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This page intentionally left blank
DIGITAL CCTV
A Security Professional’s
Guide

Emily Harwood

AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON

NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO
SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO
Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier
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Elsevier Academic Press

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Copyright © 2008, Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any

means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information
storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

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“Obtaining Permissions.”

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Harwood, Emily.
Digital CCTV / Emily Harwood.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-7506-7745-5 (alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 0-7506-7745-7 (alk. paper)
1. Closed-circuit television. 2. Digital video. I. Title. II. Title: Digital closed
circuit television.
TK6680.H356 2007
384.55′6—dc22
2007004218

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 13: 978-0-7506-7745-5

ISBN 10: 0-7506-7745-7

For all information on all Elsevier Academic Press publications

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Table of Contents

About the Book vii

Introduction ix

1 We Live in an Analog World 1

2 What Exactly is Digital Video? 19
3 In the Beginning 39
4 Compression—The Simple Version 57
5 More on Digital Video Compression 75
6 Internet Transmission, Networked Video, and Storage 93
7 Guided Video Transmission 111
8 Wireless Video Transmission 129
9 Examples of Digital Video for Security 147
10 Pieces and Parts 163
11 Integrating Digital Video with Other Technologies 179
12 More Digital Video Applications 189
13 From VTRs to VCRs, DVRs, and NVRs 197
14 Central Station Monitoring and Video 205
15 More Digital Video Applications 211
16 New Roles of Digital Video 219
Glossary 225
Index 233

v
This page intentionally left blank
About the Book

WHO IS THIS BOOK FOR?

CEOs IT Managers
Security Managers Security Systems Integrators
Directors of Security Electronic Security Installers
Loss Prevention Managers Security Dealers
CCTV Product Manufacturers Security Consultants
Electronic Security Sales Architects and Engineers
Personnel Specifiers
Electronic Security
Manufacturers
Representatives

WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF THIS BOOK?

The purpose of this book is to provide you, the reader, with the
information you need to interpret what is behind all of the technol-
ogy smoke and acronym mirrors surrounding digital video tech-
nology enabling you to better understand today’s new digital
products. At last you will be able to answer puzzling questions
about digital technology like how much storage space and band-
width are necessary to handle digital video at specific quality
levels and image rates.

vii
viii About the Book

This book provides practical information about how digital

video works, how digital video is stored and transmitted, what
digital systems can and cannot accomplish, and what to expect
from digital video equipment in modern CCTV systems.
An explanation of digital video and compressed digital video
is provided, and the distinction between raw digital and com-
pressed digital video is explained. After a basic understanding of
how these differences affect the video image is reached by the
reader, things like picture quality, resolution, and evidentiary use
of digital video will be easier to comprehend. Compression vari-
ables such as lossless and lossy will be explained by reviewing
Huffman and Run Length Encoding (RLE). A review of JPEG,
motion JPEG, MPEG, and wavelet compression schemes, among
others, will also be provided.
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Introduction

Growth naturally stimulates change, and CCTV technology has

been no exception. A system that once merely required cameras,
cabling, and video monitors has now become a complex electronic
configuration of equipment intertwined with both computer and
telecommunications technologies. This dramatic change is directly
related to the introduction of digital technology. Why do we need
to understand how digital technology works, and what does it
have to do with the future of security? It’s simple—the newest
revolution in technology is pervasive computing. Computers
are or soon will be everywhere, linked to everything, and every-
thing will be connected by the Internet—including security
systems.
Upheavals within the electronics industry have been persis-
tent and are well known. For example, most everyone remembers
how eight track players were relegated to the trash heap without
so much as a backward glance. Phonograph records were shut out
by compact discs and the consumer VCR has virtually been
replaced by the DVD player. In the security industry, the revolu-
tion from analog to digital is similar to these earlier advancements
and will probably be looked at with the same amount of disdain
regarding archaic processes of the past. Digital technology is
exploding around us, yet a large amount of industry professionals

