFD), the power
series ring R[[x]], the prime avoidance lemma and the Hopkins-Levitsky
theorem. Then we turn to Nakayama’s lemma, where we give a number
of applications as well as several variants. We then define the Zariski
topology and derive some of its important properties (as well as giv-
ing a comparison with the Euclidean topology). Finally, we discuss the
completion of a ring and prove the completion of R[x] is R[[x]].
Chapter 10 (Valuations and p-adic Numbers)
Here we study the topology of Qp and its curiosities concerning
isosceles triangles and spheres, (where any point is a center). As an
application, we present Monsky’s theorem that if a square is cut into
triangles of equal area, the number of triangles must be even.
Chapter 11 (Galois Theory)
In addition to the standard features of Galois theory, we prove the
theorem of the primitive element and emphasize the role of characteristic
zero. We also give a purely algebraic proof of the fundamental theorem
of algebra.
Chapter 12 (Group Representations)
First we deal with the basic results of representations and charac-
May 15, 2017 11:14 book-9x6 BC: 10106 - A Graduate Course in Algebra 1st Read Vol˙II˙Aug˙26 page xiii

Preface and Acknowledgments xiii

ters of a finite group G over C, including divisibility properties. For

example, deg ρ divides the index of the center of G for every irreducible
representation ρ of G. We then prove Burnside’s p, q theorem which
is an important criterion for solvability and Clifford’s theorem on the
decomposition of the restriction of an irreducible representation to an in-
variant subgroup. We then turn to infinite groups where we study linear
groups over a field of characteristic zero, real representations and their
relationship to calculating homotopy groups and preserving quadratic
forms, and finally return to Pythagorean triples of Volume I.
Chapter 13 (Representations of Associative Algebras)
In this final chapter we prove Burnside’s theorem, the Double Com-
mutant theorem, the big Wedderburn theorem concerning the structure
of finite dimensional semi-simple algebras over an algebraically closed
field of characteristic zero. We then give two proofs of Frobenius’ theo-
rem (the second one using algebraic topology) which classifies the finite
dimensional division algebras over R. Finally, using quaternions, we
prove Lagrange’s 4-square theorem. This involves the Hürwitz integers
and leads very naturally to the study of the geometry of the unique
24-cell polyhedron in R4 and its exceptional properties, which are of
particular interest in physics.
A significant bifurcation in all of mathematics, and not just in
algebra, is the distinction between the commutative and the non-
commutative. In our book this distinction is ever present. We encounter
it first in Volume I in the case of groups in Chapters 1 and 2, then in
rings and algebras in Chapter 5 and modules in Chapter 6, where the
early sections deal with the commutative, while the later ones address
the non-commutative. Chapter 9 is devoted to commutative algebra
while Chapters 12 and 13 to non-commutative algebra, both being of
great importance.
We hope our enthusiasm for the material is communicated to our
readers. We have endeavored to make this book useful to both beginning
and advanced graduate students by illustrating important concepts and
techniques, offering numerous exercises and providing historical notes
that may be of interest to our readers. We also hope the book will be
of use as a reference work to professional mathematicians specializing
May 25, 2017 9:42 book-9x6 BC: 10106 - A Graduate Course in Algebra 1st Read Vol˙II˙Aug˙26 page xiv

xiv Preface and Acknowledgments

in areas of mathematics other than algebra.

The endgame of our endeavor has turned out to be a family affair!
We wish to heartily thank Andre Moskowitz for reading the text and
making numerous useful suggestions for its improvement and Oleg Far-
makis for creating all the graphics. We also thank our wives, Dina and
Anita, for their forbearance during the long and challenging process of
bringing this book to completion.

August 2016

Ioannis Farmakis Martin Moskowitz

Brooklyn College-CUNY The Graduate Center-CUNY
May 15, 2017 11:14 book-9x6 BC: 10106 - A Graduate Course in Algebra 1st Read Vol˙II˙Aug˙26 page xv

INTERDEPENCE OF THE CHAPTERS

1. Groups

2.Topics in
Group Th.