ix
x Introduction

are still looking for a comprehensive explanation of digital video

as a security technology.
Security professionals today understand how the compo-
nents of a CCTV system work. They know the applications, limits,
strengths, weaknesses, and relative costs of lenses, cameras, camera
mounts, pan/tilt units, and housings. Such knowledge enables
professionals to design systems and to select from a myriad of
products just the right components, resulting in a CCTV system
that will meet customer performance requirements and budgets.
There is, however, a concern that digital CCTV equipment
concepts have not been adequately explained. The reality is that
digital technology is much more than a trend and requires a rather
extensive learning process if one can intelligently buy, sell, install,
or recommend digital video products. In today’s environment, it
is essential for the security professional to know how the Internet
works and how LANs and WANs function in relation to the World
Wide Web.

WHY SWITCH TO DIGITAL?

There are many reasons to make the switch to digital for security
surveillance and recording applications. Probably the strongest
reason is that digital information can be stored and retrieved with
virtually no degradation, meaning that with digital images, copies
are as good as the originals. When a digital recording is copied, it
is a clone, not a replica.
Digital information is not subject to the noise problems that
degrade analog information as quickly as it is stored, retrieved,
and duplicated. There are no amplifiers to introduce distortions
and noise to a digital signal. When transmitting images, a digital
system reduces noise over successive transmissions because small
variations in the signal are rounded off to the nearest level. Analog
transmission systems must filter out the noise, but the filter itself
can sometimes be a source of noise.
In some ways, digital information outperforms analog infor-
mation. For example, digital music from a CD has a much wider
dynamic range (very quiet to very loud) than analog music from
 Introduction xi

a tape or a record. With all of the advancements available in digital

technology, it is not as “perfect” as analog video and does present
a variety of new problems in transmission and storage. Because
digital video consists of large amounts of data, it must be com-
pressed, in most cases, to be useful. Compression discards a sig-
nificant amount of the original information and results in a new
kind of degradation called “artifacts”. This discarding of informa-
tion by compression techniques has raised questions about
whether digital video or compressed digital video can be used as
evidence in a court case.

WHAT ELSE CAN DIGITAL DO FOR VIDEO?

As an added bonus, most digital video systems permit the mani-
pulation of devices from a location off-site. Pan/tilt/zoom
features on cameras can be controlled allowing an enhanced por-
trayal of events as they occur; motorized gates, electric door locks,
lights, and environmental controls can be remotely activated as
well. With these features, approved access can be controlled off-
site and the expensive misuse of utilities can be monitored and
corrected instantly.
Digital images of a crime or a hazardous situation of some
type can be transmitted over a wireless local area network to first
responders for evaluation. The use of an IP network to transmit
these images can allow access to the system from any device with
an Internet connection and proper authorization for access.
The benefits of digital video transmission technology in the
security arena are limitless. Intelligence can be programmed into
a digital system so that it will “look” for specific analogies and
respond in some manner. Digital video systems can automatically
zoom in on individual faces to improve or verify identification.
Video verification of events is immediate—intruders can be posi-
tively identified, false alarms eliminated, and facility management
improved—all with one system.
Many other intelligent operations can be integrated with
a digital system to expand its functionality. Networked video
systems permit remote surveillance via WAN/LAN and Internet
xii Introduction

infrastructures. With an open-architecture design, networked

digital systems can provide easy integration with other technolo-
gies including access control, facial recognition, points of sale, and
database systems.
There are significant economic considerations for using
digital technology. Digital circuits can be manufactured for less
money than analog circuits due to the fact that analog circuits
require resistors, capacitors, diodes, chokes, transformers, and
other discreet components to make things work. Digital circuits
also use many of these components but they are typically much
smaller, surface mount components and not as many are needed
since IC (Integrated Circuit) chips replace many of them. The
largest portions of digital circuits are simple on/off transistor
switches that can easily be applied to integrated circuits in large
quantities. Also, integrated circuits can be mass-produced, which
drives down costs.
In most cases you will obtain more performance per dollar
spent with digital than with analog video. Once video has been
digitized, it can be used virtually anywhere in the world and with
the aid of communications links like telephone, Internet, and
various wireless technologies, it can be transmitted anywhere in
the world as well. TCP/IP transmittal of surveillance video is now
a viable and economical mode of remote monitoring of multiple
locations.
Unlike digital signals, which are composed of ones and zeros
and can pass through a wire or be recorded to tape with absolutely
no change, analog signals are composed of information, which will
change slightly every time it goes through a wire or gets recorded
to tape. The ultimate quality of an analog process is not inherently
inferior; it is very difficult to keep the original quality through the
entire production pipeline.

DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY REDUCES

MANPOWER REQUIREMENTS
Until recently, video surveillance technology has relied on human
operators for detecting breaches and facilitating appropriate
 Introduction xiii

responses, making the surveillance only as effective as the opera-

tor. Because advances in technology have made it possible to inte-
grate more cameras and send images virtually anywhere in the
world, there is a growing potential for an overload of information
resulting in operational inefficiency. For a large surveillance system
with hundreds of cameras, the fatigue factor is extreme. These
adverse conditions can be overcome by utilizing new advance-
ments in the technology of video surveillance.
Software that intelligently monitors images and automati-
cally detects potential security threats changes the dynamics of
video monitoring for security. Today’s digital video surveillance
systems are much more than camera eyes that view and record
the scenes around them. Surveillance systems now analyze and
make decisions about the images they are viewing based on the
confirmation or violation of preset protocols. The system immedi-
ately relays information to human operators (or in some cases to
other security or operational systems) for immediate action. The
resulting investigation of suspicious incidents help operators
makes the right decision, on time.
How does it work? Analytics transform video into security
information. Software programs that utilize complex mathemati-
cal algorithms to analyze scenes in a camera view are designed to
detect predetermined behaviors such as someone lying on the
floor, erratic movements, people or cars converging on each other,
a person or vehicle staying in one place for an extended period, a
person or vehicle traveling against the normal flow, objects newly
appearing on the scene—the list continues to grow. These types of
programs tremendously increase a security officer’s efficiency.

THE ENIGMA OF DIGITAL VIDEO

Over the last few years, there has been more and more news media
coverage on the subject of video for security in the US. The use of
CCTV for surveillance is by no means new, but from some news
clips, you might think it is the latest invention in crime detection
and investigation. The community inside of the security industry
knows how prevalent the use of video is and that the new benefits
xiv Introduction

arriving with digital advancements are almost exponential. For

outsiders, the news is not as common. In fact CCTV, digital video
surveillance and intelligent video solutions cover such a wide
range of relevance that these subjects almost always have to be
covered from the very beginning to the present.
The adage “time waits for no man” could not be more appli-
cable than in the world of digital technology. Even as these words
are being written, new developments are underway all over the
world, which will continue to contribute additional cost effective,
efficient alternatives for the compression and transmission of
video, audio, and data.
 1
We Live in an
Analog World

The security world is well acquainted with the term Closed Circuit
Television (CCTV), which is a visual surveillance technology
designed for monitoring a variety of environments and activities.
CCTV systems are used in applications such as monitoring public
areas for violent actions, vandalism, theft, and unlawful entry,
both indoors and out. CCTV recordings are used to obtain and
provide evidence for criminal and other investigations; they are
sometimes disclosed to the media in the hopes of gaining informa-
tion about images of a suspect or suspects caught in or near a crime
scene.
The term Closed Circuit Television can be misleading, as the
word television actually means to see at a distance, which implies
broadcast. If public broadcast is not the intent, CCTV is the correct
terminology, as it is not a system for broadcast to the public in
general. Unlike television that is used for public entertainment, a
CCTV system is closed and all its elements are directly connected
either by hardwire methods or wireless technologies.