4. Inner Product 3. Vector

Spaces Spaces

7. Multilinear 5. Rings, Fields, 9. Commutative

Algebra Algebras Rings

8. Sympletic 10. p-adic

Geometry Numbers

11. Galois
6. R-Modules
Theory

12. Group 13. Representations

Representations of Assoc. Algebras

xv
May 15, 2017 11:14 book-9x6 BC: 10106 - A Graduate Course in Algebra 1st Read Vol˙II˙Aug˙26 page 1

Chapter 7

Multilinear Algebra

In this chapter we will always assume the characteristic of the field k is

not 2. Later we will impose additional restrictions on k. We remind the
reader that l.sk means the k-linear span of those vectors.

7.1 Multilinear Functions

Definition 7.1.1. Let r ≥ 2 be an integer and V1 , . . . , Vr be finite
dimensional vector spaces, all over the same field, k. If W is another
such vector space we shall call a function ω : V1 × . . . × Vr → W a
multilinear map if ω is a k-linear function on each Vi while holding all
the other variables fixed. We write Mk (V1 , . . . Vr , W ) for the set of all
such multilinear functions. When r = 1 this is Homk (V, W ). When
r = 2 we call such functions bilinear and write B(V1 , V2 , W ).

Proposition 7.1.2. Mk (V1 , . . . Vr , W ) is a vector space over k and

  r
Y
dimk Mk (V1 , . . . Vr , W ) = dimk (W ) dimk (Vi ).
i=1

Proof. This follows because such a function is determined by its values

on a basis of V1 × . . . × Vr , which, in turn, are determined by their
coordinates in W .

1
May 15, 2017 11:14 book-9x6 BC: 10106 - A Graduate Course in Algebra 1st Read Vol˙II˙Aug˙26 page 2

2 Chapter 7 Multilinear Algebra

Definition 7.1.3. When W has dimension 1, i.e. W = k, we shall call

ω a multilinear form. The most important special case of this is when
all Vi = V . Then ω is called a multilinear r-form. Of course, if r = 1,
this is just the dual space V ∗ of V .
An important example here is Homk (V, W ), the space of linear oper-
ators from V to W . It has dimension dimV dimW and consists of m × n
matrices. Let v1 , . . . vn be a basis of V , w1 , . . . wm be a basis of W , and
T : V →PW be a k-linear transformation. Then for each i = 1, . . . n,
T (vi ) = j ti,j wj . Then (ti,j ) is the matrix of T relative to these bases.
It has m rows and n columns. In particular, the matrices Ei,j , which
are of the same form but where there is a 1 P in the (i, j) spot and zeros
elsewhere, are a basis for such T and T = i,j ti,j Ei,j . In particular,
when V = W we get Endk (V ), the endomorphism algebra of V . In that
case the Ei,j are the matrix units.
Exercise 7.1.4. Use the matrix above to get an associated bilinear form
V × W → k by defining β(vi , wj ) = ti,j and extending to V × W using
the bilinearity of β. Show this map is injective and hence by dimension
a vector space isomorphism. Thus B(V, W ) = Homk (V, W ).

7.2 The Symmetric Algebra

The universal property for tensor products (see 3.7.3 of Volume I) says
that every bilinear map U × V −→ W is essentially the same as a
linear map U ⊗ V −→ W and if this linear map is something natural
and surjective, we can view W as a quotient space of U ⊗ V . Many
interesting products in algebra can be regarded as quotient spaces of
tensor products. One of the most familiar is the polynomial algebra.
Here is its definition.
Let V be a finite dimensional vector space over a field k and set
T 0 (V ) = k, T 1 (V ) = V, and T n (V ) = V · · ⊗ V} = V ⊗n .
| ⊗ ·{z
n−times

Let Cn be the subspace of T n (V ) spanned by all vectors of the form

(x1 ⊗x2 ⊗· · ·⊗xi ⊗· · ·⊗xj ⊗· · ·⊗xn )−(x1 ⊗x2 ⊗· · ·⊗xj ⊗· · ·⊗xi ⊗· · ·⊗xn )
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