1
2 Digital CCTV

Wireless analog devices typically use line of sight radio fre-

quency that can usually only be transmitted for short distances.
Some newer technologies, however, can transmit for several miles.
This means that the transmitted video can only be viewed with
the proper equipment set to the proper frequency. While the signal
could be intercepted, it is still considered a closed circuit since it
is not used for a multi-point broadcast such as cable TV.
It is important to review some of the key concepts related to
analog video in order to have an understanding of how these
concepts play a role in digital video. The word video comes from
the Latin verb videre, “to see”, and is commonly used when refer-
ring to devices such as video monitors or video recorders. In this
book, video will also refer to the actual product of the technology,
that is to say, the image produced. The purpose of this first chapter
is to acquaint the reader with the basics of analog video as it is
normally used in a security function. For some readers, this chapter
will merely be a review of basic analog video theory. For others,
it may introduce or explain various concepts in enhanced detail.
For a number of readers, it will be a primer of video concepts.

HOW AN ANALOG VIDEO IMAGE IS GENERATED

We live in an analog world, and vision is an analog function.
Waves and electromagnetic fields are analog, meaning they are
continuous signals capable of smooth fluctuation. Electric current,
characterized by its flowing current, is also analog. Electricity is a
current of electrons with either a direct flow or current called DC
or an alternating flow or current called AC. In an analog CCTV
system, an analog camera “sees” an event, which it turns into an
electronic signal. It then transmits the signal over some type of
medium and the signal terminates at a display or recording mech-
anism. In the United States, a video image is made up of 525
horizontal lines, according to the NTSC standard. NTSC stands for
National Television System Committee, which devised the NTSC
television broadcast system in 1953. One still picture or frame of
video consists of two scans containing 525 alternate horizontal
lines that are produced by a ray of electrons. The camera and
picture tube first scan 262.5 odd numbered lines, and then the
 We Live in an Analog World 3

picture is scanned again to form 262.5 even numbered lines. Each

half of the frame or 262.5 lines is one “field” of video. After the
ray or beam of electrons writes the lines one at a time onto a
picture tube, one frame of video is created.
This operation of assimilating a picture, translating that
picture for transmission, and then scanning that same picture at
the receiving location results in the successful transmission of one
full frame of video. The time involved in this operation from
beginning to end is the “update” or “refresh” rate. After the process
is repeated thirty times, the illusion of motion is created. This is
the same principle used for creating flipbooks—you quickly flip
through to see a moving picture. Cartoons that are drawn and
rapidly displayed one picture at a time use the same technique to
create perceived motion. Each of the 30 frames is a still image of
a scene, and by slightly changing something in each scene, the
viewer will perceive a progressively changing or moving image.
Analog video is comprised of continuously varying voltage
levels that are proportional to (analogous to or the same as) the
continuously varying light levels in the real world. When we refer
to electronics in relation to video, we are referring to the use of
current and voltage to carry electric signals modified to represent
information. If we can convert picture information into electronic
or radio signals, we can send it virtually anywhere in the world
with the right transmission system.
A very simple explanation of video transfer goes something
like this: imagine that the camera is the eye of the system and its
function is to make its view (the image) available in an electronic
format of impulses. These impulses are then propelled along wires,
cables, or microwaves via voltage, which is the pressure or elec-
tromotive force that compels electrical charges to move from nega-
tive to positive. The result is the transfer of video information from
the camera to its ultimate destination. See Figure 1-1.
Wires and certain other parts of circuits are made of materials
called conductors. These conduits carry the electric currents. Wire-
less transmission technology will be discussed in a later chapter.
For now, let’s just acknowledge that video signals can be trans-
mitted without the benefit of wires as conductors. Electromagnetic
waves are unique forms of energy, known as radiant energy. They
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